PSY 311 Human Development Study Guide #1 PDF

### **PSY 311 Human Development -- Review for Units 1 through 5 up to Self-Regulation** **UNIT 1: Defining Development, Assumptions and Meta-theories** #### **Definitions of Development -- Human development, known as development science, examines how individuals change over time. It now includes b...

### **PSY 311 Human Development -- Review for Units 1 through 5 up to Self-Regulation** **UNIT 1: Defining Development, Assumptions and Meta-theories** #### **Definitions of Development -- Human development, known as development science, examines how individuals change over time. It now includes both childhood and adulthood development. It's how a person changes over time. I am constantly evolving and growing psychologically as a human.** - **Multiple, differing definitions:** Development is often defined as systematic changes and continuities in individuals over time. Definitions can emphasize biological, cognitive, emotional, and social domains. - **Traditional perspective:** Focuses on growth and decline with age, often considering childhood as the primary period of development. - **Life-span perspective:** Proposes that development occurs across the entire lifespan and includes multidimensionality, plasticity, and contextual influences. 1. **Development is lifelong.** My development will be a lifelong journey. And each period holds equal importance and no period is more important than or dominant than another. 2. Development is ** Multidirectional Development ** - Development does not always move forward in a straight line or in one direction.People may experience growth in some areas while declining in others. For example:A person\'s cognitive abilities (e.g., problem-solving) may improve in adulthood while physical strength may decline.Social relationships might grow stronger even as career ambitions taper off. 3. **The development includes both gains and losses**. They are gains and losses in both my childhood and adulthood. There isn't only gain in childhood but also gain in adulthood.  Each period holds growth and loss. 4. **Development is flexible (plasticity).** The brain can change and follow over time. 5. **Development is embedded in historical and cultural contexts.** My development is embedded in societal and cultural contexts. 6. **Development is multiply determined**. That means my life will be shaped by social, cultural, biological, and environmental factors. 7. **Develomental is multidisciplinary**. It means that development is vast topic that requires theories, research and knowledge base of many academic disciplines - **Primary drawback/challenge(s):** Integrating diverse influences (biological, cultural, historical) into a coherent framework. #### **Meta-theories** - **Definition of meta-theory/worldview:** A broad framework that influences how development is conceptualized and studied. Implicit biases fuel these assumptions which are subconscious feelings, attitudes, prejudices, and stereotypes an individual has developed to prior influences and imprints through their lives. - **Basic underlying assumptions:** Shape beliefs about nature vs. nurture, stability vs. change, and the role of the individual in development. 1. Assumptions about human nature: whether people are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) or whether people are inherently good or inherently bad. 2. Assumptions about the causes of development: whether development is determined by nature (genes, biology) or determined by nurture (environment, learning). 3. Assumptions about the role of the individual in his or her own development: whether people are passive participants, reacting to external forces or whether they are active in choosing and shaping their own development. 4. Assumptions about stability vs. change: whether traits, characteristics, and experiences early in life have permanent effects or whether people are malleable and open to change throughout life. 5. Assumptions about continuity vs. discontinuity: whether development involves quantitative incremental change or qualitative shifts. 6. Assumptions about universality vs. context specificity: whether development follows a universal pathway or depends more on specific experiences and environmental contexts. 7. - **Difference between meta-theories, assumptions, and theories:** Meta-theories provide overarching worldviews, assumptions are foundational beliefs, and theories are specific frameworks grounded in assumptions. - **Kinds of worldviews/meta-theories:** Maturational, Mechanistic, organismic, contextual. 8. Maturational meta-theory( human as seeds, their genes are what primarily contribute to their development, they are a host to their genes): Maturational meta-theories can be understood using the plant as a metaphor. It is as if humans develop the same way as plants. The important thing to study is people's "seeds," that is, their genetic make-up. People are assumed to be passive, the product of their genes. The environment can provide support and nutrition (rain, sun, and soil), but can't change a person's nature (poppy seeds will always produce poppies). The role of the person is to be reactive---to their genes. The course of development will be continuous or discontinuous depending on the genetic program, although acorns always grow into oak trees. 9. Mechanistic meta-theory( human as machines, their outside environmental factors are what causes their development, they are host to their behaviors ): Mechanistic meta-theories can be understood using the machine as a metaphor. It is as if humans change the same way as machines. People are assumed to be made up of pieces that can be studied apart from the rest of them. They are passive, with the energy coming from outside (like gasoline for a car). Development is continuous and people do not develop into something else (a car stays a car). The person can only react to the environment that is controlling them (like a car responding to the gas pedal or the brake). All causes for development come from the outside, from environmental forces. 10. Organismic meta-theory ( humans as butterflies, their development is progressive and gets better and only goes in one direction and happens in different stages ): Organismic meta-theories can be understood using the butterfly as a metaphor. It is as if humans develop the same way as butterflies. People are assumed to be made up of structured wholes. Their nature is to be curious, interested, and open to growth. They are active and develop through discontinuous qualitatively different stages (like the caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly). People construct their own next steps in development based on the affordances and opportunities provided by the environment. Development is caused by imbalances that lead to structural reorganizations. Development is progressive (gets better) and only goes in one direction (from caterpillar toward butterfly) and not the reverse. 11. Contextual meta-theory (humans as a participant, it's like a dance): Contextual meta-theories can be understood using the tennis game (or dance) as a metaphor. It is as if humans' development is like a game of tennis or a dance. The important thing to study is the back and forth between the person and his or her context, both of which are assumed to be proactive and acting on their own agendas. Development can be continuous or discontinuous depending on how the game is played. Both person and environment are active partners in the system, which can lead to transformations in both. - **Characteristics and model/metaphor for each:** 12. Mechanistic: Humans as machines; development as predictable and determined by external factors. 13. Organismic: Humans as active agents; development driven by internal processes. 14. Contextual: Development occurs through interactions between individuals and their environments. - **Example of a specific theorist:** 15. Mechanistic: B.F. Skinner (Behaviorism). 16. Organismic: Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development). 17. Contextual: Lev Vygotsky (Sociocultural Theory). - **Assumptions underlying our definition of development:** Emphasize multidimensionality, plasticity, and contextual influences. - **Implications:** Each person and theory reflects has their own underlying meta-theory. 18. doctors assume that weight loss is all about diet and exercise (nurture), so no one can do research on physiological differences in metabolism (nature). 19. teachers have assumptions about whether students come with motivation (nature) or have to be motivated from the outside (nurture), and organize their classrooms accordingly. 20. parents often argue about the nature of children's development, whether it's just the child's personality (maturational), or the child is going through a normal stage (organismic), or if they are rewarding the wrong behavior (mechanistic). #### **Overarching Theories** - **Erikson's psycho-social conflict theory:** Emphasizes eight stages of psychosocial development, each with a specific conflict (e.g., trust vs. mistrust). - **Examples of two other stage theorists:** - Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development). - Lawrence Kohlberg (Moral Development). **UNIT 2: Research Methods** #### **Why are research methods important?** - Enable systematic investigation of developmental questions and ensure findings are valid and reliable. #### **Findings vs. Interpretations** - **Findings:** Data-driven results. - **Interpretations:** Explanations and implications drawn from findings, which may be subjective. #### **Experimental vs. Correlational/Naturalistic Designs** - **Definitions:** - Experimental: Manipulates variables to establish cause and effect. - Correlational/Naturalistic: Observes relationships between variables without manipulation. - **Pros & Cons:** - Experimental: High control (strength) but may lack ecological validity (limitation). - Correlational: Real-world relevance (strength) but cannot establish causation (limitation). - **Addressing limitations:** Mixed-method approaches, replication, longitudinal studies. #### **Developmental Designs** - **Cross-sectional:** Compares different age groups at one time. - Strength: Quick, cost-effective. - Limitation: Cohort effects. - **Longitudinal:** Follows the same individuals over time. - Strength: Tracks changes. - Limitation: Time-consuming, expensive. - **Sequential:** Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods to address their limitations. #### **Evidence-Based Practice** - Combines empirical evidence, clinical expertise, and patient preferences to guide decisions. #### **Inductive vs. Deductive Methods** - **Inductive:** Builds theories from observations. - **Deductive:** Tests hypotheses based on existing theories. #### **Community-Based Participatory Action Research** - Collaborative approach involving community members in the research process to address local issues. **UNIT 3: Infancy** #### **Prenatal Development** - **Periods and major activities:** - Germinal: Conception to 2 weeks; cell division and implantation. - Embryonic: 3 to 8 weeks; organogenesis. - Fetal: 9 weeks to birth; growth and maturation. - **Teratogens:** - Definition: Agents causing harm during prenatal development. - Common examples: Alcohol, nicotine, certain medications. - Factors influencing effects: Timing, dose, genetic susceptibility. - Most vulnerable period: Embryonic. - **Other hazards:** - Maternal malnutrition, stress, disease. - Paternal factors: Age, exposure to toxins. - **Premature infants:** - Types: Moderate-to-late preterm, extremely preterm (greater risk). - Treatments: Kangaroo care, medical interventions. - Long-term effects: Developmental delays, health issues. - Inequity's effects: Higher rates among economically and racially marginalized groups. #### **Attachment** - **Definition:** Emotional bond between infant and caregiver. - **Meta-theory:** Ethological. - **Developmental course:** Birth to early childhood; sensitive period. - **Kinds:** Secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, disorganized. - **Parenting contributions:** Sensitivity, responsiveness. - **Strange situation:** Reunion episodes are most telling. - **Long-term effects:** Internal working model influences future relationships. #### **Temperament** - **Definition:** Biologically based individual differences in behavior. - **Theories:** - Chess & Thomas: Six dimensions (e.g., activity level, adaptability). - Rothbart: Effortful control, reactivity. - Kagan: Inhibited vs. uninhibited. - **Classification clusters:** Easy, difficult, slow-to-warm. - **Goodness of fit:** Match between child's temperament and environment. - **Implications:** Tailored parenting promotes positive outcomes. #### **Cognition** - **Piaget's processes:** - Assimilation, accommodation, organization, equilibration. - **Object permanence:** Understanding objects exist when out of sight. - **First interactions:** Reflexive behaviors, sensory exploration. #### **Language Acquisition** - **Biological contributions:** Language acquisition device (nativist view). - **Environmental contributions:** Social interaction, modeling. - **Interactionist view:** Combines biological predispositions and environmental influences. - **Milestones:** Cooing, babbling, first words. - **Infant-directed speech:** Exaggerated, high-pitched speech supports language development. **UNIT 4: Families** #### **Parenting** - **Three dimensions:** Warmth, control, autonomy support. - **Most important:** Warmth. - **Styles:** - Authoritative: Best outcomes. - Authoritarian: High control, low warmth. - Permissive: Low control, high warmth. - Uninvolved: Worst outcomes. - Neglectful: Detrimental. - **Factors influencing parenting:** Stress, culture, economic resources. #### **Divorce** - **Consequences:** - Short-term: Emotional distress. - Long-term: Adjustment varies. - **Factors influencing adjustment:** Stability, quality of parenting, support systems. #### **Family Violence/Child Maltreatment** - **Consequences:** - Concurrent: Behavioral, emotional problems. - Long-term: Health, relationship issues. - **Intervention:** Education, support services, community resources. **UNIT 5: Early Childhood** #### **Self-Regulation** - **Definition:** Ability to manage emotions, behaviors, and attention. - **Associated outcomes:** Academic success, social competence. - **Development:** Through parental modeling, scaffolding, and consistent routines. #### **Emotion Regulation** - **Definition:** Managing emotional responses. - **Parenting:** Emotion-coaching fosters development. #### **Conscience** - **Development:** Internalization of moral standards. - **Promotion:** Consistent discipline, positive reinforcement.