History Chapter 1 PDF

1. Historiography : Development in the West 1.1 Tradition of Historiography In historical research it may not be 1.2 Modern Historiography possible to use the method of laboratory experiments and obs...

1. Historiography : Development in the West 1.1 Tradition of Historiography In historical research it may not be 1.2 Modern Historiography possible to use the method of laboratory experiments and observation. This is so 1.3 Development of Scientific because we were not present in the Perspective in Europe and historical time and space and the historical Historiography events cannot be recreated. Also in history 1.4 Notable Scholars it is not possible to formulate laws that remain true irrespective of the time and Historical research, writing and studies space. are carried out with an objective of To begin, we need an expert who understanding the chronology of the past knows the language and script of a events and their interconnections. This is historical document in order to read it a continuous process. and understand its meaning. Also, the In the physical and natural sciences experts can examine the authenticity of the empirical method (laboratory method the document by using criteria such as of experiments and observation) is used lettering style, author’s style of writing, to verify the available knowledge. This manufacturing date and type of paper, method allows formulating laws that stamps of authority, etc. Such a document remain true irrespective of the time and is further scrutinised by a historian with space. Those laws can be tested and the help of relevant historical references. proved repeatedly. Historical Research Method Examining relevant references of the available historical information Critically examining Collecting historical information, of various sources of highlighting the processes that lead history to historical transitions, carrying Writing of out comparative analysis Historical narrative Formulating Understanding the references hypotheses regarding time and space of the given historical events and also Formulating relevant various conceptual frameworks questions in view of the used in historical research method historical references 1  Methods of various disciplines are useful in historical research. For example, Do you know ? Archaeology, Archival Science, Manuscriptology, Epigraphy (Study of inscriptions), Analysis of lettering style, Linguistics, Numismatics (Study of coins), Genealogy (Study of lineage), etc. 1.1 Tradition of Historiography We have learnt about the historical research method, critically examining the historical sources and writing the historical narrative. The writing of critical historical The earliest inscription in the narrative is known as ‘Historiography’. A Louvre museum scholor who writes such a narrative is a historian. The above picture shows a The historian cannot include every fragment of the earliest inscription. past event in his narrative. The inclusion A forward marching file of soldiers and interpretation of historical events by holding shields and spears is seen the historian often depends on the here. The General is in the front. conceptual framework adopted by him. The tradition of recording His style of writing is determined by that historical event can be traced back conceptual framework. to Sumer civilisation in The tradition of writing historical Mesopotamia. Names of Sumerian narrative, that is historiography, was not kings and the stories of battles prevalent in the ancient societies of the fought by them have been preserved world. However, that does not mean that in various inscriptions. The earliest they were not aware of the historical time inscription shown above, dates back or were not eager to know about it. to 4500 B.C.E. It records a battle Ancient people also felt the need of fought between two kingdoms. It is passing on the stories of the life and now displayed at the Louvre valour of the ancestors to the next museum in France. generation. Ancient communities all over the world used various means like cave paintings, story-telling, singing songs and (1) Its method is based on scientific ballads, etc. for this purpose. These principles. It begins with the formation of traditional means are looked upon as the relevant questions. sources of history in the modern (2) These questions are anthropocentric. historiography. It means that these questions are about the deeds of the members of ancient human 1.2 Modern Historiography societies of a particular period. History Four main characteristics of modern does not suggest any interrelation between historiography : the Divine and human deeds. 2  (3) Answers to these questions are René Descartes supported by reliable evidence. (1596-1650) : René (4) History presents a graph of Descartes was the mankind’s journey with the help of past foremost among human deeds. scholars who insisted It is said that the modern on verifying the historiography with above characteristics reliability of has its roots in the ancient Greek historical historical documents writings. ‘History’ is originally a Greek by critically René Descartes examining them. term. Herodotus, the Greek historian of the fifth century B.C.E. used it first for Among the rules his book entitled, ‘The Histories’. given by him in his book, ‘Discourse on the method’, the following is supposed to 1.3 Development of Scientific have a great impact on the scientific Perspective in Europe and method of research : Never to accept Historiography anything for true till all grounds of doubt are excluded. Till the eighteenth century C.E. Europe had achieved a remarkable Voltaire (1694-1778) : Voltaire’s progress in the fields of Philosophy and original name was François-Marie Arouet. Science. Scholars by then had come to He was French. He believe in the possibility of studying the opined that along social and historical truths by applying with objective truth scientific methods. Now the philosophical and chronology of discussions focused more and more on the historical events objectivity in history and historiography. considering social Prior to the eighteenth century all traditions, trade, European universities were interested only economy, agriculture, in the philosophical discourses revolving etc. was also equally Voltaire around Divine phenomena. However, important in historiography. It gave rise gradually this scenario began to change. to the thought that understanding all In 1737 C.E. the Gottingen University aspects of human life is important for was founded in Germany. This university history writing. Thus, it is said that for the first time had an independent Voltaire was the founder of modern department of history. Later, other German historiography. universities also became centres of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel historical studies. (1770-1831) : Hegel was a German philosopher. He insisted that the historical 1.4 Notable Scholars reality should be presented in a logical The contributions of many scholars manner. To him the timeline of historical are important in the development of events was indicative of progress. He also historiography. Let us have a look at the thought that the presentation of history is contributions of the few notable scholars. bound to change over time as new 3  evidence would Leopold von Ranké (1795-1886) : come forth. With Historiography of the nineteenth century Hegel’s philosophy was greatly influenced by the thoughts of many scholars were Leopold Von Ranke of Berlin University. convinced that He spoke about the critical method of historical methods historical research. He put emphasis on were not of lesser the utmost importance of information quality though they gathered through differed from original documents. Georg Wilhelm scientific methods. He also stated that Friedrich Hegel The collection of his all types of lectures and articles documents associated is published in a book, entitled with a historical ‘Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences’. event need to be His book, ‘Reason in History’, is well examined with known. greatest care. He Leopold von Ranké believed that with this method it was It is good to know this : possible to reach the historical truth. He According to Hegel, grasping criticised imaginative narration of history. the meaning of any event happens Collection of his articles is published in in terms of two direct opposites. two books, entitled ‘The Theory and Human mind cannot understand the Practice of History’ and ‘The Secret of true nature of that event, without World History’. understanding the opposites, for Karl Marx (1818-1883) : In the example, True-False, Good-Bad, latter half of the nineteenth century a new etc. In order to understand the true school of thought arose keeping in view nature of a thing one needs to know the new thesis formulated by Karl Marx. both true and false, similarly good According to Karl Marx, history was not and bad. This method of analysis about abstract ideas; it was about living which is based on opposites is people. Human relationships are shaped known as ‘Dialectics’. In this by the fundamental needs of people and method a theory is proposed at the the ownership as well as nature of beginning, which is called, ‘Thesis’. prevalent means Then another theory is proposed, which is contrary to the thesis. It is of production to called, ‘Antithesis’. After a thorough meet those needs. logical discussion of the both a new The accessibility thesis is proposed which includes of these means to the gist of both, the thesis and the different strata of antithesis. This process of arriving the society may at the new thesis is called, not be equal. This ‘Synthesis’. Karl Marx inequality causes 4 a division of the society into classes, Michel Foucault (1926-1984) : The leading to class struggle. According to French historian of the twentieth century, Marx, human history is the history of Michel Foucault brought forth a new class struggle, as the class that owns the concept in historiography. He, in his book, means of production economically exploits ‘Archaeology of Knowledge’, argued that the rest of the classes. ‘Das Kapital’, a the prevailing practice of arranging treatise written by him is the most referred historical events in a chronological order book all over the world. is not right. He Annales School : At the onset of the drew attention to twentieth century a new school of the fact that historiography arose in France, which is archaeology does known as ‘Annales School’. Annales not strive to school gave a new direction to history reach the ultimate writing. It was recognised now that history historical truth is not only about the political events, but attempts to kings, great leaders and accordingly explain various politics, diplomacy and wars but also transitions in the Michel Foucault about the climate, local people, agriculture, past. Foucault felt trade, technology, means of that explaining the transitions in history communication, social divisions and their is more important. He called his method, collective psychology, etc. in the historical ‘the archaeology of knowledge’. times. The Annales School was started by Foucault subjected the so far French historians. unacknowledged areas by historians such Feminist Historiography as psychological disorders, science of Feminist historiography means the medicine, prison administration, etc. to restructuring of the history from the historical analysis. perspective of women. The writings of Thus, the scope of historiography Simone de Beauvoir, helped in establishing kept continuously expanding. Writing of the fundamentals of feminism. She was histories of various subjects like literature, French. The feminist historiography architecture, sculpture, drawing and emphasised not only on the inclusion of painting, music, dance, drama, films and women in history but also on the rethinking television, etc. came into practice. of the male dominated perspective of history. It drove historical research to focus in depth on various aspects of women’s life such as their employment, their role in trade union, institutions working for their cause, their family life, etc. In the historical writings after 1990 women were portrayed as an independent social class. 5  Exercise 1. (A) Choose the correct option from the 4. Complete the concept chart. given options and complete the statement. (1) It may be said that …….. was the founder of modern historiography. (a) Voltaire (b) René Descartes (c) Leopold Ranké (d) Karl Marx Notable (2) ………… wrote the book entitled Scholars in ‘Archaeology of Knowledge’. Europe (a) Karl Marx (b) Michel Foucault (c) Lucien Febvre (d) Voltaire (B) Identify and write the wrong pair in the following set. (1) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel - 5. Answer the following in detail. ‘Reason in History’ (1) Explain Karl Marx’s ‘Class Theory’. (2) Leopold von Ranké - ‘The theory (2) What are the four characteristics of and Practice of History’ modern historiography ? (3) Herodotus - ‘The Histories’ (3) What is feminist historiography ? (4) Karl Marx - ‘Discourse on the (4) Explain Leopold von Ranké’s Method’ perspective of history ? 2. Explain the following concepts. Project (1) Dialectics (2) Annales School Obtain detailed information on your favourite subject and write its history. For 3. Explain the following with its reason. example : (1) Historical research was driven to - History of Pen focus in depth on various aspects of - History of Printing technology women’s life. - History of Computers (2) Foucault called his method, ‘the archaeology of knowledge’. 6