HI131 World History Introduction PDF

HI131 WORLD HISTORY  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY History is the study of the past. When the past is studied, use of certain parameters: 1. Times (prehistoric) 2. Geography (Afrika) 3. Focusing on a single feature (hominids)  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY History generally a story about…...

HI131 WORLD HISTORY  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY History is the study of the past. When the past is studied, use of certain parameters: 1. Times (prehistoric) 2. Geography (Afrika) 3. Focusing on a single feature (hominids)  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY History generally a story about… 1. Change over time 2. Major ruptures 3. Causality 4. Momentous events History is about the study of change over time in the human past.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY One of most important tools in studying history is the compartmentalization of time. Chronology Measurements of time Identify cut-off points when changes took place-began a new period. A core feature of the “past” is that it is behind us. …but always subject to lasting change.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY How do historians explain this (changing)? In addition to chronology, use other concepts. 1. Historicism 2. Meta-history 3. Historiography  HISTORICISM Study of the past is an exercise in interpretation. Subjectivity Partial view Partiality Perception Perspective Historicism is the practice of engaging history writing by stepping into the shoes of contemporaries.  HISTORICISM Each period has it own beliefs, norms, and values …best understood within its own terms, and contexts (i.e. Afrikans enslaved Afrikans) Historicism is result of Rankean Revolution (Leopold von Ranke) Influential in the professionalization of historical writing. Aim was to get as close as possible to the lived experiences of subjects.  HISTORICISM Historians need to… 1. Look through the eyes of contemporaries 2. Award importance to context, place, and culture to write history. Historian has to take a careful approach to interpretation (hermeneutics) which requires the historian to be aware of biases and limitations. Historians refrain from universalist claims about history. Using present-day moral ideas prohibits understanding history as it was (KKK, Jim Crow, etc.).  HISTORICISM Use of sources is key to this approach. 1. Primary Material directly related to the subject of study; contemporary to the events, produced by those directly involved with direct knowledge, or experience; as little moderation as possible. Can be written texts, drawing (art), autobiographies, recordings, or interviews. 2. Secondary Moderated and not directly related to the subject; main sources are books and articles written about subject; books/articles engage in direct debate with each other and combine to build a knowledge base, refinement, and (re) interpretation; debate is called historiography  META-HISTORY Suggests that there is meaning in history. Looking for potential over-arching logic to the course of history; contrasted with randomness. Opposite of historicism because it looks to make universal claims about history; discover patterns and regularities over the course of time. i.e. History fulfilling the will of God.  META-HISTORY Issues Runs risk of teleological reasoning; because we think we know the endpoint of a course of history, everything is interpreted as functioning towards that goal; alternative interpretation are overlooked.  HISTORIOGRAPHY Focuses on the tenability of evidence, arguments, theories, and interpretations of the past. ALL OF WHICH CHANGE OVER TIME New sources become available New questions are asked New methods and theories are developed New interpretation take place *history become a never-ending discussion  HISTORIOGRAPHY When scholars intend to make a contribution to a debate with their own historical investigation, need to prove awareness of pre-existing historiography to claim a place, and originality of their contribution. Over the course of a debate, schools of thought emerge and scholars with specific approaches/interpretations coming together under the same label. i.e. modernity as product of age of Enlightenment; marked by scientific discovery, personal liberty, religious tolerance, and reason rather than beliefs should guide human behavior.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? Spurred by realization that much of human experience is outside the scope of professional history writing. Main contribution is writing about interconnectedness of the history of the world. 3 forms of connections; exchange of 1. People 2. Goods 3. Ideas Not all interactions immediately on a global scale; but no globalization at all without these connections.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? Migration brought humans into contact with other humans; advantages/disadvantages; can lead to conflicts and can facilitate spread of pathogens between different groups. Also broadened the gene pool creating a more resilient population, and people could learn from one another. Allowed people to exchange goods; could trade those goods for goods; In order to trade, must have steady food surplus; surplus brought to markets, allowed for specialization once entire population not needed for food production.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? One of first forms of specialization was violence; closely followed by spiritual/religion. Religion spread easily when people started interacting; eventually led to world religions; ideas of racism also spread on a global scale; ideas had consequences when they change practices. Driving force behind spread of people, ideas, and ideas were networks; some more formalized than others, and organizations relied on networks to function. Distinction between an organization and a network not always clear.  HISTORIOGRAPHY OF WORLD HISTORY Civilizational writing recounts the experiences of different peoples experience in different parts of the world over time. 20th century examples are Oswald Spengler, and Arnold Toynbee.  OSWALD SPENGLER 1918-published “Untergang des Abendlandes” (Decline of the West) Predicted decline of the West based on cyclical and organic interpretation of development of human history. Rather than looking a societal development from a teleological lens, used a cyclical view of the life spans and seasonal changes observed in nature. i.e. movements of moon and sun and the life cycles of flora and fauna which allow for patterns of birth, death, and reproduction. * Flora and fauna are the plant and animal life in a specific region or time period. Together, they are known as biota. FLORA AND FAUNA  OSWALT SPENGLER Civilizations rise and decline in a similar pattern; Civilizations best described as a shared culture. Identified 9 civilizations that have existed for roughly 1000 years. Argued Western civilization would be headed for decline; popular in 1930’s Generally an argument against Enlightenment and Liberalism; some ideas picked up by Nazis *https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jXEizfr7G4  ARNOLD TOYNBEE 1934-A Study of History focused on 21 civilizations that rose and fell. Explanation was that civilizations that lasted the longest were best capable of thwarting challenges by outsiders. Disagreed with Spengler’s “inevitability,” but still utilized a cyclical/dialectical approach.  HISTORIOGRAPHY OF WORLD HISTORY Universal or “Big” History Focusing on writing history of the earth starting with “big bang” and bringing story up to today. David Christian “Big” history is an increase in complexity over the course of earth existence. Emphasized collective learning and control over bio-spheric resources as driving force that explains visible patterns of development. In order to do this, have to borrow from other disciplines (geology, chemistry, and physiscs); very inter-disciplinary.  HISTORIOGRAPHY OF WORLD HISTORY World History focuses on emergence and development of contacts and interactions between civilizations over the course of time, and these interactions are the drivers for change. Core concerns of World History 1. Increasing connectivity 2. Mobility of people 3. Good and ideas 4. Exchange that transcends borders and boundaries i.e. study of colonialism  HISTORIOGRAPHY OF WORLD HISTORY Historians working in this tradition… 1. Work with long time frames 2. Emphasize micro and macro processes 3. Decentralize the West as the standard Biggest difference is that “big” history is interdisciplinary.  HISTORICISM AND WORD HISTORY Relies on expert work of other historians in different specializations. Distinct because of its interdisciplinary approach. Use existing research and materials to compare/contrast different places and times. Look for similarities and differences, patterns and trends that are not visible when observing one time frame, location, etc….. Uses primary and secondary sources.  WORLD HISTORY AS META- HISTORY Telling the story of multiplicity, and commonality of the human experience across time. Also ascribes to core meta narrative. Idea that history is a story of ever increasing connections and connectivity to create an interconnected world. World history is story of emerging tighter global networks. World History takes a “normative” stand; subscribes to idea of helping create “global citizenship”; geared toward creating cosmopolitianism.  KEY TERMINOLOGY Study of History-study of change over time in the human past. Historicism- study of history in its unique context, time, and place. Objective is to get as close as possible to the lived experience of subject(s). Primary sources-sources produced at the time of historical events, by contemporaries, unmediated by others in ex post facto interpretations. Secondary sources-sources produced after the historical events containing interpretations and assessment which are part of the debate of history. Meta-History-interpretation of history according to an over-arching meaning or internal logic, leading towards an ultimate end point. Historiography-pre-existing knowledge base including, importantly, debate about a particular historical subject. It is the existing recorded state of the understanding of history.  KEY TERMINOLOGY Modernity-set of ideas focused on rationality, science, secularism, democracy and cosmopolitanism. It reflects both a time frame in which these ideas came back and gained traction, at the end of the 18th century, as well as an outlook on the world as either pre-modern and modern. Enlightenment-an intellectual and scientific movement in the 17th/18th century in which scientists and philosophers aimed to establish dominance over natural phenomena. By using reason and rational deduction, increased insights could be gained into the workings of the natural world and humans living within it. The malleability of nature also resulted in policies aimed an ‘enhancing’ and ‘purifying’ the human race. Democracy-system of government by and for the people.  KEY TERMINOLOGY World history-study of history from a world perspective foucusing on the spread of people, goods, and ideas and increased interconnectedness. Civilization-a complex society bound together by common rule, sharing a common territory, identity, means of communication and religion. Interdisciplinarity-several distinct academic disciplines are used to create a synergetic effect toward a common understanding. Comparative research design- approach to conducting research through comparison. This comparison can focus on different groups of people, time frames, themes but also definitions, concepts and theories.  KEY TERMINOLOGY Global citizenship-world history operates in belief that the study of process of ever-increasing connections can help in the formation and education of future generations of responsible and informed global citizens; cosmopolitan idea ideal of the field.  KEY TERMINOLOGY Global citizenship-world history operates in belief that the study of process of ever-increasing connections can help in the formation and education of future generations of responsible and informed global citizens; cosmopolitan idea ideal of the field.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? (AGAIN) Also called “Global History.” Terms have slightly different meaning, but used interchangeably. “World History” as a term is more neutral and extensive; history on the broadest (sometimes planetary) scale. “Global History” has a more specific meaning; related to the term “globalization.” Globalization is “the process in which the world becomes more interconnected and more interdependent.”  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? (AGAIN) IF national history is “…the story of origins and development of a nation as made manifest in its leaders or its people, usually told in positive terms and implicitly contrasted to the fate of less admirable others.,” then “world History” becomes much harder to imagine. What kinds of approach, what sort of analysis, could make sense of the entire planet? If national history cannot be comprehensive, neither can world history. World History is a matter of choosing what to highlight and why.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? (AGAIN) “World/Global History” is concerned with phenomena that transcend national boundaries and unite different part of the planet. Phenomena can be Economic Biological/ecological Cultural All 3 share the common trait of “deterritorialization.” Focus of World History not on specific places, but dynamic intangibles that connect far flung populations. i.e. trade, credit, disease, and faith.  WHAT IS WORLD HISTORY? (AGAIN) Curiosity of historians and history students have for these instances of global connectedness tend to be tied to experiences of global connectedness among wealthier and literate populations. World History is likely the most “usable” past. Central analytical concerns of World History revolve around disparities in wealth and power between different areas of the world.  KARL MARX Historical approaches that emphasize socioeconomic development and relation between states on a planetary scale are influenced by work of Marx. Wrote “Das Kapital” in 1867; died in 1883; often wrote with Friedrich Engles Identified a uniform pattern of development of societies based in material world of resources, wealth, and social power. Marx described the transition of societies from tribal, to slavery-based, to feudal, to capitalist, and socialist. Theorized that complex contradictions in economy, or social order facilitate transition. Marx’s theories offer a comprehensive lens to interpret worldwide conditions based on stages of socioeconomic development.  KARL MARX We generally no longer accept idea that the world goes through similar stages, Marx remains influential to World Historians because… Analytical categories called i.e. “capitalism” Allowed later scholars to conceptualize relations between states in way analogous to relations between social groups.  IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN Published “The Modern World System” in 1974. Argued that planet became a world system between 1450 and 1650 when Europe experienced an economic crisis due to bad weather (a mini-Ice Age), and collapsing profits. England, France, Spain, and Netherlands responded by centralizing power into an absolute monarchy. Voyages of discovery from 15th century and on were financed by these monarchies and joint-stock companies they patronized. Result was appropriation of both natural and human resources (raw material and slaves), that ended the economic crisis of Europe.  IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN From that point forward, a pattern of exploitation and dependency developed between regions Wallerstein called “core,” “semi-periphery,” and “periphery.” Argued that all mirror relations between bourgeoisie, petty bourgeoise, and proletariat typical to Marxist though. The core/periphery distinction is not binary; some rise up, some fall down. Like Marx, argues that recurring crises within Capitalism generate searches for new markets and resources in expanding peripheries that can destabilize existing patterns. Despite criticisms, it’s a landmark attempt to make sense of interdependent patterns of world development with a single framework.  IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN Asked “Why and how did Europe-and later America-come in the last five centuries, to dominate the world materially, militarily, and culturally? Major debates shaping World History are… 1. Possible answers to this question 2. Should the question be posed this way Vocal minority insist that they’re on top because of the positive attributes of Western Culture. Ingenuity, individualism, industriousness, and stabilizing effects of increasingly enlightened legal and political institution…..MIGHTY WHITE!!!  ADRESSING THE QUESTION Debate typically begins at with an acknowledgement that during Late Middle Ages, Asian and Middle Eastern societies were just as powerful, and sophisticated. Agenda lies in identifying the reasons for “European Miracle,” or great divergence.  KENNETH POMERANZ Published “The Great Divergence: Europe, China, and the Making of the Modern World Economy” in 2000. In response to idea of Western exceptionalism, Pomeranz argues that West didn’t pull ahead of Asia until 1750, and that the causes were accidental. Prior to 1800, world economy was polycentric system; several densely populated and industrialized regions as opposed to one dominant one. Pre-19th century notions that pull Europe ahead of Asia were skewed by issues of scale; Asia came across as doing worse because any its larger countries (India) could contain Western Europe; Should compare units of equal size; once units of comparison are more closely matched, pre-1800 examinations show Europe with less an advantage.  KENNETH POMERANZ Asked “what accounts for Europe’s 19th century surge in wealth and power? By early modern period, cores of Europe and Asia were both dealing with overpopulation, and ecological depletion, with large numbers of people crowded into exhausted lands subject to deforestation. Two developments allowed Europe (Britain) to pull ahead. 1. China’s coal deposits were in remote areas and could not transition from timber to coal as easily as Europe; coal boosted iron production and powered industry. 2. (main)Europe also had access to colonial labor and products; had colonies that kept it supplied with food and materials at very low cost, absorbed its surplus population, and provided markets to sell its goods. *COAL AND COLONIES!!! Both gave Europe space to develop technology and bring population and productivity into balance.  THE GREAT DIVERGENCE Emblematic in several respects of world history as practiced today. 1. Afrika mentioned but not central to book’s analysis 2. Trying to remove Europe (the West) as leader for the rest. Even scholars critical of Western hegemony still reasoned with a Eurocentric lens; whether celebratory, or censorious, goal was to figure out how it happened. World History practiced by scholars like Pomeranz offer geographic reframings of the past.  DISPLACING EURO-AMERICA The embracing of a planetary scale in World History offers a perspective through which to question the Euro-American dominance as central and pre-ordained. Eurocentrism is embedded in much of historical writing in West and beyond professional historical scholarship developed in Europe and America when they dominated. That perspective was read back into humanity’s past. Academic field divided in such a way that historians only studies Europe and everything else was dubbed “primitive” and “unchanging.” 1959-1735 grad students in History-1 specialized in Afrika.  DISPLACING EURO-AMERICA “West versus the rest” issue in historical interpretation conflates time and space within concept of modernity. “modern” Shifting temporal category that presumes all associated with it as positive. Nation-state, urbanization, participatory politics, industrialization, education, and human rights. Controversial term because it (along with civilization) was used to justify colonialism and modernization theory; used to measure other societies development with Europe as the model.  DISPLACING EURO-AMERICA Historians of Afrika, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania have rebelled against the notion that they study “backward” societies. Most of these historians embraced modernity and acknowledged that the societies they studied aspired to aspects of modernity. Address the contradiction is to shift “modernity,” in “modernities;” aims to study how these societies have become modern on their own terms.