Notebook - Individual Differences PDF

# Notebook ## Individual Differences - **Traits and behaviors** - **Factor affecting Individual Differences:** - HEREDITY/GENETICS - ENVIRONMENT - **INTELLIGENCE** represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. ### Multiple Intelligences -...

# Notebook ## Individual Differences - **Traits and behaviors** - **Factor affecting Individual Differences:** - HEREDITY/GENETICS - ENVIRONMENT - **INTELLIGENCE** represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. ### Multiple Intelligences - Many believe the concept of Multiple Intelligences has important implications on employee selection, training, and performance. - 1. **naturalist** - understanding living things and reading nature - 2. **bodily kinesthetic** - coordinating your mind with your body - 3. **musical** - discerning sounds, their pitch, tone, rhythm, and timbre - 4. **spatial** - visualizing the world in 3D - 5. **linguistic** - finding the right words to express what you mean - 6. **intra personal** - understanding yourself, what you feel, and what you want - 7. **interpersonal** - sensing people's feelings and motives - 8. **logical- mathematical** - quantifying things, making hypotheses and proving them ### Practical Intelligence - the ability to solve everyday problems by utilizing knowledge gained from experience in order to purposefully adapt to, shape, and select environments - involves changing oneself to; - suit the environment (adaptation) - changing the environment to suit oneself (shaping) - finding a new environment within which to work (selection) ## Environment/External Context ### Organizational/Internal Context - **Important Individual Differences at Work** - **Intelligence** - Cognitive abilities - **Personality** - Core self-evaluations - Self-efficacy - Self-esteem - Locus of control - Emotional stability - **Attitudes** - Emotions - **Individual-Level Work Outcomes** - Job performance - Job satisfaction - Turnover - Organizational citizenship behaviors - Counterproductive work behaviors ### Relative Stability of Individual Differences - **Relatively Fixed** - Intelligence - Personality - **Relatively Flexible** - Attitudes - Emotions ## Practical Implications - **The Business of Brain Training** - companies in the business of brain training claiming that adult intelligence can be increased by playing the company's games - **Proof is Lacking** - researchers recommend caution; refutes improvement claims made by such companies than supports them. - Link between IQ and performance in school and on the job are inconclusive (IQ tests measure things taught in school hence, teaching is tested) ## Personality ### Personality - combination of relatively stable physical, behavioral, and mental characteristics that gives individuals their unique identities - product of interacting genetic and environmental influences ### Personality Traits - enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior - the more consistent characteristic over time, the more frequent it occurs in various situations, the more important the trait is in describing the individual ### Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - MBTI does not predict job performance or other important organizational outcomes. **MBTI Dichotomies** | Focus of Attention | Information Input | Decision Making | Lifestyle | |---|---|---|---| | **E** Extraversion - Energized by people and things in the external world.| **S** Sensing - Gather details and facts that can be confirmed by experience. | **T** Thinking - Make decisions by logic and analysis.| **J** Judging - Enjoy planning and deciding.| | **I** Introversion - Energized by ideas or impressions in the inner world. | **N** Intuition - Gather ideas and see future possibilities. | **F** Feeling - Make decisions based on personal values. | **P** Perceiving - Enjoy remaining open to new options. | ### Three Characteristics needed in order to improve intelligence through training: - **ADAPTIVE** - improvement occurs when you exert yourself beyond your limits - **VARIETY** - given multiple intelligences, you'll need a variety of activities to improve. - **GENERALIZABILITY** - you improve on a game/test but it has no relevance or impact in your performance at work ## Big Five Personality Model | Trait | Low | High | | |---|---|---|---| | **Conscientiousness** - measure of pesonal consistency and reliability | easily distracted, disorganized, unreliable | responsible, organized, dependable, & persistent | Responsible, organized, dependable & persistent | | **Emotional Stability** - taps a person's ability to withstand stress | tends to be more nervous, anxious, and insecure | calm, self-confident, secure, positive and optimistic; generally happier; fewer negative emotions | Calm, confident, secure; positive & optimistic; generally happier; fewer negative emotions| | **Extroversion** - captures relational approach toward the social world | introverts tend to be more thoughtful, reserved, timid, and quiet | extroverts: gregarious, assertive, sociable, experience more positive emotions and freely express these feelings | Gregarious, assertive, sociable; experience more positive emotions and freely express these feelings | | **Openness to Experience** - addresses the range range of a person's interest and their fascination with novelty | conventional and find comfort in the familiar | creative, curious, and artistically sensitive | Creative, curious & artistically sensitive | | **Agreeableness** - individual's propensity to defer to others | cold and antagonistic | cooperative, warm, and trusting; agreeable people are usual first choice picks when organizing a team | Cooperative, warm & trusting; agreeable people are usual first choice picks when organizing a team | ### Consequences of each trait | Trait | High Score | Low Score | |---|---|---| | **Conscientiousness** | More effort, More drive, Better discipline and organization - Workplace Behavior Effects: Better job performance, Inherent leadership ability Less likely to leave | | | **Neuroticism (Opposite of Emotional Stability)** | May think negatively, may eXpress negative emotions. - Workplace Behavior Effects: Lower jobs satisfaction, Higher stress level | - High Neuroticism = Low Emotional Stability - Low Neuroticism = High Emotional Stability | | **Extroversion** | Easily elates to others, More emotional, Dominates socially - Workplace Behavior Effects: Better job performance, Strong leadershipskils, Less likely to leave| | | **Openness** | More creativity, Morefexibility, More eagerness to learn - Workplace Behavior Effects: Higherjob satisfaction, Easily adaptable, Strong leadership skils| | | **Agreeableness** | More likely to comply with rules and regulations, Easier to like and admire - Workplace Behavior Effects: Higher job performance, Better on-the-job behavior | | ## Dark Triad - **Narcissism** - Characterized by grandiosity, pride, egotism, and lack of empathy. - **Machiavellianism** - Characterized by manipulation and exploitation of others, a lack of morality, callousness, and extremely self-centeredness - **Psychopathy** - Characterized by antisocial behavior, impulsivity, selfishness, callous and unemotional traits, remorselessness. - **There is NO IDEAL EMPLOYEE PERSONALITY** ## Core Self-Evaluation | Trait | Description | |---|---| | **Generalized Self-Efficacy** | "I CAN DO THAT" - Self-Efficacy is a person's belief about his/her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task | | **Self-Esteem** | "LOOK in the MIRROR" - Self-Esteem is your general belief about your self-worth. - **HIGH Self-Esteem:** see themselves as worthwhile, capable, and accepted - **Low self-esteem:** see themselves in negative terms; do not feel good about themselves | | **Locus of Control** | - **INTERNAL Locus of control:** attributes outcomes to own abilities & failures to Own shortcomings - **EXTERNAL locus of control:**attributes outcomes to circumstances beyond their control | | **Emotional Stability** | High Emotional Stability individuals tend to be relaxed, secure, unworried, and less likely to experience negative emotions under pressure - Low Emotional Stability individuals are prone to anxiety and tend to view the world negatively | ## Emotional Intelligence - **The ability to monitor your Own emotions and those of others, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide your thinking and actions.** - **El Or EQ** ### Competencies based on Personal Competence | Personal Competence | Capability | Description | |---|---|---| | **Self-Awareness** | Emotional self-awareness, Accurate self-assessment, Self-confidence | Reading one's own emotions and recognizing their impact; using "gut sense" to guide decisions<br> Knowing one's strengths and limits<br> A sound sense of one's self-worth and capabilities | | **Self-Management** | Emotional self-control, Transparency, Adaptability, Achievement, Initiative, Optimism | Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control<br> Displaying honesty and integrity, trustworthiness<br> Flexibility in adapting to changing situations or overcoming obstacles<br> The drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of excellence<br> Readiness to act and seize opportunities<br> Seeing the upside in events | ### Competencies based on Social Competence | Social Competence | Capability | Description | |---|---|---| | **Social Awareness** | Empathy, Organizational awareness, Service | Sensing others' emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking active interest in their concerns <br> Reading the currents, decision networks, and politics at the organizational level <br> Recognizing and meeting follower, client, or customer needs | | **Relationship Management** | Inspirational leadership, Influence, Developing others, Change catalyst, Conflict management, Building bonds, Teamwork and collaboration | Guiding and motivating with a compelling vision<br> Wielding a range of tactics for persuasion<br> Bolstering others' abilities through feedback and guidance <br> Initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction<br> Resolving disagreements<br> Cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships<br> Cooperation and team building | ## Perception - **Perception is a cognitive process that enable us to interpret and understand our surroundings (Kinicki 2021)** - **It includes determining which information to notice, how to categorize this information, and how to interpret it within the framework of our existing knowledge (McShane and von Glinow, 2021)** ## Emotions - **complex, relatively brief responses aimed at a particular target, such as a person, information, experience, or event** - **FELT or DISPLAYED** ## Model of the Perceptual Process - **Environmental Stimuli** - Feeling - Hearing - Seeing - Smelling - Tasting - **Selective attention and emotional marker response** - **Selective Attention** - the process of attending to some information received by our senses and ignoring others - **Emotional Markers** - help us store information in our memory; those emotions are later produced when recalling the perceived information - **Perceptual organization and interpretation** - **Attitudes and behavior** ## Specific Perceptual Process & Problems - **Stereotyping** - The process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category. - **Attribution Theory** - based on a simple premise: rightly or wrongly, people infer causes for their own and others' behavior. - **Internal Attribution** - **External Attribution** - **The causal explanation we give for an observed behavior** - **Consensus :** Do other people behove the same way? - **Distinctiveness :** Does this persoon behave the same way across situations? - **Consistency: ** Does this person behave this way in different occasions in the same situation? ### Consequences of each trait | Trait | High Score | Low Score | |---|---|---| | **Consensus** | Everyone else behaves the same way. Ex. Most of his classmates also complained about the finance assignment. | No one else behaves the same way. Ex. Only this particular classmate complained about the finance assignment. | | **Distinctiveness** | Person does not usually behave this way in different situations. Ex. This classmate does not usually complain in other classes. | Person usually behave this way in different situations. Ex. This classmate complains in a variety of situations. | | **Consistency** | Person does not usually behave this way in this situation. Ex. This classmate does not usually complain in finance class. | Person usually behave this way every time he/she is in this situation. Ex. Every time this classmate is in finance, he complains. | | **Type of Attribution** | External Attribution| Internal Attribution | ## Other Perceptual Effects - **Halo effect** - a perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, distorts our perception of other characteristics of that person. - **Recency effect** - a perceptual error in which the most recent information dominates our perception of others. - **Primacy effect** - a perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first Information we receive about them (basically, first impressions lasts.) - **False-Consensus Effect aka Similar-to-Me Effect** - a perceptual error in which we overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to our own. - We believe that others also feel the same as we ## Managing Diversity - **refers to ways in which people are similar or different from each other. It may be defined by any characteristics that varies withina particular work unit** ### Benefits of Diversity - Higher creativity in decision making - Better understanding and service of Customers - More satisfied workforce - Higher stock prices - Lower Litigationexpenses - Higher Company performance ### Challenges of Diversity - **Deep level diversity** - Values - Attitudes - Beliefs - **Surface level diversity** - Gender - Race - Age - Physical disabilities - **Smilarity attraction** - We are attracted to people with appearances, goals, personalities, attitudes, and lifestyles similar to our own. - **Fault lines** - An attribute along which a group is split into subgroups. - **Faultlines are more likely to emerge in diverse teams, but not all diverse teams have faultlines.** ### Glass Ceiling - The glass ceiling isa metaphorical barrier preventing women from advancing to leadership positions, despire their qualifications. ## Suggestions for Managing Demographic Diversity - **Build a culture of respecting diversity** - **Make managers accountable for diversity** - **Diversity Training Programs** - **Review Recruitment Practices** ### Affirmative Action Programs - series of policies that aims to increase opportunities provided to underrepresented members of society. - Simple elimination of discrimination least controversial received favorably by employees - **Targeted Recruitment involves ensuring candidate pool is diverse** ### Tie-breaker - **If all other characteristics are equal, then preference may be given to a minority candidate** ### Preferential Treatment - involves hiring a less-qualified minority candidate. - Strong preferential treatment programs are illegal in most cases