Handouts on Good School and Effective Schools PDF

**Topic 1** **Good School** **What is a Good School?** "Good School is that which most successfully achieves the targets set by the stakeholders by showing high grades and good results in exams" **What is an effective school?** A school is effective not because of the specific nature of what is...

**Topic 1** **Good School** **What is a Good School?** "Good School is that which most successfully achieves the targets set by the stakeholders by showing high grades and good results in exams" **What is an effective school?** A school is effective not because of the specific nature of what is taught (though it is important) but through the manner in which a positive, supportive, richy and frequently interactive atmosphere is created. (Gammage, 1985) http://www.gopublicschools.org/Good\_School.png **Topic 2** **Effective School** **Effective Leaders and Effective schools:** Effective schools can be good schools and good schools can be effective schools-but two are not necessarily the same. (Carl Gickman, 1987) David Hopkins, a famous researcher on school improvement, tells us about effective schools: - The peaceful and quite corridors, calm and friendly faces, collegial and collaborative staff, clean and committed environment are the basic components of an effective school. - Here the students and the staff are full of respect and regard of each other. They are deeply concerned about the future and precisely focused on how to get to that. Doors do not band and breaks do not scream here.  **Topic 3** **Educational Leaders** - The role of the educational leaders will become paramount as the pace of change continues to quicken.... - According to David Green, 2000 "Those organizations will survive and flourish which have Change Leaders. These are the individuals who thrive on chaos and actively seek to make future". - Ambiguity of change, complexity of the role, status of the profession and impact on the family life are all the reasons why there is a dearth of candidates seeking leadership roles in schools...... but then remember: Being a head is a great job -- especially if you do not weaken. (Brain Caldwell, 2003) http://api.ning.com/files/ul6fByF3mQdZOzGddtOOuYfW37UjvhWtVl333f4eh-5QnsxTz7nez1WdOZiueA31LpyKzK-kwEz3njYuISDgjuTLtpXxxJrP/StudentTeamModelforEducationalLeadership.png**Topic 4** **Why Effective Schools?** - About 40 years ago, Dr. Lezotte and his colleagues Ron Edmonds, Wilbur Brookover and other effective school researchers identified the common characteristics of successful schools-schools where all children learn. - The research of these dedicated individuals refuted the notion that schools had no impact on learning and, in doing so, identified the correlates of Effective Schools. - The correlates of effective schools are means of achieving high and equitable levels of students learning. - It is expected that all children (whether they be male or female, rich or poor, black or white) will learn at least the essentially needed - **Knowledge** - **Concept and** - **Skills** - So that they can be successful at the next level next year. **Topic 5** **The Correlates of Effective Schools** - What is unique about the correlates is that they are the only set of research based characteristics of a school's climate associated with improved and better student learning. - They are the only set of research identified concepts with which we can analyze that complex social organization of a school in order to cause the school as a whole to improve. Correlates of an effective school 1. Instructional Leadership 2. Clear and focused mission 3. Safe and orderly environment 4. Climate of high expectations 5. Frequent monitoring of student progress 6. Positive home-school relations 7. Opportunity to learn and student time on task **Topic 6** **Instructional Leadership** - In the effective school, the principal acts as an instructional leader and effectively and persistently communicates the mission to the staff, parents and the students. - The principal understands and applies the characteristics of instructional effectiveness in management of the instructional programme. - The effective school practices that the principal is the "leader of leaders" not the "leaders of followers". - A principal can not be the only leader in a complex organization like a school. - The leader creates a community of shared values. - The principal and all staff members must take an active role in instructional leadership. - Principal plays an important role towards all the correlates. **Topic 7** **Clear and Focused mission** - In a focused school there is clearly articulated mission through which the staff share an understanding of and commitment to the instructional goals, priorities, assessment procedures and accountability. - Staff accept responsibility for students learning of the school's essential curricular goals. - An effective mission emphasizes innovation and improvement in providing learning for all -- students and educators of all backgrounds. - The principal can make a mission effective by being persistent and energetic in sharing her vision with faculty, students and parents to unite their goals. **Topic 8** **Safe and orderly environment** **A school climate that supports learning** - School communities that are welcoming and intentionally inviting insist on relationships that sponsor mutual respect and proper conduct among students. - The term "safe environment" refers not only to the physical condition of the school, but also means that it is a place which is free from physical or verbal aggression, harassment or discrimination. - Students must feel secure in their school community so that their energies can e applied to learning. - School mission statements and codes of conduct are major factors in this respect. **Topic 9** **Climate of high expectation** - In the effective school, staff believes and demonstrates that all students can master the essential school skills and that they have the ability to help all students attain that mastery. - This means that effective teachers make a conscious effort to give equal opportunity for all students to respond during class, provide thoughtful feedback to every student and are willing to re-teach concepts that students have not mastered. **Topic 10** **Frequent monitoring of Student Progress** - In the effective school, student academic progress is measured frequently using a variety of assessment procedures. Results are used to improve both individual student performance and instruction. - Students who are regularly tested on their academic progress are more successful than those who are not. - Frequent teacher-written evaluations give teachers the information they needed to make changes if some or all students were not mastering class material. - Teachers can and should assess the students' learning more holistically and less formally than standardized exams\-\-\-- - Relying less on multiple choices tests and giving more attention to portfolios and presentations. **Topic 11** **Positive Home-School relations** - In the effective school, principal ensures that parents understand and support the school's basic mission and are given the opportunity to play an important role in helping the school to achieve this mission. - The relationship between parents and the school must be an authentic partnership between the school and the home. - The effective school must build enough trust and communication to realize that teachers and parents have the same goal-an effective school and home for all children. - Bullying and any similar activities are all serious problems where the school can contribute to the solution, but the school can not solve them alone. - In an ideal situation, the community as a whole works as a team to tackle these issues. **Topic 12** **Opportunity to Learn** **..... and student Time on Task** - The effective school allocates and protects a significant amount of time for instruction of the essential curricular areas. - Students tend to learn the things they spend the most time on. - Teachers at effective schools are aware of limited instruction time and create a syllabus with that in mind. - Keeping the mission at the forefront, teachers must create a syllabus that allows for not just all material to be covered, but also for it to be mastered, within the time constraints of the class. - The syllabus must be flexible enough to allow re-teaching when the students are having trouble with certain key concepts. - The broader concept of leadership recognizes that leadership is always passed on from the followership in any organization. - And expertise is generally distributed among many, not concentrated in a single person. **Topic 13** **Who is a Leader?** "A person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal". - A mnernonic for leadership would be 3P's -- Person, People and Purpose. - PERSON is leadership a position of office or authority? Or, is leadership an ability in the sense that he is a leader because he leads? - NO... - A leader is one who goes first and leads by example, so that others are motivated to follow him. - To be a leader, a person must have a deep-rooted commitment to the goal that he will strive to achieve it even if nobody follows him! **Topic 14** **Central Idea** - A requirement for leadership is personal vision -- the ability to visualize your goal as an accomplished fact; a thing already achieved. - "The very essence of leadership is that you have to have vision. You can not blow an uncertain trumpet". (Theodore M. Hesburgh) - "The leader has to be practical and a realist, yet must talk the language of the visionary and the idealist". (Eric Hoffer) **Great leaders have vision:** - There are very few natural visionary leaders in the world. - The good news is that this is a skill that can be learned. - It is probably the most powerful tool in a leader's toolbox. **Topic 15** **Factors of leadership** - Leadership is strictly a people- cantered work. The role of a leader is to get others to achieve an objective willingly. As such, leadership can be broken down into three specific "sides". The Situation: Define the situation, what needs to be accomplished and set a clear and focusing vision of accomplished. It is understanding what is needed , in terms of human and other resources, to achieve success and developing the plan to achieve it. **Followers:** The important points is that followers ONLY bring their unique gifts to the situation. As leaders, we can not ask people to do more than they are capable, but we can ask them to do all they are capable of doing! **Topic 16** **Leadership Framework** - Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. - Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership knowledge and skills. This is called Process Leadership. - We know that we have traits that can influence our actions. This is called Trait Leadership.  **Topic 17** **Factors of Leadership.....cont'd** **You (the leader):** Understand your own strengths. You also only bring your **unique gifts** to your role as a leader. You can not lead in a way that is not natural. Followers will see right through and will not find what they need in you as a leader. Thus, aligning your leadership to your own unique gifts and choosing to "lead from strength" is the only way to create the optimal chance for leadership success, and the optimal opportunity for fulfilment as a leader. **"Leadership is the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to do it". (General Dwight Eisenhower)** **"The most dangerous leadership myth is that leaders are born -- that there is a genetic factor to leadership. That's nonsense; in fact the opposite is true. Leaders are made rather than born". (Wareen Bennis)** **Topic 18** **Insight of Leadership** - Become "strategic" rather than "operational". - Create a "climate or spirit of celebration and applause"---spirited organizations excel. - Be committed every day to putting the pickax to the mountain, find new ways to lift yourself and others higher. - Be the source of "possibility thinking". - Let your co workers know they are worthwhile and full of promise. **Topic 19** **Management and Manager** **Management:** The function that coordinates the efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. **Resources:** Consist of people, their skills, know-how and experience, machinery, raw materials, computers and IT, parents, financial capital and loyal customers and employees. **Manager:** The person responsible for supervising the use of an organization's resources in fulfilment of the organization's goals and objectives. **Topic 20** **Organization** All managers work in organizations. **Organization:** A structure unit of people who work together and coordinate their actions to achieve a collective goal. **Organizational Performance** **Efficiency:** "A measure of how well or how productively resources are used to achieve a goal". **Effectiveness:** "A measure of the appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing and the degree to which they are achieved". **Topic 21** **Management Grid** - Efficiency - Effectiveness - High performing organizations are effective and efficient **Topic 22** **Four functions of management** 1. Planning Planning or deciding upon business goals and the methods to achieve them. 2. Organizing Organizing or determining the best allocation of people and resources. 3. Leading Leading, directing, motivating, instructing and supervising workers assigned to the activity. 4. Controlling Controlling or analysing metrics during business activities to ensure completion of tasks and identify areas for improvement. **Topic 23** **Level of Management** - Levels of management are the convenient platforms created to manage the activities of the enterprise. - The mangers at different levels are given specific functions which are properly coordinated. - Top managers - Middle managers - First line managers **Topic 24** **Managerial Skills Needed\ Conceptual Skills** - The ability to analyse and diagnose a situation and distinguish between cause and effect. **Human skills** - The ability to understand, alter, lead and control the behaviour of other individuals and groups.  **Topic 25** **Overview** A manger is at times a leader and a leader is at times a manager. Both leadership and management re interchangeable, but are entirely different. Leadership skills are often defined as providing vision and strategy as well as leading transformational change, while management skills are frequently considered to be planning, controlling and monitoring. **As Buckingham (2005, p59) states:** The core activities of a manger and leader are simply different. **Kotter (1990),** claims that leadership is different from management, but if either is missing, success in today's competitive environment will be elusive. **Topic 26** **Background** - The world of work has undergone significant changes in recent years. - During 1980's and into early 1990's , a major restructuring of work took place due to technological advancement, competition and outsourcing. - There was significant job-less and wrenching change. - Cooper (2005) explains that this led to learner organizations and less security. - The new challenges and ever increasing speed of change led to fundamental changes in the way that businesses operate. - That affected leadership and management skills which are required by organizations. - According to Burke and Cooper (2004) management is now based around knowledge workers. - This has clearly had a profound impact on the types of leadership and management skills that are required in organizations in 21^st^ century. - Organizations have had to adapt to such dramatic changes and correspondingly, leadership and management skills have changed. **Topic 27** **Key differences** - The leader is an innovator and the manger is an administrator: A leader is full of new ideas and believes in experimenting and creating new things. A leader always works on taking the organization into forward thinking phase by keeping his eyes on the horizon. Whereas the manger is someone who is already established and is responsible for every organizational activity from top to bottom. He is the main control of the firm. - The leader ensures results and trust whereas the manger represents control and authority. A leader is the inspiration for other, on whom the team can show its interest and confidence. He has to be the one who can appropriately set the tempo and pace of his group. Mangers are responsible for maintain law and order. They help people in developing their assets and bring out their best talents, for fulfilling their own mission. **Topic 28** **Key differences... cont'd** - A leader asks questions about what and why, a manger questions in how and when: If anything goes wrong or if it is not done up to the expectation of the company then it will be the leader who will ask the question in what and why as he/she has to answer the higher-ups. On the other hand, a manger is the one who will ask for the reasons as his job is to keep his vision on the company's goal and objectives. - Leaders give solutions while the mangers create action plans: A leader will simply look at the problems and will devise new solution to bring out the better by motivating his co workers. Whereas the manager will create policies and teams for smooth functioning of the organization. He will empower the people by listening to their views, values and principles. **Topic 29** **Some more** - Leaders make followers and the managers look for subordinates: The working of leader reflects from the number of true followers he has. This shows his ways of working and the level of trust his team has on him. On the contrary manager is the one who has subordinates, formal authority and the position. He works in an autocratic, consultative or democratic way. **Topic 30** **In summary** - This table in the next slides summarizes and gives a sense of the differences between being a leader and being a manger. This is, of course, an illustrative characterization and there is a whole spectrum between either ends of these scales. -  **Topic 31** **Overview** - The idea of management is not new. - Early forms of management concepts have been applied throughout history in order to progress as a society. - Could Egyptian pyramids have been built without the management of all of the required tasks? - Could the stones of these monuments have been found, cut and moved without a plan? - Management activities were needed in order to complete these massive projects. - Next slide briefly indicates development of early management thought. **Topic 32** **Evolution of management Theory** - The idea of management is not new. - Extensive work has been done in the last century. - **Topic 33** **Classical School of Management** **Core ideas** - Application of science to practice of management. - Development of basic management functions. - Articulation and application of specific principles of management. - Evolved in response to the shift from handicraft to industrial production. - Emphasis is on economic rationality of people and organizations. Motivated by economic incentives, they make choices that yield the greatest monetary benefits. **Topic 34\ Max weber (1905)** **The bureaucratic School of Management** **The theory of social and economic organization** - He developed the seminal "bureaucracy" theory, a formalized and idealized view of organizations. It is based on 6 major principles: 1. A formal hierarchical structure. 2. Management by rule. 3. Organization by task competency. 4. Impersonal relationships. 5. A focused mission. 6. Employment based on tech. qualifications. **Fredrick Taylor (1911)** **The scientific school of management** **Principles of scientific management** - The scientific school of management used an objective and systematic method to identify the "one best way" to do a job using scientific selection and training methods. **Henry Gantt (1910-1915)** **Project Scheduling - The Gantt Chart** - An apprentice and associate of Frederick Taylor, he designed a project scheduling model for increasing the efficiency of project execution and completion. **The administrative school of management** - Managers need specific roles in order to manage work and workers. Fayol named 6 functions/roles of management. 1. Forecasting 2. Planning 3. Organizing 4. Commanding 5. Coordinating 6. Controlling 7. These roles evolved into 14 principles of management. **Henri Fayol (1916)** Division of work, authority, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of interests, remuneration, centralization, scalar chain, equity, order, stability of tenure of personnel, initiative, esprit de corp. **Topic 36** **Summary** - The idea of management is not new. - Extensive work has been done in the last century. - Critical Perspective -  **Critical Perspective** - No one is entirely driven by economic motivation. - There is no such thing as " the best way" to do a job. - Extreme division of labour tends to produce monotony and reduce overall skill levels. **Topic 37** **Theoretical Framework** **Core ideas** - The Neo-classical thought emerged in reaction against the Scientific Theory of Management, which stressed upon "Standardization" of jobs, processes and technologies to maximize economic yield. - Focus shifted to the human side of organizations. 1. The best way to motivate, structure and support employees. 2. The need for workers to find intrinsic value in their jobs. 3. The positive impact of social relationships on worker productivity. - The neoclassical theory was an attempt at incorporating the behavioural sciences into management thought. - Rather than focus on production, structures or technology, the neoclassical theory was concerned with the employee. - Productivity increases when workers believe that they are being observed closely. - Employees perform better when managers and co-workers make them feel valued. - Financial rewards are not necessarily conducive to increasing worker productivity. - Workers care about self fulfilment, autonomy, empowerment, social status and personal relationships with co workers. **Topic 39** **Elton Mayo (1933)** **Human Relations Theory of management** **"The Human Problems of an industrial Civilization"** - People are social beings and are motivated by the social needs. - People drive a sense of identity from inter-personal relationships. - Workers are more receptive to social force of peer groups than monetary incentives and management controls. - Workers respond positively to attention from management, co-workers and customers. **Chester Barnard (1938)** **Acceptance theory of Authority** **The functions of the Executive** - Organizational goals will be achieved and managerial authority will be accepted if workers believe that their individual needs are being met. **Topic 40** **Behavioural Theory of Management** - The fulfilment of emotional needs of workers is important in achieving economic goals. - Employee satisfaction and working conditions are important in achieving workers productivity. - Workers are intrinsically motivated to work when they feel a sense of belonging and participate in decision making. - Workers desire diverse and challenging work. - The behavioural management theory is also known as the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. - Behavioural theorists viewed employees ae individuals -- resources and assets to be developed and worked with -- not as machines, as in the past. - Several individuals and experiments contributed to this theory. **Topic 41** **Abraham Maslow (1954)** **Hierarchy of Need Theory** **"Motivation and Personality"** - Developed one of the most widely recognized need theories, a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human needs has three assumptions: 1. Human needs are never completely satisfied. 2. Human behaviour is purposeful and is motivated by the ned for satisfaction. 3. Needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of importance from the lowest to highest. **Topic 42** **Summary** **Neo-classical School of Management** - Behavioural school is a logical extension of the human resource school. - They are mainly concerned with motivation of workers. - Workers are diverse in their needs and want challenging work, participative decision-making, self direction and control. - Mangers must help workers deal with situational constraints and social aspects of organizational and environmental changes. - Behavioural school believes that there must be a union between human needs and organizational goals. - Every worker must understand that when an organizational goal is achieved it leads to fulfilment of their personal needs. **Topic 43** **Core Concepts** **Modern School of Management** Dealing with complexity is the core of modern management theory. - Organizations, Workers, environment and the interactions between them. It is the synthesis of different theories. - Behavioural science, mathematics, statistics, operations/quantitative research and computing technologies. Management is an exercise in logic applied to situations. - Situations can be measured. - Computers have an increasing role to play. Application of management knowledge is extended to non-business areas. - Education, government, health care and others. **Topic 44** **The Quantitative School of Management** - Combines classical management theory and behavioural science through the use of statistical models and simulation. - A major focus is on the process with which decisions are made to ensure informed results. The quantitative school comprises Scientific management - Managers use the math and statistics for problem solving. Operations management - Managing the process of combining capital, materials and workers to produce goods and services. Management Information System - Transforming historic, current and projected data from internal and external sources into useful, usable management information. System Management Theory - Transforming inputs into outputs and receiving feedback. **Topic 45** **The System School of Management** System management theory - Transforming inputs into outputs and receiving feedbacks. **Topic 46** **The contingency school of management** **John Woodward (1965)** **"Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice"** - Argued that technology and production system were critical aspects of organizational design; advanced a contingency approach to organizing. **P. Lawrence & J.W. Lorsch (1967)** **"Organization & Environment: Managing Differentiation and Integration"** - Suggested that successful organizations match their structure to the nature of the environment. - Presented a unified, open systems approach extending organizational theory beyond the boundaries of a single organization. **Fred Edward Fiedler 1967** **"A theory of leadership effectiveness"** - Argued that leadership effectiveness was contingent upon two interacting factors, leadership style and situational favourableness. **Topic 47** **Contingency School...... cont'd** **Core Concepts** - What managers do depends on or is contingent on the situation at hand; it emphasizes an "if- then relationship". - If a particular situational variable exists, then mangers are likely to take a particular action. - Successful mangers must consider the realities of the specific organizational circumstances they face when applying management concepts, principles, tools and techniques. - Management techniques should be dependent upon the circumstances. - The way you mange should change depending on the circumstances. - One size does not fit all. **Challenges with the contingency approach** **Perceiving** - Organizational situations as they actually exist. **Choosing** - Choosing the management tactics best suited to those situations. **Competently** - Implementing those tasks. **Topic 48** **Summary** Evolution of Management Theory  **Topic 49** **Background** - A wide range of views on leadership has been developed by researchers and practitioners over the years. - Three major theories have emerged from these ongoing studies. 1. **Trait theories** 2. **Behavioural and** 3. **Contingency** - Trait theories deal with the personal characteristics of the leaders. - Behavioural theories deal with behaviour of leaders. - The two view the principles of effective leadership as being universally applicable to any situation and to any organization. - The contingency theories do not deal with the universal applicability. - Instead, they deal with leadership in the context of specific situations. **Topic 50** **Background..... cont'd** - Brymen (1992) splits leadership research into four phases, beginning with the trait approach up to the 1940s and ending to date with the so-called new leadership approach that includes charismatic and transformational leadership. - Although research trends have changed over the years, each new stage did not signal the end of its predecessor. - Rather, a change in emphasis and perspective was indicated. - Components of the preceding approaches can be found in the different trends. - The new leadership approach, for example, refers to charisma and leadership behaviours and combines the first two decades with newer theoretical suppositions. **Topic 51** **Overview**  **Topic 52** **Trait Theory** - People are born with inherited traits. - Some traits are particularly suited to leadership. - People who make good leaders have the right or scientific combination of traits. - Some traits and skills are critical to leaders: **Stogdill (1974)** - Adaptable to situations - Alert to social environment - Ambitions and achievement oriented - Assertive - Cooperative - Decisive - Dependable - Dominant **Emotional intelligence and Leadership** EI is the best predictor of who will emerge as a leader. IQ and technical skills are threshold capabilities. They are necessary but not sufficient requirements for leadership. **Trait theory 2** - People are born with inherited traits. - Some traits are particularly suited to leadership. - People who make good learners have the right or sufficient combination of traits. **Topic 54** **Traits** - Dominant (desire to influence others) - Energetic (high activity level) - Persistent - Self-confidence - Tolerant of stress - Willing to assume responsibility - Clever (intelligent) - Conceptually skilled & creative - Diplomatic and tactful - Fluent in speaking - Knowledgeable about group task - Organized (administrative ability) - Persuasive - Socially skilled **Topic 55** **Leadership Attributes: A Cross-Cultural View**  **Topic 56** **Great Man Theory** - Leaders are born and not made. - Great leaders will arise when there is a great need. **Description:** Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding. **Topic 57** **Behavioural theory** - Given the flaws of early state studies, researchers turned to examining the actions, behaviours or that separated the effective leaders from ineffective leaders. - Behavioural theories are considered as being universally applicable. - Leaders can be made rather than being born. - Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behaviour. **Topic 58** **Iowa studies** - Kurt Luwin and his associates at the University of Iowa initiated studies to identify effective leader behaviour. - They considered three behaviours: 1. **Autocratic** 2. **Democratic** 3. **Laissez-faire** **Autocratic Leader** - Make unilateral decisions - Dictates work methods - Limits workers knowledge of goals to the next6 step - Gives punitive feedback **Democratic Leader** - Involves the groups in decision making - Lets workers decide on the work method - Makes the overall goals known - Uses feedback for coaching **Laissez-faire Leader** - Give the group full freedom - Provide needed material - Participate only to answer the questions - Avoid giving feedback **Topic 59** **Iowa Studies 2** - The findings did not provide a clear guideline and there was overlapping of behaviours between the attributes. - Robert Tannenbaum and Warren J. Schmidt then joined to expand the views of democratic and autocratic leaderships from a simplistic choice between two distinctive behaviours at extreme ends to a continuum of seven behaviours. - They proposed selecting the appropriate leadership behaviour by examining the forces that: - Influence the leader e.g. his confidence in employee. - Influence the employee e.g. employees' need for autonomy and - Forces inherent in the situation e.g. time constraints - This approach also set the stage for later theories that viewed leadership in terms of manager's particular situation. **Topic 60** **Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum & Schmidt)** - Robert Tannenbaum and Warren J. Schmidt then joined to expand the views of democratic and autocratic leaderships from a simplistic choice between two distinctive behaviours at extremes ends to a continuum of seven behaviours. - This approach also set the stage for later theories that viewed leadership in terms of manager's particular situation. -  **Topic 61** **Research Findings for Behavioural Theories** - In situations where subordinates experience excessive pressure because of deadlines or unclear tasks, such leaders who are people oriented will increase employee satisfaction and performance. - When the task is interesting or satisfying, there is less need for leaders to be people oriented. - When its clear how to perform the task and what the goals are, leaders who are people oriented will increase employee satisfaction, while those who are task oriented will increase dissatisfaction. - When people do not know what to do, or individual do not have the knowledge or skills to do the job, its more important for the leaders to be production oriented than people oriented. **Topic 62** **Contingency Theory Overview** - The failure of trait and behavioural theories to have consistency in their predictions of leader effectiveness made it very clear that leadership involves more personal traits or behaviours. - Researchers therefore turned to examine how leadership is affected as the situation varies. - These contingency theories of leadership also known as situational theories of leadership, suggest that effective leadership is dependent on (or contingent on) the specific variables in each situation. - Context is important. **Topic 63** **The Contingency Theory** - The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviours of followers and also various other situational factors. - Leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situations or when the factors around them change. - This helps to explain how some leaders who seem for a while to have the Midas touch suddenly appear to have lost their magic and make very unsuccessful decisions. - Contingency theory views leadership as being more flexible- different leadership styles used at different times depending on the circumstances. - Suggests leadership is not a fixed series of characteristics that can be transposed into different context. **Topic 63** **The Contingency Theory** - The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviours of followers and also various others situational factors. - Leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change. - This helps to explain how some leaders who seem for a while to have the 'Midas Touch' suddenly appear to have lost their magic and make very successful decisions. - Contingency theory views leadership as being more flexible -- different leadership styles used at different times depending on the circumstances. - Suggests leadership is not a fixed series of characteristics that can be transposed into different contexts. **Topic 64** **Situational Leadership** - The best action of leader depends on a range of situational factors. - Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) identified three forces that led to the leader's action: the forces in the follower and also in the leader. **Topic 65** **Trait vs Behaviour theory** **Similarities** - The main similarity is that both approaches emphasize that there are identifiable actions that any leader must be capable of doing in any given situation. - Behaviourism is a "trait" in the sense that it, too, holds that leaders must show certain common personality makers or habits of mind, but it argues that these can be elicited from any one at any time, and that no one person has more potential than another. - Trait theory and behaviourism are two similar approaches to questions about effective leadership. They both see leadership as an objective set of qualities or actions that must be mastered. They differ on who can develop these behaviours. **Topic 66** **Trait vs Behaviour theory** **Differences** - Behaviourism is a more "democratic" kind of theory. Becoming a leader, according to the behaviourist school of thought, is just a matter of proper training, while trait theory holds that a leader must have certain inherent, innate qualities. - Take, for example, two people. One was born to a house of a family that was weak willed and was known for letting people take advantage of them. Another was born in a house filled with powerful executives and those commonly called "born leaders". - Theoretically, the person from the former house will develop the habits of servility, while the second person will develop the habits of assertiveness. - According to behaviourism, had their upbringings been switched, they each would have developed differently, so either is equally likely to be a good leader with proper training. **Topic 67** **What is a Leadership style?** - A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans and motivating people. - It includes pattern of explicit and implicit actions performed by the leader. (Newstrom, Davis, 1993) - Hay Mcber (1999) advises that leadership styles are the ways in which the leader: - **Listens** - **Sets goals and standards** - **Develops action plans** - **Directs others** - **Gives feedback** - He further states that leadership styles are based on: a. Individuals' own characteristics (values, principles, personality) b. Styles that the individual has seen and experienced others doing. c. The values promoted by the individual's organization as being the right way to mange things. d. The specific management situation and the people the individuals deals with most. **Topic 68** **3 Classical Leadership Styles** - Kurt Lewin and his co researchers conducted the first major study of leadership styles in 1939. - They developed a leadership framework based on three different styles of leadership. - This early study is still influential. 1. **Autocratic or Authoritarian** The leader tells his or her employees what he wants done and how to it is to be accomplished; the leader dose not take their advice in the matter. 2. **Democratic or Participative** The leader includes one or more employees in the decision making process, but retains the final decision maki8ng authority. 3. **Laissez Fair or Delegative** The leader allows free reign to the employees and let them make decisions, however the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. **Topic 69** **Autocratic/ Authoritarian leadership** - A leader who uses fear and threats to get the jobs done -- bossy. - High degree od dependency on the leader because he makes all the decisions without referring anyone else. - Does not trust anybody. - Can create demotivation and alienation of staff. - May be valuable in some types of business where decisions need to be made quickly and decisively. - Leader uses this because there is not enough time and the members ran out of ideas. - Leader uses this style by directly stating the3 decisions without asking the team members. **Topic 70** **Democratic or participative Leadership** - This style is normally used when some part of the information is available with the leader and the subordinates have the other parts- a leader is not expected to know everything and this is why you employ knowledgeable and skilled people. - Encourages decision making from different perspectives. - Consultative persuasive. - Mutually beneficial allows employees to become part of the team and allows the leader to make better decisions. - Helps improve motivation and involvement -- workers feel ownership of the firm and its ideas. - Improves the sharing of experiences and ideas within the business. - Style is used when there is enough time. - Can delay decision making. **Topic 71** **Laissez fair or Delegative Leadership** - (Laissez-faire or lais-ser faire) is a French word and stands for non-interference in the affairs of the others. - Leaders use this style when the employees have the knowledge or are able to analyse the situation to determine what to do and how. - Leaders use this style when they have full trust and confidence in their team members. - Can be very useful in business where creative ideas are important. - Relies on good team work. - Relies on good interpersonal relations. - It is not ideal in situations where group members lack the knowledge or the experience they need to complete tasks and make decisions. - Some people are not good at setting their own deadlines, managing their own projects and solving problems on their own. - In such situations, projects can go off-track and deadlines can be missed when team members do not get enough guidance or feedback from leaders. **Topic 72** **Examples of Leadership Styles** - Good leaders use all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the followers, the leaders and the situation. - Some examples include: using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job. The leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee. - Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their jobs. The leader knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know their jobs and want to become the part of the team. - Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you. You cannot do everything and the employees need to take ownership of her job! In addition this allows you to be more productive. - Using all three: telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their ideas and input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in order to implement the new procedure (delegative). **Topic 73** **Paternalistic leadership** - Another common leadership style is the paternalistic style. - It is rooted in a leadership method that comprises strict discipline and authority, paternal kindness and moral integrity with in a ruling atmosphere. - High concern for production, use of rewards for compliance and loyalty. - Leaders act as a father figure. - Decisions are made by leaders but he may consult. - Believes in the need to support the staff.  **Topic 74** **Transactional leadership** - Transactional leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and than by Bernard Bass in 1981. - Used most often by the managers. - Focuses on the basic management process of controlling, organizing and short term planning. - Transactional leadership is based on the premise that: People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. - Transactional leader works through creating well defined structures and makes it clear as to: What is required f their subordinates and the reward what they get for following orders. Punishments are not well mentioned, at times not even mentioned, yet they are well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. **Topic 75** **Other common leadership styles** **Task oriented leadership** - Focuses exclusively on getting the job done. - Can be quite autocratic. - Leader actively defines the work and the required roles. - Put structures in place, plans, organizes and monitors. **People oriented Leadership** - Opposite of task oriented. - Focus on organizing, supporting and developing the people. - Participative-leads to team work and creative collaboration. - Can lead to failure if taken to extreme. **Servant Leadership** - A "servant leader" is someone regardless of level, who leads simply by meeting the needs of the team. - The term sometimes describe a person without formal recognition as a leader. - Leading by example have high integrity and lead with generously - Approach can create a positive corporate culture and can lead to high morale among team members. - Ill -suited to meeting tight deadlines/making quick decisions. **Topic 76** **Other common leadership styles 2** **Bureaucratic Leadership** - Leaders follow rules rigorously and ensure that their people follow procedures preciously. - Appropriate for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery with toxic substances or at dangerous heights) or with large sums of money. - Also useful for managing employees who perform routine tasks. - Much less effective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity or innovation. **Facilitative Leadership** - A special style, can be employed by any one. - Rather than being directive, the leader uses a number of in direct patterns to help- the group reach a consensus or accomplish the task. For example, when conducting a meeting. **Topic 77** **Other Common Leadership styles 3** **Charismatic leadership** - Leader gather follower through strength of personality and charm, rather than any form of external power or authority. - Leader injects huge doses of enthusiasm into team -- is very energetic in driving other forwards. - Charismatic leaders, however, can tend to believe more in themselves than in the team- no change. - Followers believe that success is tied with the presence of leader. - This can create the risk of the team, or the organization, failing if the leader leaves. **Visionary leadership** - Focuses on how the leader defines the future for the followers and moves them towards it. - Most appropriate when an organization needs a new direction. Its goal is to move people towards a new set of shared dreams. - "visionary leaders articulate where a group is going, but not how it will get there -- setting people free to innovate, experiment, take calculated risks" Daniel Goleman. **Topic 78** **Leadership style matrix** - Programmability and Capability for Autonomy **Topic 79** **Transformational Leadership** **Definition** "A leadership style focused on effecting revolutionary change in organizations through a commitment to the organization's vision" (Sulllivan & Decker 2001) - A style of leadership in which the leader identifies the needed change, creates a vision to guide the change through inspiration and executes the change with the commitment of the members of the group. **Focus** Primarily, on making changes happen in: - **Self** - **Team** - **Group and** - **Organization** Requires a number of different skills and is closely associated with: **Charismatic and Visionary leadership.** **Focus rationale**\ Causes widespread organizational reforms by establishing the following: - **Long term strategic planning** - **Clear objectives** - **Clear vision** - **Leading by example -- walk the walk** - **Efficiency of systems and processes** **Topic 80** **Historical Perspectives** - Burns (1978) was the fir5st who identifies the transformational leadership: "Transformational leadership is a process by which leaders and followers raise one another to higher moral values and motivation". - Burns make a distinction between ordinary leaders, who ensure followers loyalty through rewards (transactional), and the extra ordinary leaders, who focus on fulfilling the essential needs of followers (transformational). - Bass (1985) identified transformational leadership as motivating followers by appealing to their self interest. - Bass and Avolio (1994) further describe this leadership style as management with active involvement. **Tichy Urich, (1986) identified characteristics:** - Change agent - Courageous individual - Believe in people - Value-driven - Lifelong learners - Ability to deal with complexity - Visionary **Topic 81** **The 4 I's of Transformational Leadership** 1. Idealized influence 2. Inspirational motivation 3. Intellectual stimulation 4. Individualized consideration **Idealized influence:** Leaders who act as strong role models for followers (charisma) **Inspirational motivation:** Leaders who communicate high expectations, inspiring them to become committed to organizational goals. **Intellectual stimulation:** Leaders who stimulate followers to be creative and innovative. **Individualized consideration:** Leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen to needs of followers. **Topic 82** **Transactional leadership** **Main components** - Planning and following - Process oriented methodology - Building team and support - Identifying expertise in various fields of work - Initiation of creative ide4as - Clear understanding of current scenario - Pre-defined objectives and a clear road map to achieve them - No self serving motives - Focused approach on identified objectives **Topic 83** **Transparent Leadership** **Main components** - Alignment between leadership and goals - Acts ethically and talks openly at all times - Integrity in finances and information - Consistently keeps commitments - Accessible to all - Identifying future leader and team - Relinquishing control - Inspiring and motivating potential to lead - Leaders act from the totality of who he or she is as human being. **The relationship** - Leader's internal locus of control. - Follower's spiritual development. - Leader's spiritual development. **Topic 85** **Process of Transformational Leadership** **Step 1** **Developing Vision** - Creating and communicating an inspiring vision of future that is exciting and attracts potential followers. - Sets out the purpose of the team/organization. - Vision is developed through understanding values of the followers, understanding capabilities and the resources of the organization and by conducting an analysis of the environment and then selecting the best way forward within it. - If developing a vision for the organization, start with analysing the environment and then develop strategy. - This is usually then expressed in a business plan and summarized in a mission statement. - If developing a vision for them start with the company's mission and vision and explore the ways in which your team can contribute directly to it. **Topic 86** **Process of transformational leadership** **Step 2** **Selling the vision** - Starting with mission statement, leader needs to appeal to followers' values and inspire them with where he/she is going to lead them and why. - Link the vision to people's goals and tasks to give it context and help people see how they can contribute to it. - Constantly sell the vision and build a strong network of high potential. - Transformational leaders realize that noting significant happens unless they encourage their people. - They acquire knowledge of different kinds of motivational measures and use them to inspire people to deliver their best. **Topic 87** **Process of transformational leadership** **Step 3** **Delivery of the vision** - A vision is of no use on its own: it needs to become reality - For delivery of vision, combine effective project management with sensitive change management. - Communicate each person's roles and responsibilities clearly - Connect these to the plans - Set SMART goals for everyone - Including some short term goals that will help people achieve quick wins and stay motivated - Use management by objectives (MBO) to link short term achievements to the planned long term goals - Stay visible by practicing management by walking around **Topic 88** **Process of Transformational leadership** **Step 4** **Leading the Charge** - Transformational leaders focus attention on their people and work hard to help the people achieve their goals and dreams. - Leadership is a long term process, the leader needs to work constantly to build relationships, earn trust and help the people grow as individuals. - Meet the people individually to understand their developmental needs. - Build trust with people by being open and honest in the interactions. - Set aside time to coach the people -- a skilled team is created when people are helped to their own solutions and their self-confidence and trust in leader are also fortified. **Topic 89** **Competencies of a transformational leader** **Managing information and knowledge** - Inquisitive mind and critical thinking to apply research findings. - Measure performance. - Breakthrough technologies and networking. **Transformational Management** - Organizational and system shifts and learning - Congregate vision and innovation - Strategic alliances - Management of collaborative relationships **Business Acumen** - Financing strategies - Organizational dynamics - Human resource development - Internal /external radar - Marketing and branding **Topic 90** **Competencies of a transformational leader** **Process toolkit** - Negotiation skills - Dispute and conflict resolution - Group facilitation - Concept mapping - Future casting - Lateral thinking **Continuous Personal Development** - Wide rage of leadership styles - Personal values, vision and goals - Risk taking and courage - Resilient and resolute **Summary** - Envisions a compelling future (Vision) - Commits to the future (action) - Sets high performance goals (Aspiration) - Enables inspired action through teams (Collaboration) - Executes energy and inspiration (Presence) **Topic 91** **TL and Organizational Structure** **Shamir and Howell 1999:** - Transformational leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective in organic organizations than in mechanistic organizations. - Organic organizations impose fewer constraints on members' activities. - They enable and encourage individual behaviour by both leaders and potential followers. - They provide both a greater need and a greater scope for the emergence of transformational leaders. - Mechanistic organizations, in contrast, provide fewer opportunities for organizational members to exercise choice. - They supress the expression of individual differences by both leaders and followers. **Topic 92** **Importance of TL in Education Organization** - Transformational leadership plays an important role in education organization. - It helps the organization with teaching and learning and decision making. - In addition, professional development, transforming schooling and reforming the education system are also empowered by transformational leadership. - Transformational leadership is needed in educational institution on which a moral foundation of legitimate values must rest (BASS, 1999). **Topic 93** **Importance of TL 2** **Teaching and Learning** - A school with transformational leading teachers provides inspiration and motivation to the students to express creative behaviour. - Leading to changes in both educational policy and teaching practices (ChanLin et al.2006) **Decision making** - "An institution is intended to represent the good of its stakeholders". (Brower and Balch, 2005) - In transformational decision making the decision reflects on the common good but not the individual good. **Reforming the Education system** - TL helps in setting clear and adequately high performance standards for schools and teachers. - Emphasizes a greater understanding, solving problem, EQ and personal skills and not just memorization. **Topic 94** **Evaluation of TL** - The evidence supporting the superiority of transformational leadership over transactional leadership is impressive (khan, 2009) - This leadership style has been favoured in many countries and at various job levels. - A review of 87 studies, testing transformational leadership found that it was related to the motivation and satisfaction of followers and to the higher performance and perceived effectiveness of the leaders. (Khan, 2009) - The overall evidence indicates that transformational leadership is more strongly correlated than transactional leadership with lower turnover rate, higher productivity and higher employee satisfaction. - Well over 100 empirical studies have found TL to be consistently related to organizational and leadership effectiveness-Bryman, 1992: Lowe et al 1996. - Samples and contexts from Fortune 100 businesses to military units, to presidential administrations. **Topic 95** **Critique** - It is elitist and antidemocratic, too much emphasis is placed on the ""heroic" aspects of leadership. (Northouse, 2007) - They act independently of their followers -- they create and transmit a vision of their own in an effort to achieve change. - Transformational leadership has the potential to be absued. - Since transformational leaders change employees' values and provide a new vision of the future, question is: who decides if the new vision is better than the old one? - Who determines whether the new direction is good? - History provides us with examples of leaders who have exploited their people and where their vision has eventually led to death and destruction of their followers. (e.g. Hitler) - Transformational leadership may be a personality trait or personal disposition which might be difficult to change, rather than a behaviour that can be trained and developed (Bryman, 1992) **Topic 96** **Summary-TL** - Several Theories have evolved after Burns introduced the concept of transformational leadership (1978) - Visions have been proposed by the theorists like Bass (1985), Bennis and Nanus (1985), Tichy and Ulrich (1986) and Sashkin (1988). - The most prominent of these and the one used most often is Bass' theory of transformational and transactional leadership. (Yukl, 1999) - Bass differs from burns' in viewing transactional and transformational leadership not as being at opposite sides on a continuum but as two different facts where a leader can be both transactional and transformational at the same time, though to different degrees. - Also in opposition to Burns, who argue that leader should strive for a transformational leadership only, Bass argues that leaders can and should be both transactional and transformational and that a combination of these two is the most successful kind. **Topic 97** **Level 5 Leadership** - Based on Jim Collins' article: "Triumph of humility and Fierce Resolve" in best of HBR, HBR, p.136-146. July-August 2005. **Jim Collen wrote:** **Good to great** - Study of 1,435 good companies - Co.'s that exceeded the stock market by at least 3X over 15 years! - Examined their performance over 40 years! - Found 11 companies that became great! - Level 5 leaders channel their ego needs away from themselves and into the larger goal of building a great co. - Level 5 leaders have ego and ambition-but their ambition is first and foremost for the institution, not themselves. **Topic 98**  [The five levels of leadership] \-- There are five levels of leadership, with five being the highest level. These levels of skills and performance are not necessarily developed in sequence, but a Level 5 leaders embody all five levels of the hierarchy. 1. [Level 5 Executive] \-- builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will 2. [Effective Leader] \-- catalyzes commitment to and vigorous pursuit of a clear and compelling vision, stimulating higher performance standards. 3. [Competent Manager] \-- organizes people and resources toward the effective and efficient pursuit of predetermined objectives. 4. [Contributing Team Member] \-- contributes individual capabilities to the achievement of group objectives and works effectively with others in a group setting. 5. [Highly Capable Individual] \-- Makes productive contributions through talent, knowledge, skills, and good work habits. **Topic 99** **The Bedrock of Level 5 Leadership** **"You can accomplish anything in life provided that you do not mind who gets the credit" (Harry S. Truman)** - Level 5 leaders look out the window to appropriate credit to factors outside themselves when things go well. - If they can not find a specific person or event to give credit to, they credit good luck. - At the same time, they look in the mirror to apportion responsibility, never blaming bad luck when things go poorly. - They think about legacy on their way into a position, rather than on their way out of one. **Topic 100** **The Two Sides of Level 5** **Professional Will** - Creates superb results, a clear catalyst in the transition from good to great. - Demonstrates an unwavering resolve to do whatever must be done to produce the best long term results no matter how difficult. - Sets the standards of building and enduring great company; will settle for nothing less. **Personal Humility** - Demonstrates a compelling modesty, shunning public adulation; never boastful. - Acts with quiet, calm determination. - Relies principally on inspired standards not inspiring charisma, to motivate. - Channels ambitions to company not to self. **"Humility is not thinking less of yourself, its thinking of yourself less"** **C.S.Lewis** **Topic 101** **Succession Planning** - Level 5 leaders have ambition not for themselves but for their organizations. - They routinely select superb successors. - They want to see their organizations become even more successful in the next generation. - Comfortable with the idea that most people won't even know that the roots of that success trace back to them. - Level 4 leaders often fail to set up the organization for enduring success- what better way to demonstrate your personal greatness than that the place falls apart after you leave. - These leaders want to make clock-builders, not be time-tellers. - Rather than always have the answer, or be quick to solve someone's problem, Level 5 leadership help team members solve their own problems or find their own answers. So, build own abilities. **Topic 102** **Money and Level 5** **Not always about the money** - A level 5 leader is not concerned about money only. - This leader is much more concerned with the overall success of the company in the present as well as in the future when they are gone. - They will go everything they can to make sure the company will succeed after them by appointing a successor with their same characteristics. **When it is about the money** - When it is about the money you are probably talking about a level 4 leader. - This is somebody who is not concerned with the future of the company after they are gone, but who just wants to get paid. - They are all about the "I" and not about the "We". - This leader will not "set their successor up for success". In fact they will most likely choose a person who is not ready, or does not have any idea what it takes to be a leader of that magnitude. - Level 5 leadership is a necessary element for taking an organization from good to great -- but it's not the only one. - There are other "diverse", combined with level 5 -- the combined package -- which takes the organization beyond ordinary. - First Who - Stockdale Paradox - The Flywheel - The Hedgehog Concept - A Culture of Discipline - Good to great leaders start with people first and then deal with vision and strategy second. - They get the right people on the bus. - Move the wrong people off. - Usher the right people to the right seats, and - Determine where to drive it. - Named after Admiral James Stockdale, winner of the Medal of honour, who survived for 7 years in a Viet Cong POW camp by holding on to two contradictory beliefs. - His life could not be worse at the moment, and his life would someday be better than ever. - Good to great leaders confront the most brutal facts of their current reality, with absolute faith that they will prevail in the end. - They hold both disciplines -- facts and faith -- at the same time, all the time. - G-to-g transformations do not happen in one big leap or overnight. - Rather, it starts one movement at a time, gradually building up momentum, till there is a breakthrough. - Mediocre organizations never sustain the breakthrough momentum. - Instead, they lurch back and forth with radical change programs, reactionary moves and restructuring. - The fox knows a little about many things. - A fox is complex. - A hedgehog knows only one big thing very well. - The hedgehog is simple. - And the hedgehog wins! When an organization has identified its Hedgehog Concept, its leaders should devote all their energy and resources to pursuing the one thing it does best. Collins argues that when the going gets tough, it\'s the organizations that focus on what they\'re good at, rather than searching for alternative strategies, that survive and thrive. **Topic 107** **Making a Jump to a Level 5 Leader** **Can you learn to become a level 5?** The great irony is that the attitude and personal ambition that often drive people to positions of power stand at odds with the humility required for level 5 leadership. **Therefore:** You can see why level 5 leaders rarely appear at the top of our institutions. The problem is not with the availability of level 5 leader. The problem is recognizing that what they have is important. Level 5 leadership may come naturally to some people, but there will always be growth and practice needed for all of them. Not everyone will be a level 5 leader, but all of us can benefit from the practice and study of personal humility and professional will. **Topic 108** **Jump to Level 5 Leadership -- 2** - Work on developing your personal humility side. - Be sure to learn about giving your team the credit. - When you understand that giving back is a part of success, you can understand humility on a deeper level. - Take responsibility for your actions. - Show your team that you are there for them when they need you, and are there to have their backs covered when problems occur. - Develop discipline and understand that if you make a decision for the company, stick to it -- no matter how difficult it may become. - Level 5 leaders seek help when they need it. They are not afraid to ask questions. **Topic 109** **Planning process** If you fail to plan you are planning to fail. Benjamin Franklin - process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal. - attempts to manage the future: what is to be accomplished and how. **Topic 110** **Purpose of planning**  **Topic 111** **Elements of Planning** **Plan**: A method for doing something, consisting of at least one goal and a predefined course of action for achieving that goal. **Goal**: A specific result to be achieved; the end result of a plan. **Objectives**: Specific results toward which effort is directed. **Planning:** The process of setting goals and courses of action, developing rules and procedures, and forecasting future outcomes. **Actions:** the means, or specific activities, that are planned to achieve the objectives **Resources**: constraints on the course of action; also involves budgeting: identifying the sources and levels of resources that can be committed to the courses of action **Implementation**: the assignment and direction of personnel to carry out the plan. **What Planning Entails** Choosing goals and courses of action and deciding now what to do in the future to achieve those goals. Assessing today the consequences of various future courses of action. **Topic 112** **Levels of Plans** - Plans are usually developed at three levels - Strategic - Tactical - Operational - This multilevel planning allows managers at each level to consider the actions necessary to achieve their goals **Strategic Plans:** the means used to achieve long-term, strategic goals - made by top managers - allow resource allocation - define a broad scope of long-term organizational actions to attain strategic goals - carry significant impact on the organization **Tactical Plans:** have shorter duration that strategic plans - made by top and middle managers - directly support implementation of strategic plans - consist of specific actions to be taken by division/dept./group - narrower in scope **Operational Plans:** cover briefer periods than tactical plans - include the day-to-day operations of the org. - support implementation of the tactical plans - specifically define necessary decisions and actions to be taken by functional departments **Topic 113** **Types of Plans** - managers match the type of plan they use to the situation they face - plans are needed to handle three types of situations, generally: - one time: not likely to recur - regularly recurring - less likely to recur *One-time occurrence* **Single-Use Plans** - specifically prepared to fit a one-time situation - becomes obsolete when goal is achieved - two common types: 1. ***Programme:*** complex set of interrelated actions aimed at achieving a goal pursued once 2. ***Project:*** - less complex single use plan - narrower in scope than program - fewer activities and resources - developed as sub-unit of program **Topic 114** **Types of Plans...cont'd** ***Regularly recurring*** **Standing Plans** - for on-going goals, requiring same type of situation to be dealt with again and again - three common types: 1. ***Policy:*** provides general guidelines/ broad boundaries for action for recurring situations; flexibility 2. ***Procedure:*** outlines specific steps to be followed in particular recurring situation; more detailed; allows less latitude; series of steps, SPOs 3. ***Rule:*** details specific circumstances under which certain activities are to be performed; narrowest; *Less likely to recur* **Contingency Plans** - alternative courses of action - for unexpected environmental shifts, but still requiring managerial response if objectives are to be achieved - cover less likely events **Topic 115** **Decision making** **Meaning** - the process of selecting one alternative from among a number of alternatives available - it is needed only when there are options - if there is only one way of doing a task, there is nothing to decide **Definition** - **Haynes and Massie** "Decision-making is a process of selection from a set of alternative courses of action which is thought to fulfill the objective of the decision-problem more satisfactorily than others" (1961) **Definition** - **George Terry** "Decision-making is selecting an alternative, from two or more alternatives, to determine an opinion or a course of action" (1961) - process of reducing any hesitation, or uncertainty, about the available options for attaining a practical and sensible choice - requires gathering information before making best choice - uncertainty is reduced not totally eliminated **Topic 116** **Kinds of Decisions** ***Three basic classifications*** a. **Decisions Whether** - a yes/no or either/or decision - checking **agreeability** before choosing best option available - weighing the pros and cons, if the answer is a "no", then another alternative is considered b. **Decisions Which** - these decisions are taken from a set of alternatives - the alternatives are compared to each other against a set criteria for selecting the most **probable** and **beneficial** option c. **Contingent Decisions** - decisions that were already identified but were **set aside** until the **suitable conditions** are available/ met with - conditions, such as: time, price, availability, motivation, and energy **Topic 117** **Factors of decision making** a. **Past Experiences** - a person's past experiences can affect future decisions - if the past decision was beneficial and positive, individual is likely to make similar decisions in a similar situation - contrarily, failures are unlikely to be repeated b. **Cognitive Biases** - the individual's thinking patterns based on his/ her observations and conclusions that may sometimes lead to false assumptions, wrong judgments, and faulty reasoning. - some cognitive biases are: - **Belief bias** -- making decisions based on a routine knowledge - **Hindsight** **bias** -- to see event as inevitable once it occurs - **Omission** **bias** -- risky information is excluded - **Confirmation** **bias** -- examining what is expected from observations **Topic 118** **Factors in Decision Making...cont'd** c. **Individual Differences**\ Some of these individual differences that affect a decision are: - age - socioeconomic status - educational background - cognitive abilities d. Belief in personal relevance People make decisions on something that they strongly believe in. e. **Escalation of Commitment\ **decision is influenced by allotting a huge amount of time, money and effort into the decision where people feel committed to. **Topic 119** **Decision making approaches** ***3 main categories*** 1. **Individual** - individual decision is based on personal values & preferences - conflict of values and preferences may put decision making as challenging - also difficult, if too dependent on others for a sound decision 2. **Authoritarian** - leader is the sole decision maker - leader must ensure gathering sufficient knowledge to make decision beneficial to the team/ group/ org. - leader must explain the chosen alternative to the group in order to gain acceptance 3. **Group** - also known as **consensus** - members brainstorm and share ideas, talk over the matters, make and then implement the agreed decision - usually more effective as everyone takes accountability for the outcome there is **Topic 120** **Decision Making Process** 1. **Define and Understand the Problem or Issue** - identify the main cause for the need to make a decision. - may not necessarily be a problem -- may be issues/ choices to make - part of this phase is for determining the goal as well - get clear thoughts 2. **Create and Evaluate the Choices or Alternatives** - list appropriate, issue-specific choices - evaluate options - gather facts and information about each alternative - weigh pros and cons/ consequences and benefits of each 3. **Make the Decision** - this is a critical step - only one option is to be selected from the list which is already cut down into the most promising and applicable choices after evaluation - all implications must be made known to all the people involved 4. **Implement the Decision** - apply decision suitably - if it is a solution to an existing problem, then apply the decision to resolve the issue - if it is an opportunity, then apply the chosen alternative to avail that opportunity aptly **Topic 121** **Characteristics of Decision Making** 1. **Goal-oriented activity** - the objective is always to attain a specific goal - e.g. a student who wants to become a Commerce graduate: - admission: college - daytime/ evening? - long distance ? - correspondence? - series of decisions 2. **Alternative courses of action** - need for decision-making is only when alternative ways of performing a task exist - no need if there is only one course of action - e.g. an outdated product, which cannot be updated, has to be abandoned -- no scope 3. **Positive or negative** - the decision may be positive or negative - e.g. employees in an organization want revision in pay scales and go on strike - management decision is positive if conceded, and negative if it takes disciplinary action 4. **Deferment** - it may also be a decision not to decide - it is always difficult to take a quick decision on a sensitive issue - immediate 'yes' or 'no' is not always possible in all matters - in such case, tendency will be to defer to the extent possible **Topic 122** **Characteristics of Decision Making 2** 5. **Both a science and an art** - As a science, decision-making requires knowledge of method, and rule or principle concerning the issue or problem - As an art, it requires skill for making the decision a success 6. **Situational** - the decision-maker may make different decisions for the same problem under different situations - e.g. a teacher may let a student coming late to enter the class on a particular day but may not allow him/ her on another day 7. **Voluntary or induced decision** - decision-maker's own decision without any pressure; **voluntary**; spontaneous, made with open mind - when pressurized, either by individuals or by the situation, the decision becomes **induced** 8. **Complexity** - complex mental exercise - involves careful consideration of the alternative courses of action, evaluation of the same and selection of the best course of action 9. **Ongoing activity** - continuous process **Topic 123** **Types of Decision Making** a. **Irreversible Decisions** - permanent choices - once made, become irrevocable and unchanged. - people usually opt for irreversible decisions when there are very limited or no options available b. **Reversible Decisions** - not final, may be temporary. - at any point, can be altered or changed - such as, when the decision made is not right or when the option selected is a failure c. **Quick Decisions** - not everyone is able to make quick decisions - only good decision makers arrive at instant and correct decisions easily - the long term outcome must be considered in making quick decisions. **Topic 124** **Types of Decision Making 2** d. **Experimental Decisions** - involves certainty and assurance of the initial results before a final decision is made - it is ensured that the preliminary outcome is positive and assuring in order to guarantee success of the decision to be taken e. **Trial and Error Decisions** - decision maker tries out several courses of action until one alternative is left that seems to be convincing and positive - it is a play-safe method before committing to anything f. **Conditional Decisions** - when a decision is conditional, the person is open for other possibilities or other alternatives. - in any case, when the initial decision fails, there are other options to choose from **Topic 125** **Decision Making Skills** **Critical Thinking Skills** - the mental process of making a wise judgment focusing on personal conviction and actions - some components are observation, reasoning classification, analysis, inference, evaluation, meta-cognition, etc. **Problem Solving Skills: *Input Phase\ ***problem is identified and understood or examined ***Processing Phase\ ***determine alternatives & evaluate for best option ***Output Phase**\ *decision is implemented ***Review Phase\ ***evaluates outcomes and makes changes, if any. **Creativity** - process of generating new ideas, views and systems to solve problems and arrive at decisions efficiently - creativity allows to think out of the box or go beyond usual perceptions - lack of creativity leads to limited options **Topic 126** **Common Decision Making Mistakes** ***Being too dependent on "expert" information*** Some people rely too much on the experts when in fact not all of them are truly experts -- try widening the search and sources ***Overconfidence**\ *humbles the overconfident attitude and remain open to possible options ***Underestimating the information received from others\ ***devaluing information fed by other is a big mistake a little respect for receiving unsolicited and volunteered information or suggestions is healthy in the decision making process. ***Filtering data or information\ ***when filtering information, you only choose those that are in your favour, which makes you biased on a certain decision, making you miss out on other details that can be helpful in the process - be open to ideas. **Topic 127** **Organizational Structure** **DEFINITION** - The internal, formal framework of a business which shows the way in which management is linked together, and how authority is transmitted **Hierarchy:** the levels of management in a firm from the highest to the lowest ranks. - Org. structure also determines how **information flows from level to level** within the co. company - In a centralized structure, decisions flow from top down - In a decentralized structure, the decisions are made at various different levels. - A good org. structure can often be the **difference** between a smooth operating organization and one in chaos. - By establishing a hierarchical structure with a **clear chain of command**, companies are better able to streamline their operations.  **Topic 128** **Why Organization** - Organizations enable a group of people to effectively coordinate their efforts and get things done. (Nitin Nohria, 1995) - Org. lifts the capacity to work through divided workload - Allows bigger tasks, variety of expertise and multifarious talent **Depicting the Organization** ***Organization Chart*** - The New York and Erie Railroad developed the first org. chart in the 19th century - shows the structure of the org. including the title of each manager's position and who is accountable to whom **Topic 129** **Types of Organizational Structure** **Seven types of organizational structures** 1. Simple 2. Functional 3. Divisional 4. Matrix 5. Team-based 6. Network 7. Modular *Also: tall, and flat* 1. **The simple structure for the small firm** - Often found in a firm's early, entrepreneurial stages - Authority is centralized in a single person - Few rules, flat hierarchy and low work specialization 2. **The Functional Structure: *Grouping by Similar Work Specialties*** - **Similar** occupational specialties are put together in formal groups - A quite commonplace structure, seen in all kinds of organizations, for-profit and nonprofit.  **Topic 130** **Types of Organizational Structure 2** 3. **The Divisional Structure: *Grouping by Similarity of Purpose*** - **Diverse** occupational specialties are put together in formal groups by similar products or services, customers or clients, or geographic regions. **4. The Matrix Structure: *A Grid by Functions & Divisions for Two Chains of Command*** - an organization combines functional and divisional chains of command in a grid so that there are two command structures---vertical and horizontal -- used for projects   **Topic 131** **5: The Team-Based Structure: E*liminating Functional Barriers to Solve Problems*** - teams or workgroups, either temporary or permanent, are used to improve horizontal relations and solve problems throughout the organization - cross functional teams 6\. **The Network Structure: *Connecting a Central Core to Outside Firms by Computer Connections*** The organization has a central core that is linked to outside independent firms by computer connections, and operated as if all were a single organization  **7. The Modular Structure: *Outsourcing Pieces of a Product to Outside Firms*** Differs from previous in that it outsources certain *pieces of a product* rather than outsourcing certain *processes* (such as human resources or warehousing) of an organization. **Tall Org. Structure** - large, complex org. often require a taller hierarchy. - results in one long chain of command similar to the military - as an org. grows, the number of management levels increases and the structure grows taller. **Flat Org. Structure** - has fewer management levels, controlling a broad area or group with each level - focuses on empowering employees rather than adhering to the chain of command - attempts to tap into employees' creativity & collaboration. **Topic 133** **Organizational Behaviour** **What is an organization?** An organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve individual and organizational goals. **What is organizational behaviour?** - Organizational behaviour (OB) is the study of factors which profoundly effect how people and groups act, think, feel, and respond to work and organizations, and how organizations respond to their environments  **Topic 134** **Studying Organizational Behaviour** - Organizational studies involve the study of org. from various perspectives, methods, and levels of analysis: - **Micro**: individual and group dynamics in org. - **Macro**: whole org, how they adapt; - and the strategies, structures, and contingencies that guide them  - **Meso** scale structures involve power, culture, and the networks of individuals in org. - **Field** level analysis studies how entire populations of organizations interact - Many factors come into play whenever people **interact** in organizations - Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. - can play a key role in org. development, enhancing overall performance - also enhancing individual and group performance, satisfaction, and commitment. **Topic 135** **Developing an Organizational Model** - A model is an abstraction of reality, a simplified representation of some real world phenomenon. (Khan, 2009) - An OB model contains dependent and independent variables. **Dependent Variables** - factors affected by some other factors - response affected by independent variable - primary dependent variables to be explained/ predicted: productivity, turnover, absenteeism, and job satisfaction **Productivity** - an org. is productive if it achieves its goals, and does so by transferring inputs to outputs at lowest cost - productivity measures performance, including **effectiveness**, **efficiency** and **economy** - major concern of OB **Topic 136** **Developing an Organizational Model 2** **Absenteeism** - failure to report to work - sometimes alright, e.g. illness, fatigue, stress - take rest, instead of causing poor output or even accident (e.g. pilot, surgeon, etc.) - beyond normal range, directly impacts org.'s effectiveness & efficiency negatively **Turnover** - voluntary/ involuntary permanent withdrawal from the org. - acceptable if poor performers leave - high turnover results in high costs of re-hiring and re-training - efficiency loss due to replacement of lost knowledge and skill **Job Satisfaction** - \"a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one\'s job or job experiences" (Locke 1976) - a satisfied employee is more productive - quality is important with quantity -- intrinsic value and challenge **Topic 137** **Independent variables** - What are the major **determinants** of productivity, absenteeism, turnover and job satisfaction? - these are the **independent** **variables** - that is, the factors believed to be the causes of changes in the dependent variables - there are 3 levels: **Individual-level Variables:** - people carry some personal characteris-tics when they join job: age, gender, marital status, values, attitude, personality, ability; and behaviour, perception, decision making, learning, & motivation - org. cannot alter them **Group-level Variables:** - people's behaviour is different in group than when alone - this level includes communication patterns, leadership styles, power and politics, inter-group relations, and levels of conflict **Organization Systems-level Variables:** - includes design of the formal organization, work processes and jobs, human resource policies and practices, and the internal culture - all above have an impact on dependent variables **Topic 138** **Implications for Managers** **Develop skills** - OB especially focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism and turnover, and increase employee satisfaction - as such, to be effective in their jobs, managers must develop their people/ interpersonal skills **Generalizations** - we all hold generalizations about the behaviour of people - some may provide valid insights into human behaviour - many are erroneous - OB uses systematic study for predictions of behaviour not intuition, as people are different **Challenges & Opportunities** - OB helps mangers to see the value of diversity in workforce - can improve productivity by learning how to empower people, and how to design and implement change programs - create ethical climate **Topic 139** **Groups** - What makes one collection of people a group and other only an anonymous, disorganized crowd? - **Group**: two or more interdependent people, who interact in pursuit of common purpose - **1 - interdependency 2 - interaction 3 - shared goal** - fans standing in a queue waiting together to purchase concert tickets may have a common goal, but: - they are not interacting - they are not depending on each other to achieve their goal - so, they are **not a group** -- but are a crowd - groups are **vital** to the success of the organization - today's competitive realities demand to create and mange groups effectively - workforce diversity needs managers to lead groups that transcend gender, culture and age - organizations have many types of groups - these can be categorized on the basis of how the group forms, who its members are, and what the group does - the most basic distinction is between **formal** groups and the **informal** groups **Topic 140** **Types of Groups** **FORMAL GROUPS** - created by the org. to perform a specific set of tasks in pursuit of the org.'s goals - part of org's formal structure and hierarchy, e.g. command group, functional group, task group, etc. **INFORMAL GROUPS** - voluntarily or spontaneously formed by its members rather than by the organization - serve social/ common interests of members - may/ may not relate to goals of organization - e.g. interest group (common concern), friendship group **TEAMS** - today, many orgs. are replacing traditional structure of formal command groups by groups with greater autonomy and employee participation - **teams** are involved in management and decision-making to maximize performance **Topic 141** **Characteristics of Groups** **ROLES** - behaviors expected of a member as per position in the group - some roles assigned formally (G.M.) but additional assumed informally influencing group performance - in high-performance groups formal roles are clearly defined **NORMS** - informal standards of behavior that govern members' actions - roles are behaviors that differentiate, norms are behaviors common to all - members pressurize each other and new members to conform - perspectives for work **COHESIVENESS** - degree of loyalty to the group and its goals - strong commitment and desire to remain within the group increases group cohesiveness - encourages members to perform at high level - but, low output if norm is low productivity **Topic 142** **Stages of group development** - Bruce Tuckman (1965) identified five stages a group goes through before they are able to function as a team - maintains that these stages are inevitable for the team to grow, to face up to challenges, to tackle problems, to find solutions, to plan work and deliver result **Forming** Team acquaints and establishes ground rules. Formalities are preserved and members are treated as strangers. **Storming** Members start to communicate their feelings but still view themselves as individuals rather than the part of the team. They resist control by group leaders and show hostility. **Topic 143** **Stages of group development 2** **Norming** People feel part of the team and realize that they can achieve more work if they accept others viewpoints. **Performing** Team work in an open and trusting atmosphere where flexibility is the key and hierarchy is of little importance. **Adjourning** Team conducts an assessment of the year and implements a plan of transitioning roles and recognizing members' contributions. **Topic 144** **End Result of Group Formation** Synergism- the cooperative action of discrete entities which is greater than the sum of the parts. Synergistic groups can create something greater than individual members could create independently. **Three criteria of group effectiveness:** 1. Extent to which the group\'s productive output meets the standard of quantity, quality, and timeliness for the users of the output. 2. Extent to which the group process of actually doing the work enhances the capability of group members to work together interdependently in the future. 3. Extent to which group experience contributes to the growth and well being of its members. **Topic 145** **Communication in Organization** **What is communication?** Communication is the process of passing information from a source of receiver. - communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession; it modifies the disposition of both parties who partake it \-- *John Dewey* - is a means of persuasion to influence other for achieving desired effect -*Aristotle* **What is organizational communication? and how is it different from usual communication?** It is the process by which activities of an organization are collected and coordinated to reach the goals of both individuals and the organization In simple terms: - it is the information flow that happens in an organization but the flow of information is based on a structure, direction and process **Topic 146** **Forms of communication** **Verbal Communication** - includes sounds, words, language and speaking - speaking is sorted into interpersonal communication and public speaking - good verbal communi