History Textbook for Class 7 PDF

SOCIAL SCIENCE Textbook in History for Class VII i 2021-22 ii 2021-22  SOCIAL SCIENCE Textbook in History for Class VII iii 2021-22 0760 – OUR PASTS — II ISBN 81-7...

SOCIAL SCIENCE Textbook in History for Class VII i 2021-22 ii 2021-22  SOCIAL SCIENCE Textbook in History for Class VII iii 2021-22 0760 – OUR PASTS — II ISBN 81-7450-724-8 Textbook for Class VII First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED April 2007 Vaisakha 1929 q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or Reprinted transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. November 2007 Kartika 1929 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, January 2009 Pausa 1930 re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any December 2009 Pausa 1931 form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. 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March 2012 Phalguna 1934 October 2013 Ashvina 1935 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION December 2014 Pausa 1936 DIVISION, NCERT December 2015 Agrahayana 1937 NCERT Campus December 2016 Agrahayana 1938 Sri Aurobindo Marg December 2017 Agrahayana 1939 New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708 January 2019 Pausa 1940 108, 100 Feet Road August 2019 Bhadrapada 1941 Hosdakere Halli Extension Banashankari III Stage March 2021 Phalguna 1942 Bangaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740 Navjivan Trust Building PD 180T RSP P.O.Navjivan Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446 © National Council of Educational CWC Campus Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Research and Training, 2007 Panihati Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869 Publication Team Head, Publication : Anup Kumar Rajput ` 65.00 Division Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal Chief Production : Arun Chitkara Officer Chief Business : Vipin Dewan Manager (In charge) Assistant Editor : Shashi Chadha Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Production Officer : Abdul Naim watermark Published at the Publication Division Cover and Layout by the Secretary, National Council of Arrt Creations Educational Research and T raining, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 Cartography and printed at Kalyan Enterprises, D-20, Sector B-3, Tronica City Industrial Area, Cartographic Designs Agency Loni, District Ghaziabad - 201 102 (U.P.) iv 2021-22  FOREWORD The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time v 2021-22 available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavor by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the Advisory Group on Social Science, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor Neeladri Bhattacharya for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations, which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G. P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organization committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. Director New Delhi National Council of Educational 20 November 2006 Research and Training vi 2021-22  TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE FOR THESECONDARY STAGE Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta, Kolkata CHIEF ADVISOR Neeladri Bhattacharya, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi ADVISOR Kunal Chakrabarti, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Sunil Kumar, Reader, Department of History, Delhi University, Delhi TEAM MEMBERS Anil Sethi, Former Professor, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi Bhairavi Prasad Sahu, Professor and Head, Department of History, Delhi University, Delhi Chetan Singh, Professor, Department of History, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, H.P. C. N. Subramaniam, Director, Eklavya, Kothi Bazar, Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh Farhat Hasan, Reader, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. Kesavan Veluthat, Professor, Department of History, Mangalore University, Mangalore, Karnataka Kumkum Roy, Associate Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Mily Roy, Sr. Lecturer, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi Nayana Das Gupta, Lecturer in History, Lady Sri Ram College, Delhi University, Delhi Rajan Gurukkal, Professor, Department of History, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerela Rajat Dutta, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi Sreela Mitra, PGT, History, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi Suchi Bajaj, PGT, History, Springdales School, Pusa Road, New Delhi Vijaya Ramaswamy, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi MEMBER-COORDINATOR Reetu Singh, Lecturer, DESS, NCERT, New Delhi vii 2021-22  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book is the product of a year’s cogitation: discussions, sharing comments and rewriting that relied upon the skills and commitment of all the members of the Textbook team. There was much that we learned from each other through this period and we hope that the final product manages to communicate the excitement and joy that went into its planning and production. All the members of the team received support and encouragement from their respective institutions and families and we would like to take this opportunity to thank them. Professors J.S. Grewal, member of the NCERT Monitoring Committee and Muzaffar Alam of the University of Chicago commented on several chapters and very generously responded to all our queries. Professor Ebba Koch of the University of Vienna was kind enough to give us permission to use many of her photographs and illustrations. We are indebted to Dr. Meera Khare of PGDAV College, Delhi University, for her promptness in responding to our questions and providing us help with information and visuals. Shyama Warner’s copyediting and proof reading skills improved the book dramatically. It is certainly a visual delight thanks to the designing and lay out expertise of Ritu Topa of Arrt Creations. Albinus Tirkey’s technical and administrative help eased the burden at the last stages of production. Satish Maurya produced the maps for the book. We are grateful to him for his patience, promptness and efficiency. Shveta Uppal oversaw the final editing and production of the volume with great care and customary professionalism. viii 2021-22  PHOTO AND MAP CREDITS We would like to acknowledge the following: PHOTO CREDITS ----. Delhi, Agra, Jaipur: the Golden Triangle, (Ch.4, fig. 1); Archer, Mildred. Early Views of India, the Picturesque Journeys of Thomas and William Daniell, 1786-1794, (Ch. 5, fig. 4); Archaeological Survey of India. Qutb Minar and adjoining Monuments, (Ch. 3, fig. 2; Ch. 5, figs. 2a, 2b, 5a, 5b); Asher, Catherine and Cynthia Talbot. India Before Europe, (Ch. 10, fig. 8); Atil, Esin. The Brush of the Masters: Drawings from Iran and India, (back cover; Ch. 3, fig. 1); Bandyopadhyay, Amiyakumar. Bankurar Mandir, (Ch. 9, figs. 11, 12, 13, 14); Bayly, C. A. An Illustrated History of Modern India,1600-1947, (Ch. 10, figs. 2, 4); Beach, Milo C. and Ebba Koch. King of the World, the Padshahnama, (Ch. 4, figs. 3, 4, 5, 6); Brand, Michael and Glenn D. Lowry. ed. Fatehpur Sikri, (Ch. 5, fig. 17); Brown, Percy. Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), (Ch. 3, figs. 4, 5); Centre for Cultural Resource and Training, New Delhi, (Ch. 2, fig. 4; Ch. 3, fig. 3; Ch. 5, fig. 1, Ch. 9, figs. 3, 5); Das, Anath. Jat Vaishnava Katha, (Ch. 8, fig. 7); Desai, Devangana. Khajuraho – Monumental Legacy, (Ch. 5, fig. 3b); Eaton, Richard. Sufis of Bijapur, (Ch. 8, fig. 6); Edwardes, Michael. Indian Temples and Palaces, (Ch. 2, fig. 1; Ch. 5, fig. 3a); Ehlers, Eckart and Thomas Krafft. Shahjahanabad/Old Delhi: Tradition and Colonial Change, (Ch. 5, fig. 15); Evenson, Norman. The Indian Metropolis, (Ch. 6, figs. 2, 8); Gascoigne, Bamber. The Great Mughals, (Ch. 4, figs. 7, 9); Goswamy, B. N. The Word is Sacred, Sacred is the Word, (Ch. 2, fig. 2; Ch. 8, fig. 1; Ch. 9, fig. 2); Hooja, Rima. A History of Rajasthan, (Ch. 10, fig. 5); Ions, Veronica. Indian Mythology, (Ch. 6. fig. 1); Koch, Ebba. Shah Jahan and Orpheus, (Ch. 5, fig. 12); Koch, Ebba. The Complete Taj Mahal, (Ch. 4, fig. 2; Ch. 5, figs. 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14); Koch, Ebba. Mughal Architecture, (Ch. 5, fig. 16); ix 2021-22 Kothari, Sunil. Kathak: Indian Classical Dance Art (Ch. 9, fig. 6); Lafont, Jean-Marie. Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Lord of the Five Rivers, (Ch. 10, figs. 6, 7); Masselos, Jim, Jackie Menzies, Pratapaditya Pal. Dancing to the Flute: Music and Dance in Indian Art, (Ch. 7, fig. 1; Ch. 8, figs. 4, 8, 9; Ch. 9, figs. 8, 9); Michell, George and Vasundhara Filliozat, Splendours of the Vijayanagara Empire—Hampi, (Ch. 6, figs. 6, 7); Michell, George. Architecture and Art of Southern India, (Ch. 8, fig. 2); Pal, Pratapaditya. Court Paintings of India, (Ch. 7, fig. 2; Ch. 8, fig. 3; Ch. 9, figs. 4, 7, 8); Safadi, Y.H. Islamic Calligraphy, (Ch.1, fig. 2); Singh, Roopinder. Guru Nanak, his Life and Teachings, (Ch. 8, fig. 11); Stronge, Susan. The Arts of the Sikh Kingdoms, (Ch. 6, figs. 4, 5; Ch. 8, fig. 10, pg. xii); Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, (Ch. 6, fig. 9); Thackston, Wheeler M. translated, edited and annotated, Jahangirnama, Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India, (Ch. 4, fig. 8); Welch, Stuart Cary. India, Art and Culture: 1300-1900, (Ch. 7, figs. 4, 6, 7; Ch. 8, fig. 5); Welch, Stuart Cary. Imperial Mughal Painting, (Ch. 1, fig. 1); MAP CREDITS Schwartzberg, J.E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia, (Ch. 1, maps 1, 2); MAPS FROM THE FOLLOWING BOOKS AND ATLASES WERE EDITED AND USED: Asher, Catherine and Cynthia Talbot. India Before Europe, (Ch. 3, map 3; Ch. 4, map 1); Bayly, C. A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, (Ch. 10, map 1, 2); Frykenberg, R.E. ed. Delhi through the Ages, (Ch. 3, map 1); Habib, Irfan. An Atlas of the Mughal Empire, (Ch.7, map 2); Kumar, Sunil. Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate, (Ch. 3, map 2); Schwartzberg, J.E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia, (Ch. 1, map 3); x 2021-22 Contents Foreword v In this book xii 1. Tracing Changes Through A Thousand Years 1 2. New Kings And Kingdoms 16 3. The Delhi Sultans 30 4. The Mughal Empire 45 5. Rulers And Buildings 60 6. Towns, Traders And Craftspersons 75 7. Tribes, Nomads And Settled Communities 91 8. Devotional Paths To The Divine 104 9. The Making Of Regional Cultures 122 10. Eighteenth-Century Political Formations 138 xi 2021-22  IN THIS BOOK Each chapter is divided into sections. Read, discuss and understand each section before proceeding to the next. Look out for the following in each Chapter.  Œ Additional Definition Box Information Some chapters contain Many chapters definitions. contain boxes with interesting, additional information. Ž Source Box Many chapters contain a portion from a source, clues from which historians write history. Read these carefully, and discuss the questions they contain. Many of our sources are visual. Each illustration has a story to tell.   ? In each chapter there are intext questions and activities that are highlighted. You will also find maps. Spend some time discussing Look at these and try to these as you locate the places go along. mentioned in the lessons. xii 2021-22 ‘ All chapters end with a section titled ELSEWHERE Elsewhere. This tells you about something that was happening in another part of the world. ’ Imagine And there is a small section titled Imagine. This is your chance to go back into the past and figure out what life would have been like. “ KEYWORDS 6 At the end of each chapter, you will find a list of keywords. These are to remind you of important ideas/ themes introduced in the lesson. 5 ” You will also find different kinds of activities listed at the end of each chapter — Let’s recall, Let’s discuss, Let’s do and Let’s understand. There is a lot to read, see, think about and do in this book. We hope you will enjoy it. xiii 2021-22 xiv 2021-22  1 TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS Map 1 A section of the world map drawn by the geographer al-Idrisi in the twelfth century showing the Indian subcontinent from land to sea. T ake a look at Maps 1 and 2. Map 1 was made in 1154 CE by the Arab geographer Al-Idrisi. The section reproduced here is a detail of the Indian subcontinent from his larger map of the world. Map 2 Cartographer was made in the 1720s by a French cartographer. The A person who two maps are quite different even though they are of makes maps. the same area. In al-Idrisi’s map, south India is where we would expect to find north India and Sri Lanka is the island at the top. Place-names are marked in Arabic, 1 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22 Map 2 The subcontinent, from the early-eighteenth- century Atlas Nouveau of Guillaume de l’Isle. and there are some well-known names like Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh (spelt in the map as Qanauj). Map 2 was made nearly 600 years after Map 1, during which time information about the subcontinent had changed considerably. This map seems more familiar to us and the coastal areas in particular are surprisingly detailed. This map was used by European sailors and merchants on their voyages (see Chapter 6). ? Look at the areas in the interior of the subcontinent on Map 2. Are they as detailed as those on the coast? Follow the course of the River Ganga and see how it is shown. Why do you think there is a difference in the level of detail and accuracy between the coastal and inland areas in this map? OUR PASTS – II 2 2021-22  Equally important is the fact that the science of cartography differed in the two periods. When historians read documents, maps and texts from the past they have to be sensitive to the different historical backgrounds – the contexts – in which information about the past was produced. New and Old Terminologies If the context in which information is produced changes with time, what about language and meanings? Historical records exist in a variety of languages which have changed considerably over the years. Medieval Persian, for example, is different from modern Persian. The difference is not just with regard to grammar and vocabulary; the meanings of words also change over time. Take the term “Hindustan”, for example. Today we understand it as “India”, the modern nation-state. When the term was used in the thirteenth century by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler who wrote in Persian, he meant the areas of Punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. He used the term in a political sense for lands that were a part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultan. The areas included in this term shifted with the extent of the Sultanate but the term never included south India. By contrast, in the early sixteenth century Babur used Hindustan to describe the geography, the fauna and the culture of ? the inhabitants of the subcontinent. As we will see later Can you think of in the chapter, this was somewhat similar to the way any other words the fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the whose meanings word “Hind”. While the idea of a geographical and change in different cultural entity like “India” did exist, the term contexts? “Hindustan” did not carry the political and national meanings which we associate with it today. Historians today have to be careful about the terms they use because they meant different things in the past. Take, for example, a simple term like “foreigner”. It is used today to mean someone who is not an Indian. In 3 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22  the medieval period a “foreigner” was any stranger who appeared say in a given village, someone who was not a part of that society or culture. (In Hindi the term pardesi might be used to describe such a person and in Persian, ajnabi.) A city-dweller, therefore, might have regarded a forest-dweller as a “foreigner”, but two peasants living in the same village were not foreigners to each other, even though they may have had different religious or caste backgrounds. Historians and their Sources Historians use different types of sources to learn about the past depending upon the period of their study and the nature of their investigation. Last year, for example, you read about rulers of the Gupta dynasty and Harshavardhana. In this book we will read about the following thousand years, from roughly 700 to 1750. You will notice some continuity in the sources used by historians for the study of this period. They still rely on coins, inscriptions, architecture and textual records for information. But there is also considerable discontinuity. The number and variety of textual records increased dramatically during this period. They slowly displaced other types of available information. Through this period paper gradually became cheaper and more The value of paper Compare the following: (1) In the middle of the thirteenth century a scholar wanted to copy a book. But he did not have enough paper. So he washed the writing off a manuscript he did not want, dried the paper and used it. (2) A century later, if you bought some food in the market you could be lucky and have the shopkeeper wrap it for you in some paper. When was paper more expensive and easily available ? – in the thirteenth or the fourteenth century? OUR PASTS – II 4 2021-22 widely available. People used it to write holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records, and for registers of Archive accounts and taxes. Manuscripts were collected by A place where wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples. They documents and were placed in libraries and archives. These manuscripts manuscripts are and documents provide a lot of detailed information to stored. Today all historians but they are also difficult to use. national and state governments have There was no printing press in those days so scribes archives where copied manuscripts by hand. If you have ever copied a they keep all their friend’s homework you would know that this is not a old official records simple exercise. Sometimes you cannot read your and transactions. friend’s handwriting and are forced to guess what is written. As a result there are small but significant differences in your copy of your friend’s work. Manuscript copying is somewhat similar. As scribes copied manuscripts, they also introduced small changes – a word here, a sentence there. These small differences grew over centuries of copying until manuscripts of the Fig. 1 A painting of a scribe making a copy of a manuscript. This painting is only 10.5 cm by 7.1 cm in size. Because of its size it is called a miniature. Miniature paintings were sometimes used to illustrate the texts of manuscripts. They were so beautiful that later collectors often took the manuscripts apart and sold just the miniatures. 5 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22 Fig. 2 Different kinds of handwriting could same text became substantially different from one make the reading of another. This is a serious problem because we rarely Persian and Arabic find the original manuscript of the author today. We difficult. The nastaliq are totally dependent upon the copies made by later style (on the left) is cursive and easy to scribes. As a result historians have to read different read, the shikaste (on manuscript versions of the same text to guess what the the right) is denser and author had originally written. more difficult. On occasion authors revised their chronicles at different times. The fourteenth-century chronicler Ziyauddin Barani wrote his chronicle first in 1356 and another version two years later. The two differ from each other but historians did not know about the existence of the first version until the 1960s. It remained lost in large library collections. New Social and Political Groups The study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750 is a huge challenge to historians largely because of the scale and variety of developments that occurred over the period. At different moments in this period new technologies made their appearance – like the Persian OUR PASTS – II 6 2021-22 wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in combat. New foods and beverages arrived in the subcontinent – potatoes, corn, chillies, tea and coffee. Remember that all these innovations – new technologies and crops – came along with people, who brought other ideas with them as well. As a result, this was a period of economic, political, social and cultural changes. You will learn about some of these changes in Chapters 5, 6 and 7. This was also a period of great mobility. Groups of people travelled long distances in search of opportunity. The subcontinent held immense wealth and the possibilities for people to carve a fortune. One group of people who became important in this period were the Rajputs, a name derived from “Rajaputra”, the son of a ruler. Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries the term was applied more generally to a group of warriors who claimed Kshatriya caste status. The term included Fig. 3 The Persian wheel. 7 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22  not just rulers and chieftains but also soldiers and commanders who served in the armies of different monarchs all over the subcontinent. A chivalric code of conduct – extreme valour and a great sense of loyalty – were the qualities attributed to Rajputs by their poets and bards. Other groups of people such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms and Kayasthas (a caste of scribes and secretaries) also used the opportunities of the age to become politically important. Habitat Throughout this period there was a gradual clearing Refers to the of forests and the extension of agriculture, a change environment of a faster and more complete in some areas than in others. region and the Changes in their habitat forced many forest-dwellers social and to migrate. Others started tilling the land and became economic lifestyle peasants. These new peasant groups gradually began of its residents. to be influenced by regional markets, chieftains, priests, monasteries and temples. They became part of large, complex societies, and were required to pay taxes and offer goods and services to local lords. As a result, significant economic and social differences emerged amongst peasants. Some possessed more productive ? land, others also kept cattle, and some combined Of the artisanal work with agricultural activity during the lean technological, season. As society became more differentiated, people economic, social were grouped into jatis or sub-castes and ranked on and cultural the basis of their backgrounds and their occupations. changes Ranks were not fixed permanently, and varied according described in this to the power, influence and resources controlled by section, which do members of the jati. The status of the same jati could you think were vary from area to area. most significant in the town or village Jatis framed their own rules and regulations to in which you live? manage the conduct of their members. These regulations were enforced by an assembly of elders, described in some areas as the jati panchayat. But jatis were also required to follow the rules of their villages. Several villages were governed by a chieftain. Together they were only one small unit of a state. OUR PASTS – II 8 2021-22 Region and Empire Large states like those of the Cholas (Chapter 2), Tughluqs (Chapter 3) or Mughals (Chapter 4) encompassed many regions. A Sanskrit prashasti (see Chapter 2 for an example of a prashasti ) praising the Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287) explained that he was the ruler of a vast empire that stretched from Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west and included all of south India (Dravida). People of different regions – Gauda, Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat – apparently fled before his armies. Historians Map 3 Provinces of the Delhi Sultanate during Muhammad Tughluq’s reign according to the Egyptian source Masalik al-Absar fi Mamalik al-Amsar of Shihabuddin Umari. 9 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22  regard these as exaggerated claims of conquests. At ? the same time, they try to understand why rulers kept claiming to have control over different parts of the Why do you think rulers made such subcontinent. claims? Language and region In 1318 the poet Amir Khusrau noted that there was a different language in every region of this land: Sindhi, Lahori, Kashmiri, Dvarsamudri (in southern Karnataka), Telangani (in Andhra Pradesh), Gujari (in Gujarat), Ma‘bari (in Tamil Nadu), Gauri, (in Bengal) … Awadhi (in eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Hindawi (in the area around Delhi). Amir Khusrau went on to explain that in contrast to these languages there was Sanskrit which did not belong to any region. It was an old language and “common people do not know it, only the Brahmanas do”. Make a list of the languages mentioned by Amir Khusrau. Prepare another list of the names of languages spoken today in the regions he mentioned. Underline names that are similar and circle those that are different. Did you notice that the names by which languages ? are known have changed over time? By 700 many regions already possessed distinct geographical dimensions and their own language and cultural characteristics. You will learn more about these in Chapter 9. They were also associated with specific ruling dynasties. There was considerable conflict between these states. Occasionally dynasties like the Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs and Mughals were able to build an empire that was pan-regional – spanning diverse regions. Not all these empires were equally stable or successful. Compare, for example, Table 1 in Chapters 3 and 4. What was the duration of rule of the Khalji and Mughal dynasties? OUR PASTS – II 10 2021-22  When the Mughal Empire declined in the eighteenth century, it led to the re-emergence of regional states (Chapter 10). But years of imperial, pan-regional rule had altered the character of the regions. Across most of the subcontinent the regions were left with the legacies ? of the big and small states that had ruled over them. Find out whether This was apparent in the emergence of many distinct and for how long and shared traditions: in the realms of governance, the your state was part of these pan- management of the economy, elite cultures, and regional empires. language. Through the thousand years between 700 and 1750 the character of the different regions did not grow in isolation. These regions felt the impact of larger pan-regional forces of integration without ever quite losing their distinctiveness. Old and New Religions The thousand years of history that we are exploring witnessed major developments in religious traditions. People’s belief in the divine was sometimes deeply personal, but more usually it was collective. Collective belief in a supernatural agency – religion – was often closely connected with the social and economic organisation of local communities. As the social worlds ? of these groups altered so too did their beliefs. Do you remember what Amir Khusrau It was during this period that important changes had to say occurred in what we call Hinduism today. These regarding Sanskrit, included the worship of new deities, the construction knowledge and of temples by royalty and the growing importance of Brahmanas ? Brahmanas, the priests, as dominant groups in society. Their knowledge of Sanskrit texts earned the Patron Brahmanas a lot of respect in society. Their dominant An influential, position was consolidated by the support of their wealthy individual patrons – new rulers searching for prestige. who supports another person – One of the major developments of this period was an artiste, the emergence of the idea of bhakti – of a loving, a craftsperson, a personal deity that devotees could reach without the learned man, or aid of priests or elaborate rituals. You will be learning a noble. about this, and other traditions, in Chapter 8. 11 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22  This was also the period when new religions appeared in the subcontinent. Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the holy Quran to India in the seventh century. Muslims regard the Quran as their holy book and accept the sovereignty of the one God, Allah, whose love, mercy and bounty embrace all those who believe in Him, without regard to social background. Many rulers were patrons of Islam and the ulama – learned theologians and jurists. And like Hinduism, Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways by its followers. There were the Shia Muslims who believed that the Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali, was the legitimate leader of the Muslim community, and the Sunni Muslims who accepted the authority of the early leaders (Khalifas) of the community, and the succeeding Khalifas. There were other important differences between the various schools of law (Hanafi and Shafi’i mainly in India), and in theology and mystic traditions. Thinking about Time and Historical Periods Historians do not see time just as a passing of hours, days or years – as a clock or a calendar. Time also reflects changes in social and economic organisation, in the persistence and transformation of ideas and beliefs. The study of time is made somewhat easier by dividing the past into large segments – periods – that possess shared characteristics. In the middle of the nineteenth century British historians divided the history of India into three periods: “Hindu”, “Muslim” and “British”. This division was based on the idea that the religion of rulers was the only important historical change, and that there were no other significant developments – in the economy, society or culture. Such a division also ignored the rich diversity of the subcontinent. OUR PASTS – II 12 2021-22  Few historians follow this periodisation today. Most look to economic and social factors to characterise the major elements of different moments of the past. The histories you read last year included a wide range of early societies – hunter-gatherers, early farmers, people living in towns and villages, and early empires and kingdoms. The histories you will be studying this year are often described as “medieval”. You will find out more about the spread of peasant societies, the rise of regional and imperial state formations – sometimes at the cost of pastoral and forest people – the development of Hinduism and Islam as major religions and the arrival of European trading companies. These thousand years of Indian history witnessed considerable change. After all, the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries were quite different from the eighth or the eleventh. Therefore, describing the entire period as one historical unit is not without its problems. Moreover, the “medieval” period is often contrasted with the “modern” period. “Modernity” carries with it a sense of material progress and intellectual advancement. This seems to suggest that the medieval period was lacking in any change whatsoever. But of course we know this was not the case. During these thousand years the societies of the subcontinent were transformed often and economies in several regions reached a level of prosperity that attracted the interest of European trading companies. As you read this book, look out for signs of change and the historical processes at work. Also, whenever you can, compare what you read in this book with what you read last year. Look out for changes and continuities wherever you can, and look at the world around you to see what else has changed or remained the same. 13 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22  Imagine You are a historian. Choose one of the themes mentioned in this chapter, such as economic, social or political history, and discuss why you think it would be interesting to find out the history of that theme. Let’s recall 1. Who was considered a “foreigner” in the past? 2. State whether true or false: (a) We do not find inscriptions for the period after KEYWORDS 700. 6 (b) The Marathas asserted their political importance during this period. manuscript (c) Forest-dwellers were sometimes pushed out of jati their lands with the spread of agricultural settlements. region (d) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban controlled Assam, periodisation Manipur and Kashmir. 5 3. Fill in the blanks: (a) Archives are places where ——————— are kept. (b) —————— was a fourteenth-century chronicler. (c) ——, ———, ———, ——— and ——— were some of the new crops introduced into the subcontinent during this period. 4. List some of the technological changes associated with this period. OUR PASTS – II 14 2021-22 5. What were some of the major religious developments during this period? Let’s understand 6. In what ways has the meaning of the term “Hindustan” changed over the centuries? 7. How were the affairs of jatis regulated? 8. What does the term pan-regional empire mean? Let’s discuss 9. What are the difficulties historians face in using manuscripts? 10. How do historians divide the past into periods? Do they face any problems in doing so? Let’s do 11. Compare either Map 1 or Map 2 with the present-day map of the subcontinent, listing as many similarities and differences as you can find. 12. Find out where records are kept in your village or city. Who writes these records? Is there an archive? Who manages it? What kinds of documents are stored there? Who are the people who use it? 15 TRACING CHANGES... 2021-22  2 NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS M any new dynasties emerged after the seventh century. Map 1 shows the major ruling dynasties in different parts of the subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries. Map 1 Major kingdoms, seventh-twelfth centuries ? Locate the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas and Chahamanas (Chauhans). Can you identify the present-day states over which they exercised control? OUR PASTS – II 16 2021-22 The Emergence of New Dynasties By the seventh century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support. As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a “circle” or region) and so on. Sometimes they asserted their independence from their overlords. One such instance was that of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially they were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, Fig. 1 overthrew his Chalukya overlord and performed a ritual Wall relief from Cave called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When 15, Ellora, showing this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion. was thought to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a It is a work of the Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth. Rashtrakuta period. In other cases, men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms. For instance, ? the Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara- Do you think Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas who gave up being born as a their traditional professions and took to arms, Kshatriya was successfully establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and important in order Rajasthan respectively. to become a ruler during this period? Administration in the Kingdoms Many of these new kings adopted high-sounding titles such as maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) and so on. However, in spite of such claims, NEW KINGS AND 17 KINGDOMS 2021-22  they often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas. In each of these states, resources were obtained from the producers – that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans – who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Sometimes these were claimed as “rent” due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Revenue was also collected from traders. Four hundred taxes! The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled in Tamil Nadu refer to more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes. The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, taken not in cash but in the form of forced labour, and kadamai, or land revenue. There were also taxes on thatching the house, the use of a ladder to climb palm trees, a cess on succession to family property, etc. ? Are any such taxes collected today? ? These resources were used to finance the king’s In what ways was establishment, as well as for the construction of temples this form of and forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were administration in turn expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the different from the form of plunder, and access to land as well as trade routes. present-day system? The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. This was true about the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions. Prashastis and Land Grants Prashastis contain details that may not be literally true. But they tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration. OUR PASTS – II 18 2021-22  The “achievements” of Nagabhata Many rulers described their achievements in prashastis (you read about the prashasti of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta last year). One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits of ? Nagabhata, a Pratihara king, as follows: Also, see if you The kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part of can find some of Maharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orissa) fell before him even the areas mentioned in the as he was a prince … inscription on He won a victory over Chakrayudha (the ruler of Kanauj) … Map 1. He defeated the king of Vanga (part of Bengal), Anarta (part Other rulers made of Gujarat), Malava (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata (forest similar claims as peoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa, Matsya (both kingdoms in well. Why do you think they made north India) … these claims? Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land. Fig. 2 This is a set of copper plates recording a grant of land made by a ruler in the ninth century, written partly in Sanskrit and partly in Tamil. The ring holding the plates together is secured with the royal seal, to indicate that this is an authentic document. NEW KINGS AND 19 KINGDOMS 2021-22  What was given with the land This is part of the Tamil section of a land grant given by the Cholas: We have demarcated the boundaries of the land by making earthen embankments, as well as by planting thorny bushes. This is what the land contains: fruit-bearing trees, water, land, gardens and orchards, trees, wells, open spaces, pasture- land, a village, anthills, platforms, canals, ditches, rivers, silt-laden land, tanks, granaries, fish ponds, bee hives, and deep lakes. He who receives the land can collect taxes from it. He can collect the taxes imposed by judicial officers as fines, the tax on betel-leaves, that on woven cloth, as well as on vehicles. He can build large rooms, with upper stories made of baked bricks, he can get large and small wells dug, he can plant trees and thorny bushes, if necessary, he can get canals constructed for irrigation. He should ensure that water is not wasted, and that embankments are built. List all the possible sources of irrigation mentioned ? in the inscription, and discuss how these might have been used. Unusual for the twelfth century was a long Sanskrit poem containing the history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. It was composed by an author named Kalhana. He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts and earlier histories, to write his account. Unlike the writers of prashastis, he was often critical about rulers and their policies. Warfare for Wealth You may have noticed that each of these ruling dynasties was based in a specific region. At the same time, they tried to control other areas. One particularly OUR PASTS – II 20 2021-22 prized area was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley. For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over ? Look at Map 1 and Kanauj. Because there were three “parties” in this long- suggest reasons drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the why these rulers “tripartite struggle”. wanted to control As we will see (pp. 62-66), rulers also tried to Kanauj and the Ganga valley. demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. So, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes extremely rich. You will read more about this in Chapter 5. One of the best known of such rulers is Sultan Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He ruled from 997 to An Arabic term 1030, and extended control over parts of Central Asia, meaning ruler. Iran and the north-western part of the subcontinent. He raided the subcontinent almost every year – his targets were wealthy temples, including that of Somnath, Gujarat. Much of the wealth Mahmud carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Sultan Mahmud was also interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and entrusted a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent. This Arabic work, known as the Kitab ul-Hind, remains an important source for historians. He consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account. ? Other kings who engaged in warfare included the Look at Map 1 Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruled again and discuss why the over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They Chahamanas may attempted to expand their control to the west and the have wanted to east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of expand their Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar territories. Pradesh. The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192. NEW KINGS AND 21 KINGDOMS 2021-22  A Closer Look: The Cholas Map 2 The Chola kingdom and its neighbours. From Uraiyur to Thanjavur How did the Cholas rise to power? A minor chiefly family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini there. The successors of Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew in size and power. The Pandyan and the Pallava territories to the south and north were made part of this kingdom. OUR PASTS – II 22 2021-22 Rajaraja I, considered the most powerful Chola ruler, became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these areas. He also reorganised the administration of the empire. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I continued his policies and even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a navy for these expeditions. Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda- cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural marvels. Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centres of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land Fig. 3 The temple at Gangaikondacholapuram. Notice the way in which the roof tapers. Also look at the elaborate stone sculptures used to decorate the outer walls. NEW KINGS AND 23 KINGDOMS 2021-22  went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived near it – priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. In other words, temples were not only places of worship; they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as well. Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well. Agriculture and Irrigation Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through new developments in agriculture. Look at Map 2 again. Notice that the river Kaveri branches off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation. Forests had to be cleared in some regions; land had to be levelled in other areas. In the delta region embankments had to be built to prevent flooding and canals had to be constructed to Fig. 4 A Chola bronze sculpture. Notice how carefully it is decorated. To find out how these images were made, see Chapter 6. OUR PASTS – II 24 2021-22  Fig. 5 A ninth-century sluice- gate in Tamil Nadu. It regulated the outflow of water from a tank into the channels that irrigated the fields. A sluice gate is carry water to the fields. In many areas two crops were traditionally a wood or grown in a year. metal barrier which is commonly used to In many cases it was necessary to water crops control water levels and flow rates in rivers artificially. A variety of methods were used for irrigation. and canals. In some areas wells were dug. In other places huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Remember that irrigation works require planning – organising labour and resources, maintaining these works and deciding on how water is to be shared. Most of the new rulers, as well as people living in villages, took an active interest in these activities. The Administration of the Empire How was the administration organised? Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council and the nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre. NEW KINGS AND 25 KINGDOMS 2021-22  Types of land Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land: vellanvagai land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmanas shalabhoga land for the maintenance of a school devadana, tirunamattukkani land gifted to temples pallichchhandam land donated to Jaina institutions We have seen that Brahmanas often received land grants or brahmadeya. As a result, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley as in other parts of south India. Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. These assemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples. Associations of traders known as nagarams also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns. Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in which the sabha was organised. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf; these tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one for each committee. OUR PASTS – II 26 2021-22 Inscriptions and texts Who could be a member of a sabha? The Uttaramerur inscription lays down: All those who wish to become members of the sabha should be ? owners of land from which land revenue is collected. Do you think They should have their own homes. women They should be between 35 and 70 years of age. participated in They should have knowledge of the Vedas. these assemblies? In your view are They should be well-versed in administrative matters lotteries useful in and honest. choosing members If anyone has been a member of any committee in the last of committees? three years, he cannot become a member of another committee. Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, and those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections. While inscriptions tell us about kings and powerful men, here is an excerpt from the Periyapuranam, a twelfth- century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives of ordinary men and women. On the outskirts of Adanur was a small hamlet of Pulaiyas (a name used for a social group considered “outcastes” by Brahmanas and Vellalas), studded with small huts under old ? thatches and inhabited by agrarian labourers engaged in Were there any menial occupations. In the thresholds of the huts covered with Brahmanas in this strips of leather, little chickens moved about in groups; dark hamlet? children who wore bracelets of black iron were prancing Describe all the about, carrying little puppies … In the shade of the marudu activities that were taking place (arjuna) trees, a female labourer put her baby to sleep on a in the village. sheet of leather; there were mango trees from whose branches Why do you drums were hanging; and under the coconut palms, in little think temple hollows on the ground, tiny-headed bitches lay after whelping. inscriptions ignore these activities? The red-crested cocks crowed before dawn calling the brawny Pulaiyar (plural) to their day’s work; and by day, under the shade of the kanji tree spread the voice of the wavy-haired Pulaiya women singing as they were husking paddy … NEW KINGS AND 27 KINGDOMS 2021-22  China under the Tang dynasty In China, an empire was established under the Tang dynasty, which remained in power for about 300 years (from the seventh to the ELSEWHERE tenth centuries). Its capital, Xi’an, was one of the largest cities in the world, visited by Turks, Iranians, Indians, Japanese and Koreans. The Tang empire was administered by a bureaucracy recruited through an examination, which was open to all who wished to appear for it. This system of selecting officials remained in place, with some changes, till 1911. In what ways was this system different from those prevalent ? in the Indian subcontinent? Imagine You are present in an election for a sabha. Describe what you see and hear. Let’s recall 1. Match the following: Gurjara-Pratiharas Western Deccan Rashtrakutas Bengal Palas Gujarat and Rajasthan Cholas Tamil Nadu 2. Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle”? 3. What were the qualifications necessary to become a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola empire? OUR PASTS – II 28 2021-22 4. What were the two major cities under the control of the Chahamanas? Let’s understand 5. How did the Rashtrakutas become powerful? KEYWORDS 6. What did the new dynasties do to gain acceptance? 6 samanta 7. What kind of irrigation works were developed in the Tamil region? temple 8. What were the activities associated with Chola temples? nadu sabha 5 Let’s discuss 9. Look at Map 1 once more and find out whether there were any kingdoms in the state in which you live. 10. Contrast the “elections” in Uttaramerur with present- day panchayat elections. Let’s do 11. Compare the temple shown in this chapter with any present-day temple in your neighbourhood, highlighting any similarities and differences that you notice. 12. Find out more about taxes that are collected at present. Are these in cash, kind, or labour services? NEW KINGS AND 29 KINGDOMS 2021-22  3 THE DELHI SULTANS I n Chapter 2 we saw that regions like the Kaveri delta became the centre of large kingdoms. Did you notice that there was no mention of a kingdom with Delhi as its capital? That was because Delhi became an important city only in the twelfth century. Take a look at Table 1. Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated in the middle of the twelfth century by the Map 1 Chauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer. Selected Sultanate It was under the Tomaras and Chauhans that Delhi cities of Delhi, thirteenth-fourteenth became an important commercial centre. Many rich centuries. Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several temples. Coins minted here, called dehliwal, had a wide circulation. The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled vast areas of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in the beginning of the thirteenth century. Take a look at Table 1 again and identify the five dynasties that together made the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultans built many cities in the area that we now - know as Delhi. Look at Map 1 and locate Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri - and Jahanpanah. OUR PASTS – II 30 2021-22  The rulers of Delhi Table 1 RAJPUT DYNASTIES Tomaras Early twelfth century-1165 Ananga Pala 1130-1145 Chauhans 1165-1192 Prithviraj Chauhan 1175-1192 EARLY TURKISH RULERS 1206-1290 Qutbuddin Aybak 1206-1210 Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210-1236 Raziyya 1236-1240 Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1287 Iltutmish’s tomb KHALJI DYNASTY 1290-1320 Jalaluddin Khalji 1290-1296 Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316 TUGHLUQ DYNASTY 1320-1414 Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320-1324 Muhammad Tughluq 1324-1351 Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351-1388 Alai Darwaza SAYYID DYNASTY 1414-1451 Khizr Khan 1414-1421 LODI DYNASTY 1451-1526 Bahlul Lodi 1451-1489 Firuz Shah Tughluq’s tomb 31 THE DELHI SULTANS 2021-22  Finding Out about the Delhi Sultans Although inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information, especially valuable are “histories”, tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans. A B Fig.1 Four stages in the making of a manuscript: A. Preparing the paper. B. Writing the text. C. Melting gold to highlight important words and passages. D. Preparing the binding. C D The authors of tawarikh were learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers, who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasising the importance of just rule. The circle of justice ? Fakhr-i Mudabbir wrote in the thirteenth century: Do you think the circle of justice is A king cannot survive without soldiers. And soldiers cannot an appropriate live without salaries. Salaries come from the revenue collected term to describe from peasants. But peasants can pay revenue only when they the relationship are prosperous and happy. This happens when the king between the king promotes justice and honest governance. and his subjects? OUR PASTS – II 32 2021-22  Keep the following additional details in mind: (1) the authors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages. (2) They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. (3) These authors Birthright advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social Privileges claimed order based on birthright and gender distinctions. on account of Their ideas were not shared by everybody. birth. For example, people believed In 1236 Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, that nobles became Sultan. The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, inherited their recognised that she was more able and qualified than rights to govern, all her brothers. But he was not comfortable at having because they a queen as ruler. Nor were the nobles happy at her were born in attempts to rule independently. She was removed from certain families. the throne in 1240. Gender distinctions Social and biological differences between What Minhaj-i Siraj thought about women and men. Raziyya Usually, these differences are used to argue that men Minhaj-i Siraj thought that the queen’s rule went against are superior to the ideal social order created by God, in which women women. were supposed to be subordinate to men. He therefore asked: “In the register of God’s creation, since her account did not fall under the column of men, how did she gain from all of her excellent qualities?” On her inscriptions and coins Raziyya mentioned that she was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. This was in contrast to the queen Rudramadevi (1262- 1289), of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, part of modern Andhra Pradesh. Rudramadevi changed her name on her inscriptions and pretended she was a man. Another queen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980- 1003). Her title is interesting: it comes from “didi” or “elder sister”, an obviously affectionate term given to a loved ruler by her subjects. Express Minhaj’s ideas in your own words. Do you ? think Raziyya shared these ideas? Why do you think it was so difficult for a woman to be a ruler? 33 THE DELHI SULTANS 2021-22  From Garrison Town to Empire: The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate Map 2 Major cities captured by Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Hinterland In the early thirteenth century the control of the Delhi The lands Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns adjacent to a city occupied by garrisons. The Sultans seldom controlled or port that supply the hinterland of the cities and were therefore it with goods and dependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies. services. Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Garrison town Sind from Delhi was extremely difficult. Rebellion, war, A fortified even bad weather could snap fragile communication settlement, with routes. Delhi’s authority was also challenged by Mongol soldiers. invasions from Afghanistan and by governors who rebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness. The Sultanate barely survived these challenges. Its consolidation occurred during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Balban and further expansion under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. The first set of campaigns along the “internal frontier” of the Sultanate aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns. During these campaigns forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and hunter- gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat. OUR PASTS – II 34 2021-22 These lands were given to peasants and agriculture was encouraged. New fortresses, garrison towns and towns were established to protect trade routes and to promote regional trade. The second expansion occurred along the “external frontier” of the Sultanate. Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji (see Map 3) and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq. In their campaigns, Sultanate armies captured elephants, horses and slaves and carried away precious metals. By the end of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, 150 years after somewhat humble beginnings, the armies of the Delhi Sultanate had marched across a large part of the subcontinent. They had defeated rival armies and seized cities. The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry and dispensed justice in its realm. But how complete and effective was its control over such a vast territory? Map 3 Alauddin Khalji’s campaign into south India. 35 THE DELHI SULTANS 2021-22 Fig. 2 Quwwat al-Islam mosque and minaret, built during the last decade of the twelfth century. This was the congregational mosque of the first city built by the Delhi Sultans, described in the chronicles as Dehli-i- Kuhna (the old city). The mosque was enlarged by Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji. The minar was built by two Sultans: Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish. The Masjid A mosque is called a masjid in Arabic, literally a place where a Muslim prostrates in reverence to Allah. In a “congregational mosque” (masjid-i-jami or jama masjid) Muslims read their prayers (namaz) together. Members of the congregation choose the most respected, learned male as their leader (imam) Fig. 3 for the rituals of prayer. He also delivers the sermon Begumpuri mosque, (khutba) during the Friday prayer. built in the reign of Muhammad Tughluq, During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. In was the main mosque India this is to the west. This is called the qibla. of Jahanpanah, the “Sanctuary of the World”, his new capital in Delhi. See Map 1. OUR PASTS – II 36 2021-22 The Delhi Sultans built several mosques in cities all over the subcontinent. These demonstrated their claims to be protectors of Islam and Muslims. Fig. 4 Mosques also helped Moth ki Masjid, built to create the sense of a in the reign of Sikandar Lodi by his community of believers minister. who shared a belief system and a code of conduct. It was necessary to reinforce this idea of a community because Muslims came from a Fig. 5 Mosque of Jamali variety of Kamali, built in the backgrounds. late 1520s. ? Compare Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5. What similarities and differences do you notice amongst the mosques? The mosques in Figures 3, 4 and 5 show an evolution in architectural tradition that culminates in Shah Jahan’s mosque in Delhi (see Fig. 7 in Chapter 5). A Closer Look: Administration and Consolidation under the Khaljis and Tughluqs The consolidation of a kingdom as vast as the Delhi Sultanate needed reliable governors and administrators. Rather than appointing aristocrats and landed chieftains as governors, the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured their special slaves purchased for military service, called bandagan in Persian. They were carefully trained to man some of the most important political offices in the kingdom. Since they were totally dependent upon their master, the Sultan could trust and rely upon them. 37 THE DELHI SULTANS 2021-22  Slaves rather than sons The Sultans were advised: A slave, whom one has brought up and promoted, must be looked after for it needs a whole lifetime and good luck to find a worthy and experienced slave. Wise men have said that a worthy and experienced slave is better than a son … Can you think of any reason why a slave would be ? better than a son? The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use Client bandagan and also raised people of humble birth, who Someone who is were often their clients, to high political positions. They under the protection of were appointed as generals and governors. However, another; a this also introduced an element of political instability. dependent or Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and hanger-on. patrons, but not to their heirs. New Sultans had their own servants. As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the old and the new nobility. The patronage of these humble people by the Delhi Sultans also shocked many elites and the authors of Persian tawarikh criticised the Delhi Sultans for appointing the “low and base-born” to high offices. Officials of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed Aziz Khummar, a wine distiller, Firuz Hajjam, a barber, Manka Tabbakh, a cook, and two gardeners, Ladha and Pira, to high administrative posts. Ziyauddin Barani, a mid- fourteenth-century chronicler, reported their appointments as a sign of the Sultan’s loss of political judgement and his incapacity to rule. ? Why do you think Barani criticised the Sultan? OUR PASTS – II 38 2021-22  Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti. The duty of the muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas. In exchange for their military services, the muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salary. They also paid their soldiers from these revenues. Control over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable and if they were assigned iqtas for a short period of time before being shifted. These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis. Care was taken that the muqti collected only the taxes prescribed by the state and that he kept the required number of soldiers. As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities under their control, they forced the landed chieftains – the samanta aristocrats – and rich landlords to accept their authority. Under Alauddin Khalji the state brought the assessment and collection of land revenue under its own control. The rights of the local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled and they were also forced to pay taxes. The Sultan’s administrators measured the land and kept careful accounts. Some of the old chieftains and landlords served the Sultanate as revenue collectors and assessors. There were three types of taxes: (1) on cultivation called khara