HCR 240 Midterm Review PDF

lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Review Human Systems: Human Pathophysiology (Arizona College of Nursing) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Saja...

lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Review Human Systems: Human Pathophysiology (Arizona College of Nursing) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide Directions: You are responsible for all previous learning guides for the midterm exam. Review all module learning guides for the diseases and disorders required for the exam. This portion of the midterm exam study guide will help you with the additional terms and some other information that may be on the exam. Please complete and turn in at the end of Module 3 for preparation of exam in Module 4. CHAPTER 2 AND 9 TERMS In the boxes below, indicate the term or genetic disease that fits the definition or example. These terms can be found in readings and PowerPoints. Definition or Example Term Cause of the disease A non-infected blister is an example of this. Keloid formation is an example of this cellular adaptation The chemicals that cause fevers. This type of neoplasm does not metastasize A narrowing of an open area, for example narrowing of an esophagus Microscopic study of tissue This mast cell chemical causes sneezing, running nose and irritation in upper respiratory tract. Prolonged ischemia and necrosis, usually occurring in extremities Abnormal connection between two structures. Another word for pus. Removal of necrotic tissue from a patient is called this. “New growth” that is often disorganized and uncontrolled Chemical signals that attract WBC’s and platelets Shrinkage of skeletal muscle cells due to paralysis CHAPTER 2 – CELLULAR INJURY, ADAPTATIONS, AND MALADAPTIVE CHANGES 1. What are two causes of cellular injury? 2. What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis? pg. 1 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide CHAPTER 3 – GENETIC BASIS OF DISEASE For this chapter, please review the four diseases that you are responsible for (in Module 1 Study Guide). You will need to know general information within that table. There will be ONE question on the exam on this material. CHAPTER 9 – INFLAMMATION AND DYSFUNCTIONAL WOUND HEALING 1. Describe a cut with primary intention, secondary intention, and tertiary intention. CHAPTER 10 – INFECTIOUS DISEASES Fill in the table. For each pathogen indicate if it is bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasite. Then, indicate which BODY SYSTEM will be affected by the pathogen (there may be multiple systems). Look at symptoms. Remember these are the body systems (Wikipedia Page). Bacterial, Viral, fungal, Pathogen Human Body System(s) affected Parasite? Candida Common Cold Epstein Barr Escherichia coli Haemophiles influenzae Herpes Simplex Influenza Malaria MMR – Measles, Mumps, Rubella Pneumonia Infections Staphylococcal Infections Streptococcal Infections Varicella CHAPTER 11 – DISORDERS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM 1. Define and compare the terms related to immune system – hypersensitivity, autoimmune, and immunodeficiency. Give an example of each. Hypersensitivity - is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues, and it is the consequence of exposure to foreign antigens Ex. bronchial asthma, allergic rhinitis, allergic dermatitis, food allergy, allergic conIunctivitis, and anaphylactic shock. Autoimmune - disorder occurs when the bod's immune svstem attacks and destrovs healthy body tissue by mistake. Ex. Rheumatoid arthritis Immunodeticiency - can be genetic or acquired trom a disease. pathogen or drug. It impairs the function and production of immune cells, making the patient very susceptible to disease and infections Ex. HIV/AIDS, leukemia pg. 2 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide 2. Describe how an HIV infection progresses in the body. What are the complications that can occur if HIV continues to progress? 3. Case Studies – Read the short patient scenarios and diagnose each patient’s conditions. Include justification or reasons why you think this condition is the immune disorder. A. Cecilia has a known severe allergic reaction to bee stings. While at a family picnic, a bee stung Cecilia on her right upper extremity. Her husband immediately administered EpiPen injection, while others called for assistance. Cecilia is transported to the emergency department via ambulance. She presents with severe dyspnea, laryngeal swelling, and hypotension. What is the condition? What are your clues? B. Two days after hiking through the woods with his dogs, Charles noticed a severe rash on his lower legs. He had not been wearing long pants on the hike. Based on the appearance of the rash, he believes he may have contracted poison ivy. What is the condition? What are your clues? C. Sara, a 51-year-old woman, was recently diagnosed with an autoimmune disease. She had made an appointment to see her physician because she was experiencing chronic low fever, muscle pain, and joint pain. Her physician noted a butterfly-shaped rash on Sara’s face and ordered follow-up tests. Laboratory results revealed a positive anti-nuclear antibodies test, anemia, and thrombocytopenia. Follow-up anti- double-strand DNA and anti-Sm antibody tests were positive. What is the condition? What are your clues? D. Annie, an older woman who works as an accountant, presents to the clinic with the complaint that her hands “really hurt” while entering data into the computer because of the damage to her joints caused by rheumatoid arthritis. Annie’s fingers have a splayed appearance that can understandably make typing difficult. Damage to the joints of the fingers and hand are the result of immune complex deposition in the joint tissues. What is the condition? What are your clues? pg. 3 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide CHAPTERS 11-15 – VOCABULARY TERMS In the boxes below, indicate the term that fits the definition or example. These terms can be found in readings and PowerPoints. Definition or Example Term The increase in white blood cells in the body. Overwhelming allergic response that can be severe, life-threatening. Proliferation of cancerous white blood cells The increase of red blood cells in the body. Stopping of bleeding Type of lymphoma that has Reed-Sternberg cells RBC destruction without replacement Hives A chemical that breaks up blood clots A blood clot Solid abnormal tumors of lymphoid cells Lipid buildup along vessel walls General term for insufficient oxygen delivery due to absent or inadequate red blood cells. Weakening of arterial wall causing a bulging CHAPTER 13 – DISORDERS OF THE RED BLOOD CELLS 1. Anemia can come in many different forms. Compare the different types of anemia and how each can be treated. Acute blood loss anemia and chronic blood loss anemia are brought on by trauma and can be treated by establishing hemostasis and restoring blood volume. Hemolytic anemia is an autoimmune disease that can be treated with corticosteroids or iron replacement. Sickle cell anemia is caused by a genetic mutation and can be treated with antibiotics. CHAPTER 14 – DISORDERS OF PLATELETS, HEMOSTASIS AND COAGULATION 1. What are risk factors for increased coagulation activity? CHAPTER 15 – ARTERIAL DISORDERS 1. What is hypertension? What are risk factors associated to hypertension? pg. 4 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide CHAPTER 16– ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE 1. Name and describe the dysrhythmias of the heart. (NOTE: Remember, you are NOT required to know these by looking at an ECG.) Tachycardia - Fast heart rhythm with a rate of more than 100 beats per minute. Bradycardia - A slow heart rhythm with a rate below 60 beats per minute Supraventricular arrhythmias - Begins in the atria (the heart's upper chambers). 2. What is angina pectoris? What causes this? Angina pectoris is a type of chest pain or discomfort that occurs when the heart muscle doesn't receive enough blood and oxygen. It is a symptom of an underlying heart condition, usually coronary artery disease (CAD), which occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked. The most common cause of angina is atherosclerosis, a buildup of plaque in the arteries that reduces blood flow to the heart. Other factors that can increase the risk of developing angina include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol levels, and a family history of heart disease. 3. Name the two surgical or endovascular options to help with heart diseases and CAD. Describe them. How do they differ? Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is a surgical procedure in which a surgeon creates a new route for blood to flow around a blocked or narrowed artery. The surgeon takes a blood vesse from another part of the body, such as the chest or leg, and uses it to create a bypass around the blocked or narrowed artery. CABG is usually recommended for people with multiple blockages, severe blockages, or blockages in areas that are difficult to treat with PCI. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), also known as angioplasty, is a minimally invasive procedure in which a doctor inserts a catheter into the artery through a small incision in the groin or arm. The catheter has a small balloon on the end that is inflated to widen the narrowed or blocked artery. In some cases, a stent (a small mesh tube) may be inserted to help keep the artery open. PCI is usually recommended for people with one or two blockages, less severe blockages, or blockages in areas that are accessible with the catheter. Main difference: CABG is a surgical procedure that requires general anesthesia and longer recovery time. PCI is minimally invasive procedure that uses local anesthesia and short recovery time. CHAPTER 17 – HEART FAILURE 1. What are the four pathological changes to heart failure? 1) Ventricular remodeling: This is a process in which the size and shape of the heart chambers change over time. In heart failure, the heart muscle becomes weaker and less efficient, causing the ventricles to enlarge and become stretched out. This makes it harder for the heart to pump blood effectively. 2) Neurohormonal activation: The body responds to heart failure by activating various hormones and signaling pathways, such as the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). These responses are meant to increase cardiac output and maintain blood pressure, but over time, they can contribute to further damage to the heart muscle and worsen heart failure. 3) Impaired contractility: In heart failure, the heart muscle becomes less able to contract and pump blood effectively. This can be due to damage to the muscle cells themselves, as well as changes in the way the heart muscle cells work together. 4) Impaired relaxation: In addition to impaired contractility, heart failure can also cause problems with the way the heart muscle relaxes between beats. This can make it harder for the heart to fill with blood, which can further reduce cardiac output. 2. Describe the causes of heart failure. Coronary artery disease (CAD), high blood pressure, diabetes, heart valve disease, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, congenital heart disease, viral infections, and sleep apnea. 3. What is the difference between diastolic and systolic heart failure? Systolic heart failure occurs when the heart is unable to contract strongly enough to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. In systolic heart failure, the ventricles of the heart become enlarged and weakened, which reduces the amount of blood that the heart can pump out with each beat. This type of heart failure is often caused by conditions such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, or previous heart attacks. Diastolic heart failure, on the other hand, occurs when the heart is unable to relax and fill with enough blood between beats. In diastolic heart failure, the ventricles become stiff and less elastic, which makes it harder for the heart to fill with blood. This type of heart failure is often caused by conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, or age. related changes in the heart. 4. Compare high-output and low-output heart failure. Low-output heart failure occurs when the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. This can happen when the heart muscle is damaged or weakened, or when there is an obstruction in the heart that prevents blood from flowing properly. Conditions that can cause low-output heart failure include coronary artery disease, heart valve disease, and cardiomyopathy. High- output heart failure, on the other hand occurs when the heart is pumping enough blood, but the body's demand for oxygen and nutrients is higher than normal. This can happen in conditions such as anemia, hyperthyroidism, or arteriovenous fistulas, which increase the body's metabolic demand and require the heart to work harder to meet that demand. 5. Describe the pathophysiological processes of LVF. Left ventricular failure (LVF), also known as left-sided heart failure, is a condition in which the heart's left ventricle is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. This can lead to fluid buildup in the lungs, which can cause symptoms such as shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing The pathophysiological processes of LVF are complex and involve a series of changes that occur in the heart and blood vessels over time. Some of the key processes that contribute to LVF include: decreased/increase cardiac output. pg. 5 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide 6. RVF has many “backward effects”. Describe what this means and give an example of one of these backward effects. CHAPTER 19- VENOUS DISORDERS 1. What is the triad conditions of a DVT? 2. How can a DVT turn in to a PE? What is the clinical presentation of a Pulmonary Embolism? CHAPTER 20 – RESPIRATORY INFLAMMATION AND INFECTION 1. Describe the possible pathogen(s) that can cause the following: Disease or Disorder Common Pathogen Cause (Name the pathogen & Is it viral, bacterial, and/or other?) Acute Rhinitis Acute Pharyngitis Acute Sinusitis Acute Tonsillitis Epiglottitis Laryngitis & Tracheitis Acute Bronchitis Pneumonia Tuberculosis 2. Fill in the blank for the following sign of lung pathology. a. ______________ is blood containing sputum. b. ______________ is the collapse of alveoli. c. ______________ is sputum-related cough. d. _____________ is the process of coughing up sputum. e. ______________ is shortness of breath. f. _______________ is the insufficient oxygen in the body. g. ______________ is an abnormal low-pitched breath sound that signals inflamed bronchi. h. ______________ is an abnormal noncontinuous sound of deflated alveoli opening and closing against fluid. pg. 6 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|45781624 HCR 240 Midterm Study Guide CHAPTER 21 – OBSTRUCTIVE RESPIRATORY DISORDERS 1. What is one way where hypoxia can be regulated in the body? Hint: Erythropoietin One way hypoxia can be regulated in the body is through the release of erythropoietin. Erythropoietin is a hormone produced by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels. It stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow, which helps increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. By promoting the production of more red blood cells, Erythropoietin helps to address hypoxia and improve oxygen delivery to tissues and organs. 2. Compare chronic bronchitis COPD and Emphysema COPD. How will clinical manifestations differ in the two? Chronic bronchitis and emphysema are both subtypes of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but they differ in their clinical manifestations: Chronic bronchitis: in chronic bronchitis, there is inflammation and excessive mucus production in the bronchial tubes. The Symptom of Chronic bronchitis include a persistent cough, increased mucus production, and recurrent respiratory infections. The clinical manifestations primarily involve chronic cough and sputum production.Emphysema: Emphysema involves damage to the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs, resulting in the loss of their delasticity and reduced gas exchange. The symptoms of Emphysema is include shortness of breath, difficulty exhaling air and decreased exercise tolerance. The Clinical manifestations are mainly related to impaired lung function and decreased oxygenation. 3. Name the different types of pneumothorax. How do the differ from each other? Spontaneous pneumothorax, Traumatic pneumothorax, Tension pneumothorax. Spontaneous pneumothorax: occurs without any traumatic cause and is often due to the rupture of small air sacs in the lung. It can happen in individuals with underlying lung diseases or without any pre-existing lung conditions. Traumatic pneumothorax: is caused by a chest injury, such as a penetrating injury (ex. gunshot or stab wound) or a rib fracture. The injury allows air to enter the pleural space leading to a collapsed lung Tension pneumothorax: is a life-threatening condition where air accumulates in the pleural space and cannot escape. It occurs when a one-way valve forms, allowing air to enter but not exit the pleural space. As a result, the affected lung collapses and increasing pressure can compress the heart & other structures. 4. COVID-19 or SARS-Coronavirus can lead to what type of disorder in the respiratory system? COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, can lead to a respiratory disorder known as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). ARDS is a severe lung condition characterized by inflammation and fluid accumulation in the alveoli (air sacs), resulting in impaired oxygenation and respiratory failure. In COVID-19, the virus infects the respiratory system, leading to an excessive immune response and inflammation in the lungs. This inflammation can damage the alveoli and cause fluid leakage, impairing the ability of the lungs to oxygenate the blood effectively. 5. What is FEV1 and FVC? How do you asses COPD using these values? FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second and EVC (forced vital capacity) are lung function measurements used to assess COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). FEV1 measures the maximum amount of air a person can forcefully exhale in one second after taking a deep breath. It reflects the airflow limitation in the smaller airways of the lungs. FVC, on the other hand, measures the total amount of air a person can forcefully exhale after taking a deep breath. In COPD, the FEV1/FVC ratio is used to assess the degree of airflow limitation. A decreased FEV1/FVC ratio indicates airflow obstruction, which is characteristic of COPD The severity of COPD is often classified based on the percentage of predicted FEV1 value: Mild COPD: FEV1 ≥ 80% predicted Moderate COPD: FEV1 50-79% predicted Severe COPD: FEV1 30-49% predicted Very severe COPD: FEV1 < 30% predicted Additionally, the absolute value of FEV1 can be used to assess disease severity. The lower the FEV1 percentage predicted, the more severe the airflow limitation and the more advanced the COPD. Question 3 continued: These types of pneumothorax differ in their underlying causes and mechanisms: ¥ Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without trauma and is often associated with underlying lung diseases. ¥ Traumatic pneumothorax is caused by an external chest injury. ¥ Tension pneumothorax occurs when air accumulates in the pleural space and cannot escape, leading to life-threatening complications. pg. 7 of 7 Downloaded by Saja Usman ([email protected])