AMSCO Period 3 PDF

PERIOD 3: 1754-1800 Chapter 4 Imperial Wars and Colonial Protest, 1754-1774 Chapter 5 The American Revolution and Confederation, 1774-1787 Chapter 6 The Constitution and the New Republic, 1787-1800 In less than fifty years the British went from consolidating their control along the Atlantic coast of North America to watching 13 of their colonies unite in revolt and establish an independent nation. Overview After the Seven Years' War ended in 1763, the British desired more revenue to pay for protecting their empire while many American colonists saw themselves as self-sufficient. These clashing views resulted in the colonies declaring independence, winning a war, and founding a new nation. Initially governed by Articles of Confederation with a weak federal government, the new United States soon replaced it with a new constitution that created a fed eral government that was stronger, though still with limited powers. Out of the debates over the new constitution and policies emerged two parties. The test of the stability of the American system came in 1800, when one party, the Feder alists, peacefully transferred power to the other, the Democratic-Republicans. Throughout this period there was a continuous westward migration resulting in new opportunities, blended cultures, and increased conflicts with the American Indians and other European nations. Alternate View Some historians start the story of the birth of the United States in 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Starting in 1754 emphasizes that fighting the war drove the colonies and the British apart. W hile the United States declared independence in 1776 and ratified the Constitution in 1788, not until 1800 had it clearly survived the divisions of the early years. Key Concepts 3.1: British attempts to assert tighter control over its North America colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War. 3.2: The American Revolution's democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government. 3.3: Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations. Source: AP® United States History Course and Exam Description, Updated Fall 2015 68 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM 4 IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 The people, even to the lowest ranks, have become more attentive to their liberties, more inquisitive about them, and more determined to defend them than they were ever before known or had occasion to be. John Adams, 1765 What caused American colonists in the 1760s to become, as John Adams expressed it, "more attentive to their liberties"? The chief reason for their discontent in these years was a dramatic change in Britain's colonial policy. Britain began to assert its power in the colonies and to collect taxes and enforce trade laws much more aggressively than in the past. To explain why Britain took this fateful step, we must study the effects of its various wars for empire. Empires at War Late in the 17th century, war broke out involving Great Britain, France, and Spain. This was the first of a series of four wars that were worldwide in scope, with battles in Europe, India, and North America. These wars occurred inter mittently over a 74-year period from 1689 to 1763. The stakes were high, since the winner of the struggle stood to gain supremacy in the West Indies and Canada and to dominate the lucrative colonial trade. The First Three Wars The first three wars were named after the British king or queen under whose reign they occurred. In both King William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), the British launched expeditions to capture Que bec, but their efforts failed. American Indians supported by the French burned British frontier settlements. Ultimately, the British forces prevailed in Queen Anne's War and gained both Nova Scotia from France and trading rights in Spanish America. A third war was fought during the reign of George II: King George's War (1744-1748). Once again, the British colonies were under attack from their perennial rivals, the French and the Spanish. In Georgia, James Oglethorpe led a colonial army that managed to repulse Spanish attacks. To the north, IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 69 a force of New Englanders captured Louisbourg, a major French fortress, on Cape Breton Island, controlling access to the St. Lawrence River. In the peace treaty ending the war, however, Britain agreed to give Louisbourg back to the French in exchange for political and economic gains in India. New Englanders were furious about the loss of a fort that they had fought so hard to win. The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) The first three wars between Britain and France focused primarily on battles in Europe and only secondarily on conflict in the colonies. The European powers saw little value in committing regular troops to America. However, in the fourth and final war in the series, the fighting began in the colonies and then spread to Europe. Moreover, Britain and France now recognized the full importance of their colonies and shipped large numbers of troops overseas to North America rather than rely on "amateur" colonial forces. This fourth and most decisive war was known in Europe as the Seven Years' War. The North American phase of this war is often called the French and Indian War. Beginning of the War From the British point of view, the French provoked the war by building a chain of forts in the Ohio River Valley. One of the reasons the French did so was to halt the westward growth of the British colonies. Hop ing to stop the French from completing work on Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) and thereby win control of the Ohio River Valley, the governor of Virginia sent a small militia (armed force) under the command of a young colonel named George Washington. After gaining a small initial victory, Washington's troops surrendered to a superior force of Frenchmen and their American Indian allies on July 3, 1754. With this military encounter in the wilderness, the final war for empire began. At first the war went badly for the British. In 1755, another expedition from Virginia, led by General Edward Braddock, ended in a disastrous defeat, as more than 2,000 British regulars and colonial troops were routed by a smaller force of French and American Indians near Ft. Duquesne. The Algonquin allies of the French ravaged the frontier from western Pennsylvania to North Carolina. The French repulsed a British invasion of French Canada that began in 1756. The Albany Plan of Union Recognizing the need for coordinating colo nial defense, the British government called for representatives from several colonies to meet in a congress at Albany, New York, in 1754. The delegates from seven colonies adopted a plan-the Albany Plan of Union-developed by Benjamin Franklin that provided for an intercolonial government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from the various colonies for their common defense. Each colony was too jealous of its own taxation powers to accept the plan, however, and it never took effect. The Albany congress was significant, however, because it set a precedent for later, more revolutionary congresses in the 1770s. 70 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM British Victory The British prime minister, William Pitt, concentrated the government's military strategy on conquering Canada. This objective was accomplished with the retaking of Louisbourg in 1758, the surrender of Quebec to General James Wolfe in 1759, and the taking of Montreal in 1760. After these British victories, the European powers negotiated a peace treaty (the Peace of Paris) in 1763. Great Britain acquired both French Canada and Spanish Florida. France ceded (gave up) to Spain its huge western terri tory, Louisiana, and claims west of the Mississippi River in compensation for Spain's loss of Florida. With this treaty, the British extended their control of North America, and French power on the continent virtually ended. Immediate Effects of the War Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War gave them unchallenged supremacy in North America and also established them as the dominant naval power in the world. No longer did the American colonies face the threat of concerted attacks from the French, the Spanish, and their American Indian allies. More important to the colonies, though, was a change in how the British and the colonists viewed each other. The British View The British came away from the war with a low opinion of the colonial military abilities. They held the American militia in contempt as a poorly trained, disorderly rabble. Furthermore, they noted that some of the colonies had refused to contribute either troops or money to the war effort. Most British were convinced that the colonists were both unable and unwilling to defend the new frontiers of the vastly expanded British empire. The Colonial View The colonists took an opposite view of their military performance. They were proud of their record in all four wars and developed confidence that they could successfully provide for their own defense. They were not impressed with British troops or their leadership, whose methods of warfare seemed badly suited to the densely wooded terrain of eastern America. Reorganization of the British Empire More serious than the resentful feelings stirred by the war experience was the British government's shift in its colonial policies. Previously, Britain had exercised little direct control over the colonies and had generally allowed its navigation laws regulating colonial trade to go unenforced. This earlier policy of salutary neglect was abandoned as the British adopted more forceful poli cies for taking control of their expanded North American dominions. All four wars-and the last one in particular-had been extremely costly. In addition, Britain now felt the need to maintain a large British military force to guard its American frontiers. Among British landowners, pressure was build ing to reduce the heavy taxes that the colonial wars had laid upon them. To pay for troops to guard the frontier without increasing taxes at home, King George III and the dominant political party in Parliament (the Whigs) wanted the American colonies to bear more of the cost of maintaining the British empire. IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 71 Pontiac's Rebellion The first major test of the new British imperial policy came in 1763 when Chief Pontiac led a major attack against colonial settlements on the western frontier. The American Indians were angered by the growing westward movement of European settlers onto their land and by the British refusal to offer gifts as the French had done. Pontiac's alliance of American Indians in the Ohio Valley destroyed forts and settlements from New York to Virginia. Rather than relying on colonial forces to retaliate, the British sent regular British troops to put down the uprising. Proclamation of 1763 In an effort to stabilize the western frontier, the British government issued a proclamation that prohibited colonists from set tling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The British hoped that limiting settlements would prevent future hostilities between colonists and American Indians. But the colonists reacted to the proclamation with anger and defiance. After their victory in the Seven Years' War, colonists hoped to reap benefits in the form of access to western lands. For the British to deny such benefits was infuriating. Defying the prohibition, thousands streamed westward beyond the imaginary boundary line drawn by the British. (See map, page 76.) British Actions and Colonial Reactions The Proclamation of 1763 was the first of a series of acts by the Brit ish government that angered colonists. From the British point of view, each act was justified as a proper method for protecting its colonial empire and making the colonies pay their share of costs for such protection. From the colonists' point of view, each act represented an alarming threat to their cher ished liberties and long-established practice of representative government. New Revenues and Regulations In the first two years of peace, King George Ill's chancellor of the exchequer (treasury) and prime minister, Lord George Grenville, successfully pushed through Parliament three measures that aroused colonial suspicions of a Brit ish plot to subvert their liberties. Sugar Act (1764) This act (also known as the Revenue Act of 1764) placed duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries. Its chief purpose was to raise money for the crown, and a companion law also provided for stricter enforce ment of the Navigation Acts to stop smuggling. Those accused of smuggling were to be tried in admiralty courts by crown-appointed judges without juries. Quartering Act (1765) This act required the colonists to provide food and living quarters for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. Stamp Act In an effort to raise funds to support British military forces in the colonies, Lord Grenville turned to a tax long in use in Britain. The Stamp Act, enacted by Parliament in 1765, required that revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies, including all legal documents, newspapers, 72 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM pamphlets, and advertisements. This was the first direct tax-collected from those who used the goods-paid by the people in the colonies, as opposed to the taxes on imported goods, which were paid by merchants. People in every colony reacted with indignation to news of the Stamp Act. A young Virginia lawyer named Patrick Henry spoke for many when he stood up in the House of Burgesses to demand that the king's government recognize the rights of all citizens-including the right not to be taxed without repre sentation. In Massachusetts, James Otis initiated a call for cooperative action among the colonies to protest the Stamp Act. Representatives from nine colo nies met in New York in 1765 to form the so-called Stamp Act Congress. They resolved that only their own elected representatives had the legal authority to approve taxes. The protest against the stamp tax took a violent turn with the formation of the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a secret society organized for the purpose of intimidating tax agents. Members of this society sometimes destroyed revenue stamps and tarred and feathered revenue officials. Boycotts against British imports were the most effective form of protest. It became fashionable in the colonies in 1765 and 1766 for people not to pur chase any article of British origin. Faced with a sharp drop in trade, London merchants put pressure on Parliament to repeal the controversial Stamp Act. Declaratory Act In 1766, Grenville was replaced by another prime minis ter, and Parliament voted to repeal the Stamp Act. When news of the repeal reached the colonies, people rejoiced. Few colonists at the time noted that Par liament had also enacted a face-saving measure known as the Declaratory Act (1766). This act asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." This declaration of policy would soon lead to renewed conflict between the colonists and the British government. Second Phase of the Crisis, 1767-1773 Because the British government still needed new revenues, the newly appointed chancellor of the exchequer, Charles Townshend, proposed another tax measure. The Townshend Acts Adopting Townshend's program in 1767, Parlia ment enacted new duties to be collected on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper. The law required that the revenues raised be used to pay crown officials in the colonies, thus making them independent of the colonial assemblies that had previously paid their salaries. The Townshend Acts also provided for the search of private homes for smuggled goods. All that an official needed to conduct such a search would be a writ of assistance (a general license to search anywhere) rather than a judge's warrant permitting a search only of a specifi cally named property. Another of the Townshend Acts suspended New York's assembly for that colony's defiance of the Quartering Act. IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 73 At first, most colonists accepted the taxes under the Townshend Acts because they were indirect taxes paid by merchants (not direct taxes on con sumer goods). However, soon leaders began protesting the new duties. In 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania in his Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania wrote that Parliament could regulate commerce but argued that because duties were a form of taxation, they could not be levied on the colo nies without the consent of their representative assemblies. Dickinson argued that the idea of no taxation without representation was an essential principle of English law. In 1768, James Otis and Samuel Adams jointly wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter and sent copies to every colonial legislature. It urged the various colonies to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. British officials in Boston ordered the letter retracted, threatened to dissolve the legislature, and increased the number of British troops in Boston. Responding to the circu lar letter, the colonists again conducted boycotts of British goods. Merchants increased their smuggling activities to avoid the offensive Townshend duties. Repeal of the Townshend Acts Meanwhile, in London, there was an other change in the king's ministers. Lord Frederick North became the new prime minister. He urged Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts because they damaged trade and generated a disappointingly small amount of revenue. The repeal of the Townshend Acts in 1770 ended the colonial boycott and, except for an incident in Boston (the "massacre" described below), there was a three-year respite from political troubles as the colonies entered into a period of economic prosperity. However, Parliament retained a small tax on tea as a symbol of its right to tax the colonies. Boston Massacre Most Bostonians resented the British troops who had been quartered in their city to protect customs officials from being attacked by the Sons of Liberty. On a snowy day in March 1770, a crowd of colonists harassed the guards near the customs house. T he guards fired into the crowd, killing five people including an African American, Crispus Attucks. At their trial for murder, the soldiers were defended by colonial lawyer John Adams and acquitted. Adams' more radical cousin, Samuel Adams, angrily denounced the shooting incident as a "massacre" and used it to inflame anti-British feeling. Renewal of the Conflict Even during the relatively quiet years of 1770-1772, Samuel Adams and a few other Americans kept alive the view that British officials were undermin ing colonial liberties. A principal device for spreading this idea was by means of the Committees of Correspondence initiated by Samuel Adams in 1772. In Boston and other Massachusetts towns, Adams began the practice of orga nizing committees that would regularly exchange letters about suspicious or potentially threatening British activities. The Virginia House of Burgesses took the concept a step further when it organized intercolonial committees in 1773. 74 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM The Gaspee One incident frequently discussed in the committees' let ters was that of the Gaspee, a British customs ship that had caught several smugglers. In 1772, it ran aground off the shore of Rhode Island. Seizing their opportunity to destroy the hated vessel, a group of colonists disguised as American Indians ordered the British crew ashore and then set fire to the ship. The British ordered a commission to investigate and bring guilty individuals to Britain for trial. Boston Tea Party The colonists continued their refusal to buy British tea because the British insisted on their right to collect the tax. Hoping to help the British East India Company out of its financial problems, Parliament passed the Tea Act in 1773, which made the price of the company's tea-even with the tax included-cheaper than that of smuggled Dutch tea. Many Americans refused to buy the cheaper tea because to do so would, in effect, recognize Parliament's right to tax the colonies. A shipment of the East India Company's tea arrived in Boston harbor, but there were no buyers. Before the royal governor could arrange to bring the tea ashore, a group of Bos tonians disguised themselves as American Indians, boarded the British ships, and dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbor. Colonial reaction to this incident (December 1773) was mixed. While many applauded the Boston Tea Party as a justifiable defense of liberty, others thought the destruction of private property was far too radical. Intolerable Acts In Great Britain, news of the Boston Tea Party angered the king, Lord North, and members of Parliament. In retaliation, the British government enacted a series of punitive acts (the Coercive Acts), together with a separate act dealing with French Canada (the Quebec Act). The colonists were outraged by these various laws, which were given the epithet "Intolerable Acts." The Coercive Acts (1774) There were four Coercive Acts, directed mainly at punishing the people of Boston and Massachusetts and bringing the dissidents under control. 1. The Port Act closed the port of Boston, prohibiting trade in and out of the harbor until the destroyed tea was paid for. 2. The Massachusetts Government Act reduced the power of the Massa chusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor. 3. The Administration of Justice Act allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in Great Britain instead of in the colonies. 4. A fourth law expanded the Quartering Act to enable British troops to be quartered in private homes. It applied to all colonies. Quebec Act (1774) When it passed the Coercive Acts, the British govern ment also passed a law organizing the Canadian lands gained from France. This plan was accepted by most French Canadians, but it was resented by many in the 13 colonies. The Quebec Act established Roman Catholicism as the official IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 75 religion of Quebec, set up a government without a representative assembly, and extended Quebec's boundary to the Ohio River. The colonists viewed the Quebec Act as a direct attack on the American colonies because it took away lands that they claimed along the Ohio River. They also feared that the British would attempt to enact similar laws in America to take away their representative government. The predominantly Protestant Americans also resented the recognition given to Catholicism. BRITISH COLONIES: PROCLAMATION LINE OF 1763 AND QUEBEC ACT OF 1774 u -- Proclamation Line 1763 - - - Quebec Act 1774 O 200 400 Miles O 200 400 Kilometers Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution For Americans, especially those who were in positions of leadership, there was a long tradition of loyalty to the king and Great Britain. As the differences between them grew, many Americans tried to justify this changing relation ship. As discussed in Chapter 3, the Enlightenment, particularly the writings of John Locke, had a profound influence on the colonies. 76 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Enlightenment Ideas The era of the Enlightenment (see Chapter 3) was at its peak in the mid-18th century-the very years that future leaders of the Amer ican Revolution (Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams) were coming to maturity. Many Enlightenment thinkers in Europe and America were Deists, who believed that God had established natural laws in creating the universe, but that the role of divine intervention in human affairs was minimal. They believed in rationalism and trusted human reason to solve the many problems of life and society, and emphasized reason, science, and respect for humanity. Their political philosophy, derived from Locke and developed further by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, had a profound influence on edu cated Americans in the 1760s and 1770s-the decades of revolutionary thought and action that finally culminated in the American Revolution. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: WHY DID THE COLONIES REBEL? Did America's break with Great Britain in the 18th century signify a true revolution with radical change, or was it simply the culmination of evo lutionary changes in American life? For many years, the traditional view of the founding of America was that a revolution based on the ideas of the Enlightenment had fundamentally altered society. During the 20th century, historians continued to debate whether American independence from Great Britain was revolutionary or evo lutionary. At the start of the century, Progressive historians believed that the movement to end British dominance had provided an opportunity to radically change American society. A new nation was formed with a republican government based on federalism and stressing equality and the rights of the individual. The revolution was social as well as political. During the second half of the 20th century, a different interpretation argued that American society had been more democratic and changed long before the war with Great Britain. Historian Bernard Bailyn has sug gested that the changes that are viewed as revolutionary-representative government, expansion of the right to vote, and written constitutions had all developed earlier, during the colonial period. According to this perspective, what was revolutionary or significant about the break from Great Britain was the recognition of an American philosophy based on liberty and democracy that would guide the nation. IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 77 KEY TERMS BY THEME Colonial Unrest (NAT, American Indians (MIG) Economic Policies POL) Pontiac's Rebellion (WOR) Patrick Henry Proclamation of 1763 Sugar Act (1764) Stamp Act Congress Quartering Act (1765) Sons and Daughters of Empire (POL, GEO) Stamp Act (1765) Liberty Seven Years' War Declaratory Act (1766) John Dickinson; (French and Indian Townshend Acts (1767) "Letters From... " War) Writs of Assistance Samuel Adams Albany Plan of Union Tea Act (1773) James Otis (1754) Coercive Acts (1774) Massachusetts Circular Edward Braddock -Port Act Letter George Washington -Massachusetts Gov- Committees of Peace of Paris (1763) ernment Act Correspondence -Administration of Intolerable Acts Justice Act Quebec Act (1774) Rulers & Policies (WXT) George Ill Philosophy (CUL) Whigs Enlightenment Parliament Deism salutary neglect Rationalism Lord Frederick North John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau 78 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1-3 refer to the excerpt below. "We apprehend that as freemen and English subjects, we have an indisputable title to the same privileges and immunities with His Majesty's other subjects who reside in the interior counties... , and therefore ought not to be excluded from an equal share with them in the very important privilege of legislation.... We can not but observe with sorrow and indignation that some persons in this province are at pains to extenuate the barbarous cruelties practised by these savages on our murdered brethren and relatives...by this means the Indians have been taught to despise us as a weak and disunited people, and from this fatal source have arisen many of our calamities.... We humbly pray therefore that this grievance may be redressed." -The Paxton Boys, to the Pennsylvania Assembly, "A Remonstrance of Distressed and Bleeding Frontier Inhabitants," 1764 1. The protests by the PaxtonBoys occurred during a period when many colonists were objecting to British policies that were a result of the (A) Albany Plan of Union (B) GreatAwakening (C) Seven Years' War (D) Enlightenment 2. The concern expressed in this excerpt helps explain why the British passed the (A) Peace of Paris (B) Proclamation of 1763 (C) QuarteringAct (D) PortAct 3. Which of the following leaders from an earlier period represented a group in a similar situation as cited in this excerpt? (A) EdmondAndros (B) Nathaniel Bacon (C) John Smith (D) Roger Williams IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 79 Questions 4-6 refer to the excerpt below. "It is inseparably essential to the freedom of a People, and the undoubted Right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own Consent, given personally, or by their representatives.... That it is the indispensable duty of these colonies, to the best of sovereigns... to procure the repeal of the act for granting and applying certain stamp duties, of all clauses of any other acts of Parliament... for the restriction of American commerce." -Resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress, 1765 4. The resolution of the Stamp Act Congress expressed respect for which person or group? (A) Colonial merchants (B) The king (C) Leaders in Parliament (D) Residents of England 5. For the first time, the Stamp Act placed on the colonies a tax that was (A) indirect (B) direct (C) to regulate trade (D) to support a church 6. Which of the following was a direct British response to the colonial views expressed by the Stamp Act Congress? (A) Quartering Act for British soldiers (B) Sugar Act taxing luxuries (C) Coercive Act closing the port of Boston (D) Declaratory Act stating the right to tax 80 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Questions 7-8 refer to the excerpt below. "The unhappy disputes between Great Britain and her American colonies... have proceeded to lengths so dangerous and alarming as to excite just appre hensions in the minds of His Majesty's faithful subjects of this colony.... "It cannot admit of a doubt but that British subjects in America are entitled to the same rights and privileges as their fellow subjects possess in Britain; and therefore, that the power assumed by the British Parliament to bind America by their statutes in all cases whatsoever is unconstitutional, and the source of these unhappy differences.... "To obtain a redress of these grievances, without which the people of America can neither be safe, free, nor happy, they are willing to undergo the great inconvenience that will be derived to them from stopping all imports whatsoever from Great Britain." -Instructions to the Virginia Delegates to the First Continental Congress, Williamsburg, 1774 7. Which of the following actions by the colonists is most similar to the one recommended in the excerpt above? (A) The Boston Massacre (B) The Boston Tea Party (C) The formation of the Committees of Correspondence (D) The distribution of the Massachusetts Circular Letter 8. Which of the following is the underlying goal of the colonists in the excerpt? (A) Win political representation (B) Declare independence (C) Promote free trade (D) Reduce the overall level of taxes IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 81 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. Question 1. Answer a, b, and c. a) Briefly explain the British view of how the Seven Years' War fundamentally changed the relationship between Britain and its American colonies. b) Briefly explain the colonial view as a result of the war. c) Briefly describe an initial reaction taken as a result of the changing views by either the British or colonists. Question 2 is based on the excerpts below. "If the towns of Manchester and Birmingham, sending no representatives to Parliament, are notwithstanding there represented, why are not the cities of Albany and Boston equally represented in that Assembly?...Are they not Englishmen? Or are they only Englishmen when they solicit for protection, but not Englishmen when taxes are required to enable this country to protect them?" -Soame Jenyns, member of the British Parliament, "The Objections to the Taxation of Our American Colonies Considered," 1765 "That the petitioners have been long concerned in carrying on the trade between this country and the British colonies on the continent of North America;... From the nature of this trade, consisting of British manufactures exported and of the import of raw materials from America, many of them used in our manu factures and all of them tending to lessen our dependence on neighboring states, it must be deemed of the highest importance in the commercial system of this nation." -London Merchants Against the Stamp Act, 1766 2. Using the excerpts, answer a, b, and c. a) Briefly explain the main point in excerpt 1. b) Briefly explain the main point in excerpt 2. c) Briefly explain an action, in response to ONE of the two views expressed, taken by the British government from the period between 1763 and 1774. 82 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Question 3 is based on the cartoon below. Source: Political Register, London, 1767. Library of Congress 3. Using the cartoon, answer a, b, and c. In the cartoon, the labels on the limbs are "Virg," "Pensyl," "New York," and "New Eng." a) Explain the point of view reflected in the cartoon regarding ONE of the following. British colonial policies efforts at colonial unity Seven Years' War b) Explain how ONE element of the cartoon expresses the point of view you identified in Part A. c) Explain how the point of view you identified in Part A helped to shape ONE particular colonial government action between 1607 and 1774. Question 4. Answer a, b, and c. a) Briefly explain the reasons why the British issued the Proclamation of 1763. b) Briefly explain why the colonists objected to the Proclamation. c) Briefly explain how effective the Proclamation was. IMPERIAL WARS AND COLONIAL PROTEST, 1754-1774 83 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: QUESTIONS ABOUT COMPARISONS Historians often compare events to highlight similarities and differ ences. They might compare two contempory developments or two developments in different time periods. Which THREE of the ques tions or statements below would be best answered with an essay that emphasizes comparison? 1. How did Pontiac's Rebellion support the British argument for the Proclamation of 1763? 2. Explain how the Declaratory Act was a cause of the Boston Tea Party. 3. Describe the similarities between Patrick Henry and James Otis. 4. How was the relationship between the colonies and Great Britain before and after the Seven Years' War different? 5. Analyze differences between Bacon's Rebellion and the Stamp Act Congress. 84 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM 5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 0! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the tyranny but the tyrant, stand forth! Every spot of the Old World is overrun with oppression. Freedom hath been hunted round the globe.... Of receive the fugitive and prepare in time an asylum for mankind. Thomas Paine, Common Sense, 1776 R.1iament's passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 intensified the conflict between the colonies and Great Britain. In the next two years, many Ameri cans reached the conclusion-unthinkable only a few years earlier-that the only solution to their quarrel with the British government was to sever all ties with it. How did events from 1774 to 1776 lead ultimately to this revolutionary outcome? The First Continental Congress The punitive Intolerable Acts drove all the colonies except Georgia to send del egates to a convention in Philadelphia in September 1774. The purpose of the convention-later known as the First Continental Congress-was to respond to what the delegates viewed as Britain's alarming threats to their liberties. How ever, most Americans had no desire for independence. They simply wanted to protest parliamentary infringements of their rights and restore the relationship with the crown that had existed before the Seven Years' War. The Delegates The delegates were a diverse group, whose views about the crisis ranged from radical to conservative. Leading the radical faction-those demanding the greatest concessions from Britain-were Patrick Henry of Virginia and Samuel Adams and John Adams of Massachusetts. The moderates included George Washington of Virginia and John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. The conservative delegates-those who favored a mild statement of protest-included John Jay of New York and Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania. Unrepresented were the loyal colonists, who would not challenge the king's government in any way. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 85 Actions of the Congress The delegates voted on a series of proposed measures, each of which was intended to change British policy without offending moderate and conserva tive colonists. Joseph Galloway proposed a plan, similar to the Albany Plan of 1754, that would have reordered relations with Parliament and formed a union of the colonies within the British empire. By only one vote, Galloway's plan failed to pass. Instead, the convention adopted these measures: 1. It endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, a statement originally issued by Massachusetts. The Resolves called for the immediate repeal of the Intolerable Acts and for colonies to resist them by making military preparations and boycotting British goods. 2. It passed the Declaration and Resolves. Backed by moderate delegates, this petition urged the king to redress (make right) colonial grievances and restore colonial rights. In a conciliatory gesture, it recognized Par liament's authority to regulate commerce. 3. It created the Continental Association (or just Association), a net work of committees to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Resolves. 4. It declared that if colonial rights were not recognized, delegates would meet again in May 1775. Fighting Begins Angrily dismissing the petition of the First Continental Congress, the king's government declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and sent addi tional troops to put down any further disorders there. The combination of colonial defiance and British determination to suppress it led to violent clashes in Massachusetts-what would prove to be the first battles of the American Revolution. Lexington and Concord On April 18, 1775, General Thomas Gage, the commander of British troops in Boston, sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of Concord. Warned of the British march by two riders, Paul Revere and Wil liam Dawes, the militia (or Minutemen) of Lexington assembled on the village green to face the British. The Americans were forced to retreat under heavy British fire; eight of their number were killed in the brief encounter. Who fired the first shot of this first skirmish of the American Revolution? The evidence is ambiguous, and the answer will probably never be known. Continuing their march, the British entered Concord, where they destroyed some military supplies. On the return march to Boston, the long column of British soldiers was attacked by hundreds of militiamen firing at them from behind stone walls. The British suffered 250 casualties-and also considerable humiliation at being so badly mauled by "amateur" fighters. 86 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Bunker Hill Two months later, on June 17, 1775, a true battle was fought between opposing armies on the outskirts of Boston. A colonial militia of Massachusetts farm ers fortified Breed's Hill, next to Bunker Hill, for which the ensuing battle was wrongly named. A British force attacked the colonists' position and man aged to take the hill, suffering over a thousand casualties. Americans claimed a victory of sorts, having succeeded in inflicting heavy losses on the attacking British army. The Second Continental Congress Soon after the fighting broke out in Massachusetts, delegates to the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775. The congress was divided. One group of delegates, mainly from New England, thought the colonies should declare their independence. Another group, mainly from the middle colonies, hoped the conflict could be resolved by negotiating a new relationship with Great Britain. Military Actions The congress adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms and called on the colonies to provide troops. George Washington was appointed the commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston to lead the Massachusetts militia and volunteer units from other colonies. Con gress also authorized a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec in order to draw Canada away from the British empire. An American navy and marine corps was organized in the fall of 1775 for the purpose of attacking British shipping. Peace Efforts At first the congress adopted a contradictory policy of waging war while at the same time seeking a peaceful settlement. Many in the colonies did not want independence, for they valued their heritage and Britain's protection, but they did want a change in their relationship with Britain. In July 1775, the delegates voted to send an "Olive Branch Petition" to King George III, in which they pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament to secure peace and the protection of colonial rights. King George angrily dismissed the congress' plea and agreed instead to Parliament's Prohibitory Act (August 1775), which declared the colonies in rebellion. A few months later, Parliament forbade all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies. Thomas Paine's Argument for Independence In January 1776, a pamphlet was published that quickly had a profound impact on public opinion and the future course of events. The pamphlet, written by THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 87 Thomas Paine, a recent English imntigrant to the colonies, argued strongly for what until then had been considered a radical idea. Entitled Common Sense, Paine's essay argued in clear and forceful language for the colonies becoming independent states and breaking all political ties with the British monarchy. Paine argued that it was contrary to common sense for a large continent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for people to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was corrupt and whose laws were unreasonable. The Declaration of Independence After meeting for more than a year, the congress gradually and somewhat reluctantly began to favor independence rather than reconciliation. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring the colonies to be independent. Five delegates including Thomas Jefferson formed a committee to write a statement in support of Lee's resolution. The declaration drafted by Jefferson listed specific grievances against George Ill's government and also expressed the basic principles that justified revolution: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness." The congress adopted Lee's resolution calling for independence on July 2; Jefferson's work, the Declaration of Independence, was adopted on July 4, 1776. The Revolutionary War From the first shots fired on Lexington green in 1775 to the final signing of a peace treaty in 1783, the American War for Independence, or Revolutionary War, was a long and bitter struggle. As Americans fought they also forged a new national identity, as the former colonies became the United States of America. About 2.6 million people lived in the 13 colonies at the time of the war. Maybe 40 percent of the population actively participated in the struggle against Britain. They called themselves American Patriots. Around 20 to 30 percent sided with the British as Loyalists. Everyone else tried to remain neutral and uninvolved. Patriots The largest number of Patriots were from the New England states and Vir ginia. Most of the soldiers were reluctant to travel outside their own region. They would serve in local militia units for short periods, leave to work their farms, and then return to duty. Thus, even though several hundred thousand people fought on the Patriot side in the war, General Washington never had more than 20,000 regular troops under his command at one time. His army was chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, and rarely paid. 88 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM African Americans Initially, George Washington rejected the idea of African Americans serving in the Patriot army. However, when the British promised freedom to enslaved people who joined their side, Washington and the congress quickly made the same offer. Approximately 5,000 African Americans fought as Patriots. Most of them were free citizens from the North, who fought in mixed racial forces, although there were some all-African American units. African Americans took part in most of the military actions of the war, and a number, including Peter Salem, were recognized for their bravery. loyalists Tories The Revolutionary War was in some respects a civil war in which anti-British Patriots fought pro-British Loyalists. Those who maintained their allegiance to the king were also called Tories (after the majority party in Parliament). Almost 60,000 American Tories fought next to British sol diers, supplied them with arms and food, and joined in raiding parties that pillaged Patriot homes and farms. Members of the same family sometimes joined opposite sides. For example, while Benjamin Franklin was a leading patriot, his son William joined the Tories and served as the last royal governor of New Jersey. How many American Tories were there? Estimates range from 520,000 to 780,000 people-roughly 20 to 30 percent of the population. In New York, New Jersey, and Georgia, they were probably in the majority. Toward the end of the war, about 80,000 Loyalists emigrated from the states to settle in Canada or Britain rather than face persecution at the hands of the victorious Patriots. Although Loyalists came from all groups and classes, they tended to be wealthier and more conservative than the Patriots. Most government officials and Anglican clergy in America remained loyal to the crown. American Indians At first, American Indians tried to stay out of the war. Eventually, however, attacks by colonists prompted many American Indians to support the British, who promised to limit colonial settlements in the West. Initial American losses and Hardships The first three years of the war, 1775 to 1777, went badly for Washington's poorly trained and equipped revolutionary army. It barely escaped complete disaster in a battle for New York City in 1776, in which Washington's forces were routed by the British. By the end of 1777, the British occupied both New York and Philadelphia. After losing Philadelphia, Washington's demoralized troops suffered through the severe winter of 1777-1778 camped at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 89 Economic troubles added to the Patriots' bleak prospects. British occupa tion of American ports resulted in a 95 percent decline in trade between 1775 and 1777. Goods were scarce and inflation was rampant. The paper money issued by Congress, known as continentals, became almost worthless. Alliance With France The turning point for the American revolutionaries came with a victory at Saratoga in upstate New York in October 1777. British forces under General John Burgoyne had marched from Canada in an ambitious effort to link up with other forces marching from the west and south. Their objective was to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies (or states). But Burgoyne's troops were attacked at Saratoga by troops commanded by American generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British army was forced to surrender. The diplomatic outcome of the Battle of Saratoga was even more important than the military result. News of the surprising American victory persuaded France to join in the war against Britain. France's king, Louis XVI, was an absolute monarch who had no interest in aiding a revolutionary movement. Nevertheless, he saw a chance to weaken his country's traditional foe, Great Britain, by helping to undermine its colonial empire. France had secretly extended aid to the American revolutionaries as early as 1775, giving both money and supplies. After Saratoga, in 1778, France openly allied itself with the Americans. (A year later, Spain and Holland also entered the war against Britain.) The French alliance proved a decisive factor in the American struggle for independence because it widened the war and forced the British to divert military resources away from America. Victory Faced with a larger war, Britain decided to consolidate its forces in America. British troops were pulled out of Philadelphia, and New York became the chief base of British operations. In a campaign through 1778-1779, the Patriots, led by George Rogers Clark, captured a series of British forts in the Illinois coun try to gain control of parts of the vast Ohio territory. In 1780, the British army adopted a southern strategy, concentrating its military campaigns in Virginia and the Carolinas where Loyalists were especially numerous and active. Yorktown In 1781, the last major battle of the Revolutionary War was fought near Yorktown, Virginia, on the shores of Chesapeake Bay. Strongly supported by French naval and military forces, Washington's army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis. Treaty of Paris News of Cornwallis's defeat at Yorktown was a heavy blow to the Tory party in Parliament that was conducting the war. The war had become unpopular in Britain, partly because it placed a heavy strain on the economy and the government's finances. Lord North and other Tory ministers resigned and were replaced by W hig leaders who wanted to end the war. 90 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM In Paris, in 1783, a treaty of peace was finally signed by the various bel ligerents. The Treaty of Paris provided for the following: (1) Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation. (2) The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation. (3) Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada. (4) Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor Loyalist claims for property con fiscated during the war. Organization of New Governments While the Revolutionary War was being fought, leaders of the 13 colonies worked to change them into independently governed states, each with its own constitution (written plan of government). At the same time, the revolutionary Congress that originally met in Philadelphia tried to define the powers of a new central government for the nation that was coming into being. State Governments By 1777, ten of the former colonies had written new constitutions. Most of these documents were both written and adopted by the states' legislatures. In a few of the states (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina), a proposed constitution was submitted to a vote of the people for ratification (approval). Each state constitution was the subject of heated debate between conser vatives, who stressed the need for law and order, and liberals, who were most concerned about protecting individual rights and preventing future tyrannies. Although the various constitutions differed on specific points, they had the fol lowing features in common: List of Rights Each state constitution began with a "bill" or "declara tion" listing the basic rights and freedoms, such as a jury trial and freedom of religion, that belonged to all citizens by right and that state officials could not infringe (encroach on). Separation of Powers With a few exceptions, the powers of state govern ment were given to three separate branches: (1) legislative powers to an elected two-house legislature, (2) executive powers to an elected governor, and (3) judicial powers to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to be a safeguard against tyranny-especially against the tyranny of a too-powerful executive. Voting The right to vote was extended to all white males who owned some property. The property requirement, usually for a minimal amount of land or money, was based on the assumption that propertyowners had a larger stake in government than did the poor and propertyless. Office-Holding Those seeking elected office were usually held to a higher property qualification than the voters. The Articles of Confederation At Philadelphia in 1776, as Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Indepen dence, John Dickinson drafted the first constitution for the United States as a THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 91 nation. Congress modified Dickinson's plan to protect the powers of the indi vidual states. The Articles of Confederation, as the document was called, was adopted by Congress in 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification. Ratification Ratification of the Articles was delayed by a dispute over the vast American Indian lands west of the Alleghenies. Seaboard states such as Rhode Island and Maryland insisted that these lands be under the jurisdiction of the new central government. When Virginia and New York finally agreed to cede their claims to western lands, the Articles were ratified in March 1781. Structure of Government The Articles established a central government that consisted of just one body, a congress. In this unicameral (one-house) leg islature, each state was given one vote, with at least 9 votes out of 13 required to pass important laws. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote. A Committee of States, with one representative from each state, could make minor decisions when the full congress was not in session. THE UNITED STATES IN 1783 CANAD r-i United States L__J ( 1783) GULF OF O 100 200 MIies MEXICO 0 100 200 300 KIiometers 92 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Powers The Articles gave the congress the power to wage war, make trea ties, send diplomatic representatives, and borrow money. However, Congress did not have the power to regulate commerce or to collect taxes. To finance any of its decisions, the congress had to rely upon taxes voted by each state. Neither did the government have executive power to enforce its laws. Accomplishments Despite its weaknesses, the congress under the Arti cles did succeed in accomplishing the following: 1. Winning the war. The U.S. government could claim some credit for the ultimate victory of Washington's army and for negotiating favor able terms in the treaty of peace with Britain. 2. Land Ordinance of 1785. Congress established a policy for surveying and selling the western lands. The policy provided for setting aside one section of land in each township for public education. 3. Northwest Ordinance of 1787. For the large territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, the congress passed an ordi nance (law) that set the rules for creating new states. The Northwest Ordinance granted limited self-government to the developing terri tory and prohibited slavery in the region. Problems with the Articles The 13 states intended the central govern ment to be weak-and it was. The government faced three kinds of problems: 1. Financial. Most war debts were unpaid. Individual states as well as the congress issued worthless paper money. The underlying problem was that the congress had no taxing power and could only request that the states donate money for national needs. 2. Foreign. European nations had little respect for a new nation that could neither pay its debts nor take effective and united action in a crisis. Britain and Spain threatened to take advantage of U.S. weakness by expanding their interests in the western lands soon after the war ended. 3. Domestic. In the summer of 1786, Captain Daniel Shays, a Mas sachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran, led other farmers in an uprising against high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. The rebel farmers stopped the collection of taxes and forced the closing of debtors' courts. In January 1787, when Shays and his followers attempted to seize weapons from the Springfield armory, the state militia of Massachusetts broke Shays's Rebellion. Social Change In addition to revolutionizing the politics of the 13 states, the War for Inde pendence also profoundly changed American society. Some changes occurred immediately before the war ended, while others evolved gradually as the ideas of the Revolution began to filter into the attitudes of the common people. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 93 Abolition of Aristocratic Titles State constitutions and laws abolished old institutions that had originated in medieval Europe. No legislature could grant titles of nobility, nor could any court recognize the feudal practice of primogeniture (the first born son's right to inherit his family's property).Whatever aristocracy existed in colonial America was further weakened by the confiscation of large estates owned by Loyalists. Many such estates were subdivided and sold to raise money for the war. Separation of Church and State Most states adopted the principle of separation of church and state; in other words, they refused to give financial support to any religious group. The Angli can Church, which formerly had been closely tied to the king's government, was disestablished (lost state support) in the South. Only in three New England states-New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts-did the Congrega tional Church continue to receive state support in the form of a religious tax. This practice was finally discontinued in New England early in the 1830s. Women During the war, both the Patriots and Loyalists depended on the active support of women. Some women followed their men into the armed camps and worked as cooks and nurses. In a few instances, women actually fought in battle, either taking their husband's place, as Mary McCauley (Molly Pitcher) did at the Battle of Monmouth, or passing as a man and serving as a soldier, as Deborah Sampson did for a year. The most important contribution of women during the war was in main taining the colonial economy. While fathers, husbands, and sons were away fighting, women ran the family farms and businesses. They provided much of the food and clothing necessary for the war effort. Despite their contributions, women remained in a second-class status. Unanswered went pleas such of those of Abigail Adams to her husband, John Adams: "I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors." Slavery The institution of slavery contradicted the spirit of the Revolution and the idea that "all men are created equal." For a time, the leaders of the Revolu tion recognized this and took some corrective steps. The Continental Congress abolished the importation of enslaved people, and most states went along with the prohibition. Most northern states ended slavery, while in the South, some owners voluntarily freed their slaves. However, in the decades following the Revolutionary War, more and more slaveowners came to believe that enslaved labor was essential to their econ omy. As explained in later chapters, they developed a rationale for slavery that found religious and political justification for continuing to hold human beings in lifelong bondage. 94 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: HOW RADICAL WAS THE REVOLUTION? Was the American Revolution (1) a radical break with the past or (2) a conservative attempt simply to safeguard traditional British liberties? One approach to this question is to compare the American Revolution with other revolutions in world history. In his Anatomy of a Revolution (1965), historian Crane Brinton found striking similarities between the American Revolution and two later revolutions-the French Revolution (1789-1794) and the Rus sian Revolution (1917-1922). He observed that each revolution passed through similar stages and became increasingly radical from one year to the next. Other historians have been more impressed with the differences between the American experience and the revolutions in Europe. They argue that the French and Russian revolutionaries reacted to conditions of feudalism and aristocratic privilege that did not exist in the American colonies. In their view, Americans did not revolt against outmoded insti tutions but, in their quest for independence, merely carried to maturity a liberal, democratic movement that had been gaining force for years. In comparing the three revolutions, a few historians have concen trated on the actions of revolutionary groups of citizens, such as the American Sons of Liberty. Again there are two divergent interpretations: (1) the groups in all three countries engaged in the same radical activities, and (2) the Americans had a much easier time of it than the French and Russians, who encountered ruthless repression by military authorities. Another interpretation of the American Revolution likens it to the colonial rebellions that erupted in Africa and Asia after World War II. According to this view, the colonial experience in America caused a gradual movement away from Britain that culminated in demands for independence. Other studies of the military aspects of the Revolution have pointed out similarities between American guerrilla forces in the 1770s and the guerrilla bands that fought in such countries as Cuba in the 1950s and Vietnam in the 1960s. Recall that the British controlled the cities while the American revolutionaries controlled the countryside a pattern that in the 20th century was often repeated in revolutionary struggles throughout the world. Typically, as in the case of the American Revolution, insurgent forces were weak in the cities, but strong in the surrounding territory. Since the American Revolution pre-dated the other modern revolu tions it is compared to, its influence on them is a topic of study. Seeing the American Revolution in the context of other uprisings provides insights to help understand it better. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 95 KEY TERMS BY THEME Separation (NAT) Expansion (MIG, POL} Final Break (WOR} Intolerable Acts Land Ordinance of 1785 absolute monarch Patrick Henry Northwest Ordinance Prohibitory Act (1775) Samuel Adams of 1787 Treaty of Paris (1783) John Adams John Dickinson War (POL} A New Nation (CUL} John Jay Paul Revere Thomas Paine; First Continental William Dawes Common Sense Congress (1774) Lexington Patriots Joseph Galloway Concord Loya Iists (Tories) Suffolk Resolves Battle of Bunker Hill Minutemen economic sanctions Battle of Saratoga Continenta Is Declaration of Rights George Rogers Clark Valley Forge and Grievances Battle of Yorktown Abigail Adams Second Continental Articles of Deborah Sampson Congress (1775) Confederation Mary McCauley (Molly Olive Branch Petition unicameral legislature Pitcher) Declaration of the Shays's Rebellion Causes and Neces sities for Taking Up Arms Thomas Jefferson Declaration of Independence George Washington 96 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1-3 refer to the excerpt below. "The authors and promoters of this desperate conspiracy have... meant only to amuse, by vague expressions of attachment to the parent state, and the stron gest protestations of loyalty to me, whilst they were preparing for a general revolt....The resolutions of Parliament breathed a spirit of moderation and forbearance; conciliatory propositions accompanied the measures taken to enforce authority....I have acted with the same temper, anxious to prevent, if it had been possible... the calamities which are inseparable from a state of war; still hoping that my people in America would have discerned the traitor ous views of their leaders, and have been convinced, that to be a subject of Great Britain, with all its consequences, is to be the freest member of any civil society in the known world." -King George III, Speech to Parliament, October 27, 1775 1. King George's rejection of the Olive Branch Petition demonstrates that he believed that most colonists (A) were personally loyal to him (B) blamed Parliament for their problems (C) had always planned to revolt (D) failed to understand his policies 2. Which of the following documents most forcefully disagreed with the views King George expressed in this excerpt? (A) Galloway's plan for a union of colonies (B) Declaration and Resolves (C) Olive Branch Petition (D) Common Sense by Thomas Paine 3. Which of the following groups or individuals would have been most likely to agree with King George? (A) Continentals (B) Loyalists (C) John Dickenson (D) Thomas Paine THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 97 Questions 4-6 refer to the excerpt below. "A Declaration of Rights made by the representatives of the good people of Virginia... Section 1. That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights.... Section 2. That all power is vested in and consequently derived from, the people.... Section 4. That no man, or set of men, is entitled to exclusive or separate...privileges from the community.... Section 5. That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and distinct from the judiciary.... Section 6. That elections of members... as representatives of the people, in assembly, ought to be free; and that all men, having sufficient evi dence of permanent common interest with and attachment to the community, have the right of suffrage.... Section 12. That freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks of liberty.... Section 16. All men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion." -Virginia Declaration of Rights, 1776 4. In the context of the various disputes between the colonists and Britain, which of the following would be the most important right cited? (A) Section 1: all people are by nature free (B) Section 2: all power comes from the people (C) Section 4: no person has special privileges (D) Section 16: people should be able to worship freely 5. Which of the rights in the excerpt is expressed in a way that would today be considered a limitation of individual rights? (A) Section 5: separation of government powers (B) Section 2: origins of governmental power (C) Section 6: right to vote (D) Section 12: freedom of the press 6. The group most likely to oppose the ideas expressed in this excerpt would have been (A) the Minutemen of Lexington (B) advocates of a unicameral legislature (C) Tories such as William Franklin (D) supporters of Shays's Rebellion 98 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Questions 7-8 refer to the excerpt below. "I have not the least doubt that the Negroes will make very excellent soldiers, with proper management.... "I foresee that this project will have to combat much opposition from prej udice and self-interest. The contempt we have been taught to entertain for the black makes us fancy many things that are founded neither in reason nor expe rience; and an unwillingness to part with property of so valuable a kind will furnish a thousand arguments to show the impracticability or pernicious ten dency of a scheme which requires such a sacrifice.But it should be considered that if we do not make use of them in this way, the enemy probably will.... An essential part of the plan is to give them their freedom with their muskets." -Alexander Hamilton, "A Proposal to Arm and Then Free the Negroes," 1779 7. For some the Revolutionary War was also a civil war because of the role played in the war by the (A) American Indians (B) African Americans (C) Quakers (D) Tories 8. Which of the following was the primary reason for Hamilton's call for African American soldiers? (A) The New York militia was short of troops (B) The British were recruiting African Americans (C) The Declaration of Independence called for equal rights (D) General Washington trusted that blacks would make good soldiers THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 99 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. Question 1. Answer a, b, and c. a) Briefly explain support for the argument that the Articles of Confederation succeeded in guiding the United States through its first decade using ONE of the choices below. victory in the Revolutionary War Land Ordinance of 1785 Northwest Ordinance b) Briefly explain a challenge to the statement during this period using ONE of the choices below. financial circumstances foreign affairs domestic concerns c) Briefly explain using either ONE of the choices above or your own historical knowledge whether you agree or disagree with the statement. Question 2. Answer a, b, and c. a) The Revolutionary War was in some respects a civil war in which anti British Patriots fought pro-British Loyalists. Briefly explain who the Patriots were. b) Briefly explain who the Loyalists were. c) Briefly explain the role played in the war by ONE of the following. African Americans American Indians France 100 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Question 3 is based on the cartoon below..lJni'mr·uninm tAe.Jm,K/ a11..fNTW AftTdn"'"J'"Jf/iiml, &;Ir,rlPI,, Source: James Gillray, London, 1782. Library of Congress 3. Using the cartoon, answer a, b, and c. The title of the cartoon is "The American Rattle Snake." The squares surrounded by the snake's coils represent British soldiers. a) Briefly explain the point of view reflected in the cartoon above regarding ONE of the following. the British public the French government the American cartoon, "Join or Die" Yorktown b) Briefly explain a point of view the French government would be expected to have toward this cartoon at the time it was published. c) Briefly explain how ONE specific historical event or development from the period between 1776 and 1783 could be used to support the French view of the cartoon. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION, 1774-1787 101 Question 4 is based on the excerpt below. "I wish I knew what mighty things were fabricating.If a form of government is to be established here, what one will be assumed? Will it be left to our assem blies to choose one? And will not many men have many minds? And shall we not run into dissensions among ourselves? "I am more and more convinced that man is a dangerous creature; and that power, whether vested in many or a few, is ever grasping.... "How shall we be governed so as to retain our liberties? Who shall frame these laws? Who will give them force and energy.... "When I consider these things, and the prejudices of people in favor of ancient customs and regulations, I feel anxious for the fate of our monarchy or democracy, or whatever is to take place." -Abigail Adams, Letter to John Adams, November 27, 1775 4. Using the excerpt, answer a, b, and c. a) Briefly explain the point of view expressed by Abigail Adams about ONE of the following. power liberties prejudices b) Briefly explain ONE development in the period leading up to independence that led to the point of view expressed here by Abigail Adams. c) Briefly explain ONE development in the period immediately after the Revolutionary War that challenges or supports the point of view expressed by Abigail Adams. THINK AS A HISTORIAN: QUESTIONS ABOUT CONTEXTUALIZATION Contextualization is explaining and evaluating how an event is shaped by broader trends or its historical setting.Which THREE of the items below would be best answered with an essay that emphasizes contextualization? 1. Explain how geography shaped the conflict between Great Britain and its American colonies. 2. How did the Enlightenment influence the American Revolution? 3. Explain why the ideas expressed in the Articles of Confederation would make conducting a war difficult. 4. What caused the American Revolution? 5. How did the American and French revolutions differ? 102 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM 6 THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC, 1787-1800 Thus I consent, sir, to this Constitution, because I expect no better, and because I am not sure that it is not the best. The opinions I have had of its errors I sacrifice to the public good.... Benjamin Franklin, 1787 Wth these words, Benjamin Franklin, the oldest delegate at the Constitu tional Convention in Philadelphia, attempted to overcome the skepticism of other delegates about the document that they had created. Would the new docu ment, the Constitution, establish a central government strong enough to hold 13 states together in a union that could prosper and endure? In September 1787, when Franklin, Washington, and other delegates signed the Constitution that they had drafted, their young country was in a troubled condition. This chapter will summarize the problems leading to the Consti tutional Convention, the debates in the various states on whether to ratify the new plan of government, and the struggles of two presidents, Washington and Adams, to meet the domestic and international challenges of the 1790s. The United States Under the Articles, 1781-1787 Four years separated the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 and the meeting of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. During that time, the gov ernment operated under the Articles of Confederation, which consisted of a one-house congress, no separate executive, and no separate judiciary (court sys tem). The country faced several major problems. Foreign Problems Relations between the United States and the major powers of Europe were trou bled from the start. States failed to adhere to the Treaty of Paris, which required that they restore property to Loyalists and repay debts to foreigners. In addition, the U.S. government under the Articles was too weak to stop Britain from main taining military outposts on the western frontier and restricting trade. THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC, 1787-1800 103 Economic Weakness and Interstate Quarrels Reduced foreign trade and limited credit because states had not fully repaid war debts contributed to widespread economic depression. The inability to levy national taxes and the printing of worthless paper money by many states added to the problems. In addition, the 13 states treated one another with suspicion and competed for economic advantage. They placed tariffs and other restric tions on the movement of goods across state lines. A number of states faced boundary disputes with neighbors that increased interstate rivalry and tension. The Annapolis Convention To review what could be done about the country's inability to overcome critical problems, George Washington hosted a conference at his home in Mt. Ver non, Virginia (1785). Representatives from Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania agreed that the problems were serious enough to hold further discussions at a later meeting at Annapolis, Maryland, at which all the states might be represented. However, only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis Convention in 1786. After discussing ways to improve commercial relations among the states, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton persuaded the oth ers that another convention should be held in Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. Drafting the Constitution at Philadelphia After a number of states elected delegates to the proposed Philadelphia con vention, congress consented to give its approval to the meeting. It called upon all 13 states to send delegates to Philadelphia "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Only Rhode Island, not trusting the other states, refused to send delegates. The Delegates Of the 55 delegates who went to Philadelphia for the convention in the summer of 1787, all were white, all were male, and most were college-educated. As a group, they were relatively young (averaging in their early forties). With few exceptions, they were far wealthier than the average American of their day. They were well acquainted with issues of law and politics. A number of them were practicing lawyers, and many had helped to write their state constitutions. The first order of business was to elect a presiding officer and decide whether or not to communicate with the public at large. The delegates voted to conduct their meetings in secret and say nothing to the public about their discussions until their work was completed. George Washington was unani mously elected chairperson. Benjamin Franklin, the elder statesman at age 81, provided a calming and unifying influence. The work in fashioning specific articles of the Constitution was directed by James Madison (who came to be known as the Father of the Constitution), Alexander Hamilton, Gouverneur 104 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Morris, and John Dickinson. While they represented different states, these con vention leaders shared the common goal of wanting to strengthen the young nation. Several major leaders of the American Revolution were not at the con vention. John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine were on diplomatic business abroad. Samuel Adams and John Hancock were not chosen as delegates. Patrick Henry, who opposed any growth in federal power, refused to take part in the convention. Key Issues The convention opened with the delegates disagreeing sharply on its funda mental purpose. Some wanted to simply revise the Articles. Strong nationalists, such as Madison and Hamilton, wanted to draft an entirely new document. The nationalists quickly took control of the convention. Americans in the 1780s generally distrusted government and feared that officials would seize every opportunity to abuse their powers, even if they were popularly elected. Therefore, Madison and other delegates wanted the new constitution to be based on a system of checks and balances so that the power of each branch would be limited by the powers of the others. Representation Especially divisive was the issue of whether the larger states such as Virginia and Pennsylvania should have proportionally more representatives in Congress than the smaller states such as New Jersey and Del aware. Madison's proposal-the Virginia Plan-favored the large states; it was countered by the New Jersey Plan, which favored the small states. The issue was finally resolved by a compromise solution. Roger Sherman of Connecticut proposed what was called the Connecticut Plan or the Great Compromise. It provided for a two-house Congress. In the Senate, states would have equal representation, but in the House of Representatives, each state would be repre sented according to the size of its population. Slavery Two of the most contentious issues grew out of slavery. Should enslaved people be counted in the state populations? The delegates agreed to the Three-Fifths Compromise, which counted each enslaved individual as three fifths of a person for the purposes of determining a state's level of taxation and representation. Should the slave trade be allowed? The delegates decided to guarantee that slaves could be imported for at least 20 years longer, until 1808. Congress could vote to abolish the practice after that date if it wished. Trade The northern states wanted the central government to regulate interstate commerce and foreign trade. The South was afraid that export taxes would be placed on its agricultural products such as tobacco and rice. The Commercial Compromise allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs (taxes) on foreign imports, but it prohib ited placing taxes on any exports. THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC, 1787-1800 105 The Presidency The delegates debated over the president's term of office-some argued that the chief executive should hold office for life. The delegates limited the president's term to four years but with no limit on the number of terms. They also debated the method for electing a president. Rather than having voters elect a president directly, the delegates decided to assign to each state a number of electors equal to the total of that state's representatives and senators. This electoral college system was instituted because the delegates feared that too much democracy might lead to mob rule. Finally, the delegates debated what powers to give the president. They finally decided to grant the president considerable power, including the power to veto acts of Congress. Ratification On September 17, 1787, after 17 weeks of debate, the Phila delphia convention approved a draft of the Constitution to submit to the states for ratification. Anticipating opposition to the document, the Framers (dele gates) specified that a favorable vote of only nine states out of 13 would be required for ratification. Each state would hold popularly elected conventions to debate and vote on the proposed Constitution. Federalists and Anti-Federalists Ratification was fiercely debated for almost a year, from September 1787 until June 1788. Supporters of the Constitution and its strong federal government were known as Federalists. Opponents were known as Anti-Federalists. Feder alists were most common along the Atlantic Coast and in the large cities while Anti-Federalists tended to be small farmers and settlers on the western frontier. (See table on the next page for more on the two groups.) The Federalist Papers A key element in the Federalist campaign for the Constitution was a series of highly persuasive essays written for a New York newspaper by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The 85 essays, later published in book form as The Federalist Papers, presented cogent reasons for believing in the practi cality of each major provision of the Constitution. Outcome The Federalists won early victories in the state conventions in Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-the first three states to ratify. By promising to add a bill of rights to the Constitution, they successfully addressed the Anti-Federal ists' most telling objection. With New Hampshire voting yes in June 1788, the Federalists won the necessary nine states to achieve ratification of the Consti tution. Even so, the larger states of Virginia and New York had not yet acted. If they failed to ratify, any chance for national unity and strength would be in dire jeopardy. 106 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Debating the Constitution Federalists Anti-Federalists Leaders George Washington, From Virginia: George Benjamin Franklin, James Mason and Patrick Henry ; Madison, Alexander From Massachusetts: Hamilton James Winthrop and John Hancock; From New York: George Clinton Arguments Stronger central government Stronger central govern- was needed to maintain ment would destroy the order and preserve the Union work of the Revolution, limit democracy, and restrict states' rights Strategy Emphasized the weaknesses Argued that the proposed of the Articles of Confedera- Constitution contained no tion; showed their oppo- protection of individual nents as merely negative rights, that it gave the opponents with no solutions central government more power than the British ever had Advantages Strong leaders; well organ- Appealed to popular dis- ized trust of government based on colonial experiences Disadvantages Constitution was new and Poorly organized; slow to untried; as originally written, respond to Federalist it lacked a bill of rights challenge Virginia In 1788, Virginia was by far the most populous of the origi nal 13 states. There, the Anti-Federalists rallied behind two strong leaders, George Mason and Patrick Henry, who viewed the Constitution and a strong central government as threats to Americans' hard-won liberty. Virginia's Fed eralists, led by Washington, Madison, and John Marshall, managed to prevail by a close vote only after promising a bill of rights. Final States News of Virginia's vote had enough influence on New York's ratifying convention (combined with Alexander Hamilton's efforts) to win the day for the Constitution in that state. North Carolina in November 1789 and Rhode Island in May 1790 reversed their earlier rejections and thus became the last two states to ratify the Constitution as the new "supreme law of the land." THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC, 1787-1800 107 Adding the Bill of Rights Did the Constitution need to list the rights of individuals? Anti-Federalists argued vehemently that it did, while Federalists argued that it was unnecessary. Arguments for a Bill of Rights Anti-Federalists argued that Americans had fought the Revolutionary War to escape a tyrannical government in Britain. What was to stop a strong central government under the Constitution from acting similarly? Only by adding a bill of rights could Americans be protected against such a possibility. Arguments Against a Bill of Rights Federalists argued that since members of Congress would be elected by the peo ple, they did not need to be protected against themselves. Furthermore, people should assume that all rights were protected rather than create a limited list of rights that might allow unscrupulous officials to assert that unlisted rights could be violated at will. In order to win adoption of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions, the Federalists finally backed off their position and promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution as the first order of business for a newly elected Congress. The First Ten Amendments In 1789, the first Congress elected under the Constitution acted quickly to adopt a number of amendments listing people's rights. Drafted largely by James Mad ison, the amendments were submitted to the states for ratification. The ten that were adopted in 1791 have been known ever since as the U.S. Bill of Rights. Originally, they provided protection against abuses of power by the central ( or federal) government. Since the ratification of the 14th Amendment in 1868, most of the protections have been extended to apply to abuses by state govern ments as well. Below is the text of the Bill of Rights. First Amendment "Congress shall make no law respecting an estab lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assem ble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." Second Amendment "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed." Third Amendment "No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law." Fourth Amendment "The right of the people to be secure in their per sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." 108 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM Fifth Amendment "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be sub ject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private prop erty be taken for public use without just compensation." Sixth Amendment "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall en joy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed; which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assis tance of counsel for his defense." Seventh Amendment "In suits of common law, where the value in contro versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law." Eighth Amendment "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." Ninth Amendment "The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." Tenth Amendment "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." Washington's Presidency Members of the first Congress under the Constitution were elected in 1788 and began their first session in March 1789 in New York City (then the nation's temporary capital). People assumed that George Washington would be the electoral college's unanimous choice for president, and indeed he was. Organizing the Federal Government Washington took the oath of office as the first U.S. president on April 30, 1789. From then on, what the Constitution and its system of checks and balances actually meant in practice would be determined from day to day by the deci sions of Congress as the legislative branch, the president as the head of the executive branch, and the Supreme Court as the top federal court in the judicial branch. THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC, 1787-1800 109 Executive Departments As chief executive, Washington's first task was to organize new departments of the executive (law-enforcing) branch. The Con stitution authorizes the president to appoint chiefs of departments, although they must be confirmed, or approved, by the Senate. Washington appointed four heads of departments: Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Alexan der Hamilton as secretary of the treasury, Henry Knox as secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph as attorney general. These four men formed a cabinet of advisers with whom President Washington met regularly to discuss major policy issues. Today, presidents still meet with their cabinets to obtain advice and information. Federal Court System The only federal court mentioned in the Constitu tion is the Supreme Court. Congress, however, was given the power to create other federal courts with lesser powers and to determine the number of justices making up the Supreme Court. One of Congress' first laws was the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices. This highest court was empowered to rule on the constitu tionality of decisions made by state courts. The act also provided for a system of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals. Hamilton's Financial Program One of the most pressing problems faced by Congress under the Articles had been the government's financial difficulties. Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, presented to Congress a plan for putting U.S. finances on a stable foundation. Hamilton's plan included three main actions. (1) Pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal government assume the war debts of the states. (2) Protect the young nation's "infant" (new and develop ing) industries and collect adequate revenues at the same time by imposing high tariffs on imported goods. (3) Create a national bank for depositing gov ernment funds and printing banknotes that would provide the basis for a stable U.S. currency. Support for this program came chiefly from northern merchants, who would gain directly from high tariffs and a stabilized currency. Opponents of Hamilton's financial plan included the Anti-Federalists, who feared that the states would lose power to the extent that the central govern ment gained it. Thomas Jefferson led a faction of southern Anti-Federalists who viewed Hamilton's program as benefiting only the rich at the expense of indebted farmers. After much political wrangling and bargaining, Congress finally adopted Hamilton's plan in slightly modified form. For example, the tariffs were not as high as Hamilton wanted. Debt Jefferson and his supporters agreed to Hamilton's urgent insis tence that the U.S. government pay off the national debt at face value and also assume payment of the war debts of the states. In return for Jefferson's support on this vital aspect of his plan, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson's idea to establish the nation's capital in the South along the Potomac River (an area that, after Washington's death, would be named Washington, D.C.). 110 U.S. HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMENT® EXAM National Bank Je

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