GST 107 A Study Guide for Distance Learner PDF

Course Information Course Code: GST 107 Course Title: A Study Guide for the Distance Learner Credit Unit: 2 Course Status: Compulsory Semester: 1st Required Study Hour: 4 hours per week Course Edition: First Course Team...

Course Information Course Code: GST 107 Course Title: A Study Guide for the Distance Learner Credit Unit: 2 Course Status: Compulsory Semester: 1st Required Study Hour: 4 hours per week Course Edition: First Course Team Course Developers: Prof. Olubiyi Adewale, Dr. Johnson Opateye, Dr. Chidinma Onwubere, & Miss Nora Onwumelu Course Writers: Prof. Olubiyi Adewale, Dr. Johnson Opateye, Dr. Chidinma Onwubere, & Miss Nora Onwumelu Instructional Designer: Inegbedion, Juliet O. (Ph.D.) Learning Technologists: Dr. Adewale Adesina, Nura Maidoki & Henry Udeh Content Editor Inegbedion, Juliet O. (Ph.D.) Copy Editors: Inegbedion, Juliet O. (Ph.D.) & Mrs. Christiana Uzoukwu Ice Breaker Upload your passport and introduce yourself by stating your names, what you do for a living, your hobby, your expectation in this course and the name you would preferred to be called during this course. NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA 1 © 2018 by NOUN Press National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters University Village Plot 91, Cadastral Zone Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway Jabi, Abuja Lagos Office 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island, Lagos e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Published by: National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters, University Village Plot 91, Cadastral Zone, Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway Jabi, Abuja, Nigeria Printed by NOUN Press [email protected] Printed 2018 ISBN: 978-978-8521-90-7 2 Course Guide Introduction Welcome to GST 107: A Study Guide for the Distance Learner. GST 107 is a two-credit unit course that has minimum duration of one semester. It is a compulsory course for both undergraduate and graduate students in the university. The course guides you on the techniques of studying to achieve academic success through open and distance learning. Course Objectives By the end of this course you will be able to: 1. Study on your own at your pace and time irrespective of the geographical difference 2. Identify studying techniques to adopt towards achieving academic success 3. Demonstrate the skills required of a distance learner in achieving academic excellence. Working through this Course To successfully complete this course, read the study units, listen to the audios and videos, do all assessments, open the links and read, participate in discussion forums, read the recommended books and other materials provided, prepare your portfolios, and participate in the online facilitation. Each study unit has introduction, intended learning outcomes, the main content, conclusion, summary and references/further readings. The introduction will tell you the expectations in the study unit. Read and note the intended learning outcomes (ILOs). The intended learning outcomes tell you what you should be able to do at the completion of each study unit. So, you can evaluate your learning at the end of each unit to ensure you have achieved the intended learning outcomes. To meet the intended learning outcomes, knowledge is presented in texts, video and links arranged into modules and units. Click on the links as may be directed but where you are reading the text off line, you will have to copy and paste the link address into a browser. You can download the audios and videos to view off line. You can also print or download the texts and save in your computer or external drive. The conclusion gives you the theme of the knowledge you are taking away from the unit. Unit summaries are presented in downloadable audios and videos. There are two main forms of assessments – the formative and the summative. The formative assessments will help you monitor your learning. This is presented as in-text questions, discussion forums and Self-Assessment Exercises. 3 The summative assessments would be used by the university to evaluate your academic performance. This will be given as Computer Based Test (CBT) which serves as continuous assessment and final examinations. A minimum of three computer based tests will be given with only one final examination at the end of the semester. You are required to take all the computer base tests and the final examination. Study Units There are 16 study units in this course divided into four modules. The modules and units are presented as follows: Module 1 Introduction to the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) System Unit 1 History of the Open and Distance Learning System Unit 2 Characteristics of the Open and Distance Learning System Unit 3 Teaching and Learning in the Open and Distance Learning System Module 2 Study Skills for the Distance Learner Unit 1 Listening Unit 2 Speaking Unit 3 Reading Unit 4 Writing Unit 5 Study Strategies Module 3 Assessment and Evaluation Modes in Open And Distance Learning (ODL) Unit 1 Overview of Assessment in ODL Unit 2 Instructional-Based Assessment Modes Unit 3 Semester Examination Unit 4 Assessment of Non-Examinable Courses Module 4 Learners’ Support Services Unit 1 Definition and Purposes of Learners’ Support Services Unit 2 Types of Learners’ Support Services Unit 3 Sources of Learners’ Support Services Unit 4 Benefits of Learners’ Support Services References and Further Readings Usun, Salih (2004). Learner Support Services in Distance Education System. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 5 (4), np. Chatpakkarattana, T. & Jintawee Khlaisang. (2012). The Learner Support System for Distance Education. Creative Education, 3, p. 47-51. https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/24076/Complete.pdf? 4 https://empower.eadtu.eu/images/fields-of- expertise/StudentSupport/Student_Support_Services_for_Success_in_OED_ SIMPSON.pdf Ajadi, T. O., Salawu, I. O. & Adeoye, F. A. (2008). E-learning and distance education in Nigeria. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 7 (4) available at https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503472.pdf Jegede, Oluwagbemiro (2016). Open and distance learning practices in Nigeria higher institutions of learning. A paper presented at the Annual Distance Learning Centre Distinguished Lecture and Stakeholders’ Forum Held at the International Conference Centre, University of Ibadan. Available at www.olugbemirojegede.com/odl_practices_in_tertiary_institutions_in_nigeria. pdf Conrad, D., Mackintosh, W., McGreal, R., Murphy, A. & Witthaus, G. (2013). Report on the assessment and accreditation of learners using OER. Retrieved 14 February 2018 from http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/232 Jheengut, I. (2010). Importance of interactivity in open and distance learning continuous professional development courses, available in http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/2257 Mishra, S. (2017). Media and technology in distance education, available in www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/6540/1/Unit-5.pdf Presentation Schedule The presentation schedule gives you the important dates for the completion of your computer-based tests, participation in forum discussions and participation at facilitation. Remember, you are to submit all your assignments at the appropriate time. You should guide against delays and plagiarisms in your work. Plagiarism is a criminal offence in academics and is highly penalized. Assessment There are two main forms of assessments in this course that will be scored: the Continuous Assessments and the final examination. The continuous assessment shall be in three fold. There will be two Computer Based Assessment. The computer-based assessments will be given in accordance to university academic calendar. The timing must be strictly adhered to. The Computer Based Assessments shall be scored a maximum of 10% each, while your participation in discussion forums and your portfolio presentation shall be scored maximum of 10% if you meet 75% participation. Therefore, the maximum score for continuous assessment shall be 30% which shall form part of the final grade. 5 The final examination for GST 107 will be maximum of two hours and it takes 70 percent of the total course grade. The examination will consist of 70 multiple choice questions that reflect cognitive reasoning. Note: You will earn 10% score if you meet a minimum of 75% participation in the course forum discussions and in your portfolios otherwise you will lose the 10% in your total score. You will be required to upload your portfolio using Google Doc. What are you expected to do in your portfolio? Your portfolio should be note or jottings you made on each study unit and activities. This will include the time you spent on each unit or activity. How to get the Most from the Course To get the most in this course, you need to have a personal laptop and internet facility. This will give you adequate opportunity to learn anywhere you are in the world. Use the Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) to guide your self-study in the course. At the end of every unit, examine yourself with the ILOs and see if you have achieved what you need to achieve. Carefully work through each unit and make your notes. Join the online real time facilitation as scheduled. Where you missed the scheduled online real time facilitation, go through the recorded facilitation session at your own free time. Each real time facilitation session will be video recorded and posted on the platform. In addition to the real time facilitation, watch the video and audio recorded summary in each unit. The video/audio summaries are directed to salient part in each unit. You can assess the audio and videos by clicking on the links in the text or through the course page. Work through all self-assessment exercises. Finally, obey the rules in the class. Facilitation You will receive online facilitation. The facilitation is learner centred. The mode of facilitation shall be asynchronous and synchronous. For the asynchronous facilitation, your facilitator will: Present the theme for the week; Direct and summarise forum discussions; Coordinate activities in the platform; Score and grade activities when need be; Upload scores into the university recommended platform; Support you to learn. In this regard personal mails may be sent; Send you videos and audio lectures; and podcast. 6 For the synchronous: There will be eight hours of online real time contact in the course. This will be through video conferencing in the Learning Management System. The eight hours shall be of one-hour contact for eight times. At the end of each one-hour video conferencing, the video will be uploaded for view at your pace. The facilitator will concentrate on main themes that are must know in the course. The facilitator is to present the online real time video facilitation time table at the beginning of the course. The facilitator will take you through the course guide in the first lecture at the start date of facilitation Do not hesitate to contact your facilitator. Contact your facilitator if you: do not understand any part of the study units or the assignment. have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises have a question or problem with an assignment or with your tutor’s comments on an assignment. Also, use the contact provided for technical support. Read all the comments and notes of your facilitator especially on your assignments; participate in the forums and discussions. This gives you opportunity to socialise with others in the programme. You can raise any problem encountered during your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course facilitation, prepare a list of questions before the discussion session. You will learn a lot from participating actively in the discussions. Finally, respond to the questionnaire. This will help the university to know your areas of challenges and how to improve on them for the review of the course materials and lectures. 7 CONTENTS Module 1 Introduction to the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) System 9 Unit 1 History of the Open and Distance Learning System 9 Unit 2 Characteristics of the Open and Distance Learning System 18 Unit 3 Teaching and Learning in the Open and Distance Learning System 27 Module 2 Study Skills for the Distance Learner 36 Unit 1 Listening 36 Unit 2 Speaking 45 Unit 3 Reading 51 Unit 4 Writing 63 Unit 5 Study Strategies 75 Module 3 Assessment and Evaluation Modes in Open and Distance Learning (ODL) 88 Unit 1 Overview of Assessment in ODL 88 Unit 2 Instructional-Based Assessment Modes 95 Unit 3 Semester Examination 98 Unit 4 Assessment of Non-Examinable Courses 102 Module 4 Learners’ Support Services 114 Unit 1 Definition and Purposes of Learners’ Support Services 114 Unit 2 Types of Learners’ Support Services 118 Unit 3 Sources of Learners’ Support Services 122 Unit 4 Benefits of Learners’ Support Services 130 8 Module 1 Introduction to the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) System Unit 1 History of the Open and Distance Learning System Unit 2 Characteristics of the Open and Distance Learning System Unit 3 Teaching and Learning in the Open and Distance Learning System Unit 1 History of the Open and Distance Learning System Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Definition of Open and Distance Learning 3.2 History of Open and Distance Learning 3.2.1 The Distance Learning 3.2.2 Open and Distance Learning 3.3 Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 Introduction As a student of an open university, it is important for you to have a fair idea of the system you are getting involved in. This is because you might not have had the opportunity of studying in an open university before now and your success in this system is heavily dependent on your understanding of the workings of this system. Thus, it is important for you to pay close attention to this course as it would help you to understand the demands of the open and distance learning. In this first unit, you will be go through a brief history of the open and distance learning system both globally and also in Nigeria. 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) By the end of this unit, you will be able to: define open and distance learning identify the various stages of distance education differentiate between distance learning and open learning comment on the role of technology in distance learning. 9 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Definition of Open and Distance Learning The term open and distance learning is made up of two different concepts in education, namely: distance education and open learning. While distance education has been around for quite a long time (as you would soon discover), open learning is a more recent phenomenon. You have to understand that there has been no consensus definition of the twin term, but for the purpose of this course, we will make do with the definition from Commonwealth of Learning (COL). COL (2015) defines open and distance learning as a system of teaching and learning characterized by separation of teacher and learner in time and/or space and uses multiple media for delivery of instruction. It also involves two-way communication and occasional face-to- face meeting for tutorials and learner-to-learner interaction. As you would get to know, this definition has tried to bring all the attributes of the open and distance learning to the fore. 3.2 History of Open and Distance Learning As stated earlier, the term open and distance learning combines two distinct terms: distance education and open learning. While distance education is not a new concept and thus familiar to most people, open learning is relatively a newer term. In fact, distance education can be said to be the forerunner of open and distance learning, thus a good starting point for the history of open and distance learning is distance education. 3.2.1 The Distance Education Distance education has been defined as a field of education that focuses on teaching methods and technology with the aim of delivering teaching to students who are not physically present in a traditional educational setting, such as the classroom. It is a system aimed at creating access to learning when time or distance or both separate the source of information and the learners. Though the various developmental stages of distance education have been variously demarcated to be from three to five, I prefer the three-stage development propounded by Schultz, Schultz and Embry-Riddle (2008) and it would be followed in our history of distance education. 3.2.1.1 Correspondence Stage The earliest appearance of distance education was in the form of correspondence education. This started in the mid-nineteenth century in Great Britain, France, Germany and the United States. Describing the correspondence phase, Schultz, Schultz and Embry-Riddle (2008) state that, “early correspondence courses, as the first recorded form of distance learning, exemplified participant interaction through the distribution of printed material through the mail” (p. 23). Sir Isaac Pitman taught shorthand by mail 10 and this can be said to be the first officially recognized attempt at distance education. Pitman’s Correspondence courses in shorthand started in the 1840s. At the degree level, the University of London was the first to offer degrees through distance education. The University of London’s External Programme was established in 1828 but was not chartered until 1858. It is important to note that most of the students of the programme were from the British Commonwealth countries including Nigeria. In the United States, “correspondence study has been a noteworthy component of the University of Wisconsin delivery system since 1891” (Schultz, Schultz and Embry-Riddle, 2008). 3.2.1.2 Sound and Video Signal Stage The foundation of the second stage of distance education was laid during the World War I, through the invention of the radio. In the United Kingdom, the National University Extension Association was organized in 1916 at the University of Wisconsin. The first educational instruction by radio was aired in 1916 and from that point; correspondence students began receiving instruction from both radio and postal services. It was not until 1925 that the use of radio in distance education became global (History of Distance Education, 95). The United States started the experimental radio broadcast with the College of the Air which was later renamed the University of the Air in conjunction with the University of Wisconsin in the early 1960s. By the end of the decade, 200 faculties were participating in various short courses (Gooch, 1968). Figure 1: A student learning through the Radio (Source: Google Images) The use of the radio was followed by the use of the television. The television experiment began in 1874 but educational television did not start until after 11 the depression when State University of Iowa and Kansas State College produced some educational programmes between 1932 and 1934. However, after permission was granted many colleges and universities followed suit. Demiray and Isman (1999) state that “in today’s USA, commercial and public television stations produced educational programmes for distance education. 29 million students are able to receive these programmes at their homes or school” (p. 96). 3.2.1.3 Computer Technology Stage Computer technology represented the third phase of distance education. Commenting on this phase, Schultz, Schultz and Embry-Riddle (2008) said that, “the new 80s space-age brought technology which included computers and space satellites, thereby allowing universities to offer adult education programs and refresher courses to students situated thousands of miles from the actual campuses” (p. 24). It is important to note the continuous development of technology continues to affect educational delivery from this time onwards. We would not comment much on this as the use computer technology and information technology is an integral part of open learning and would form part of our studies in future units. 3.2.2 Open and Distance Learning Open learning is an innovative movement in education that emerged in the 1970s. It refers mainly to activities that either enhance learning opportunities within formal education systems or broaden learning opportunities beyond the formal education systems (Wikipedia). The educational philosophy of open learning emphasizes giving learners choices about: medium or media of learning, place and pace of study, support mechanisms as well as entry and exit points. The combination of the philosophy of open learning and distance education gave birth to open and distance learning. Open and distance learning is one of the most rapidly growing fields of education and its potential impact in all educational delivery has been greatly accentuated through the development of Internet-based information technologies, and in particular the World Wide Web (UNESCO, 2002). The first Open University, The Open University, was established in 1969 as a public distance learning and research university and it’s one the biggest university in United Kingdom. Since this humble beginning, many other open universities have sprung up in the various regions of the world. The current trend in open universities is the movement towards internationalization. In addition to the political and economic driving forces, the internationalization of open and distance education is enhanced by its links to information and communication technologies (ICTs). For instance, educational software is often international, and satellites and electronic networks allow transmission and communication across national borders. The global classroom is no longer a concept only of our imagination or of the future (UNESCO, 2002). 12 The success of the United Kingdom Open University led to the establishment of other open universities around the world. Jegede (2016) states that these include Athabasca University, and Canada’s Open University that were created in 1970 and were followed by Spain’s National University of Distance Education in 1972 and Germany’s Fern Universität in Hagen in 1974. The success of the open and distance learning system in Asia cannot be overlooked. In fact most successful open universities in the world today are in Asia. For example, there are 41 open and distance learning tertiary institutions in Asia out of which only 5 are private institutions. The private institutions are: Arab Open University, Open University of Malaysia, the Open University of Japan, Venkateshwara Open University and Wawasan Open University. It is worthy of note that out of these 41 universities, 17 are cited in India. 3.3 Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria It is important to note that the development of the open and distance learning in Nigeria is rooted in a policy. The 1977 National Policy on Education (NPE) has anticipated the coming of open and distance learning. The 1977 edition of the NPE states: “maximum efforts will be made to enable those who can benefit from higher education to be given access to it. Such access may be through universities or correspondence courses, or open universities, or part- time and work study programme”. It is unknown however if this was as a result of the role of distance education in the lives of some early Nigerians. As in all countries with distance education history, Nigeria also had her fair share of correspondence education. As Jegede (2016) notes: a. The Oxford University of the United Kingdom’s extra mural studies at the University College, Ibadan, which commenced in 1947 enabled a good number of Nigerians thirsty for higher education, but who are unable to get a place in the limited admissions into the University College, Ibadan, to do so through correspondence study. b. Many Nigerians sought admission as students of Correspondence College in Universities and Institutions in the United Kingdom while others registered as external candidates for the General Certificate of Education (GCE) both Ordinary and Advanced Level of the University of London and Cambridge. c. The Rapid Results College and Wosley Hall correspondence studies may be cited as the first set of ‘organised’ Distance Learning Programmes in Africa. They are termed ‘correspondence’ because they had their studies mailed from England while the students equally mailed their answers overseas to be marked. Nigeria also had her fair share of the radio/television stage of distance education through the English by Radio programme of the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) in 1960. The Educational Television 13 Programme of the National Television of Nigeria then followed the NBC 1960 initiative. The open and distance learning mode was first employed at the tertiary level by Ahmadu Bello University when it established the University of the Air in 1972 and this was used for the Teachers In-Service Educational Programme in 1975. The University of Lagos followed the Ahmadu Bello University’s initiative in 1974 by establishing Correspondence and Open Studies Unit (COSU) that later became known as Correspondence and Open Studies Institute (COSIT) and now known as Distance Learning Institute (DLI). With this act, University of Lagos became the first Nigerian tertiary institution to operate the dual mode of the open and distance learning. The decision to set up an open university in Nigeria was first conceived in 1976. To put this decision into practice, the Federal Government set up a Presidential Planning Committee under the chairmanship of Professor Afolabi Ojo to advise the government on the initiative. This committee was inaugurated on May 1 1980. The Act to back up the establishment of the Open University was passed by the National Assembly on April 20 1983. To demonstrate the seriousness of the Federal Government, after three months, precisely on July 22 1983, the then President of Nigeria, Alhaji Shehu Shagari assented to the bill as passed. This led to the establishment of the Nigeria Open University (NOU) with Professor Afolabi Ojo as its Vice-Chancellor. By 1984, NOU went into full-scale activities of screening candidates in 1984. Unfortunately, on April 25, 1984, General Muhammad Buhari, who had become the Head of State of Nigeria, after the civilian government have been toppled in a coup d’état, suspended the NOU during a budget speech. Consequently, Nigeria had lost several years of the use and practice of open and distance learning (Jegede, 2016). However, in 2002, a new Open University, with the name, National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) was established during the tenure of another civilian president, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo. It has to be on record that Chief Obasanjo not only established the NOUN, he demonstrated the relevance of the university by enrolling as a student of the university immediately he left office as the President. Chief Olusegun Obasanjo started with the Post Graduate Diploma in Christian Theology after which he went ahead to the Masters’ Degree and capped it up with a Doctor of Philosophy degree. Today, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo has made history by becoming the first doctoral graduate of Christian Theology and of NOUN. It is important to note that after the establishment of NOUN, Commonwealth of Learning (COL) partnered with the university to establish the Regional Training and Research Institute for Open and Distance Learning (RETRIDAL) in 2003. RETRIDAL was established with the aim of identifying and meeting the needs of open and distance learning related research and capacity building for the West African sub-region. Currently, Nigeria has many dual mode open and distance learning institutions as Jegede (2016) states that “institutions of higher learning that 14 now have or are working on becoming dual mode systems to use both open and distance learning and the traditional face-to-face as institutional modes” are 20. However, National Open University of Nigeria is the only mono-mode open and distance learning university in Nigeria as of today. 3.3.1 The Need for Open and Distance Learning System in Nigeria As a result of the feelings in some quarters about the necessity of an open university in Nigeria, it is important to state the reasons for the establishment of the university. 3.3.1.1 The Carrying Capacity of the Conventional Universities The continued increase in the population of Nigerians demanding university education in the last decade revealed that Nigeria has more university applicants unabsorbed than those admitted despite the increase in the number of universities in the country. Umar (2006) opines that about 80% of qualified prospective students could not gain admission into the conventional universities. To support this position, the table below gives a graphic depiction of the situation. Table 1: Admission Statistics of Nigerian Students Year Number of Number of Number % No. not Universities Applicants Admitted Admitted Admitted 2008 94 1,054,053 118,691 11.3 935,362 2009 96 1,306,005 190,786 14.5 1,115,219 2010 102 1,404,111 192,255 13.7 1,211,856 2011 112 1,493,611 450,000 30.13 1,043,611 2012 117 1,503,933 500,000 33.25 1,003,933 2013 128 1,735,729 520,000 29.96 1,215,729 2014 129 1,015,504 550,000 54 465,504 2015 141 1,475,477 600,000 40.7 875,477 2016 147 1,272,284 700,000 55 572,284 2017 152 1,736,571 750,000 43.1 986,571 The table above provides the stark reality of the Nigerian higher education situation. Considering the role and importance of education in a developing country, this is a dangerous trend. If necessary steps were not taken to address this trend, by democratising education through the use of open and distance learning, the population of Nigerians without higher education would continue to soar and realization of any millennium developmental goal in Nigeria would be a mirage. 3.3.1.2 Continuous Demand for Higher Education In the last few decades, there has been a continuous demand for higher education by the employers of labour for promotion and also assessment 15 purposes that has thrown the employees into a kind of frenzy to acquire higher education. This demand for higher educational qualification by employees coupled with the recent high rate of unemployment in the country has made the open and distance learning system the best viable option. This is because those who are expected to improve their educational status could not risk resigning or embarking on study leave (which are rarely approved) because they are not sure they would have their job back on completion of higher educational status. We can use the educational requirement to teach in Nigeria as an example here. Sometimes ago, the minimum qualification for teachers of the primary school in Nigeria is the Teachers’ Grade Two Certificate. This has currently been moved up to the Nigeria Certificate of Education. According to Omo- Ojugo (2009) as at 2009, over 400,000 primary school teachers in Nigeria do not even possess the previous minimum of Teachers’ Grade Two Certificate. This means that unqualified 400,000 either improve their educational level or risk losing their jobs. Thus, the only viable option left for them is to use the open and distance learning system that would allow them to work and learn at the same time. 3.3.1.2 The Need for Lifelong Learning According to Jegede (2016), lifelong learning is another factor that is making open and distance learning an indispensable element in Nigeria. Describing this phenomenon, Jegede (2016:22) has this to say: The third index of indispensability is life-long learning which has taken the world by storm and now making its way to mainstream educational provisions in many countries of the world. Lifelong Learning is characterised by making learning a continuous lifelong activity, learning through a flexible, easily accessible mode, development of a ‘Learning’ or ‘Knowledge Society, a global movement towards ODL, and the fact that we all need to make to cope with the constant change in life. Self-Assessment Activity Outline the various stages in the development of open and distance learning. Forum Discussion 1 1. Using your context, what would you regard as the importance of open and distance learning institutions in today’s Nigeria? 2. In not more than 40 words, state why you choose to study in NOUN. 4.0 Conclusion From the above, it is clear that open and distance learning is the most current phase of distance education, an educational element that can be traced back to over a century and a half, 177 years ago, to be precise. Open and distance learning is the product of the union of distance education and the philosophy 16 of openness cum current information telecommunication technologies development and it has a global spread. It is also worthy of note that Nigeria did not just plunge into participating in the open and distance education phenomenon, but has paved the way for her participation since 1977 through a policy statement in the National Policy on Education. Like every other country too, Nigeria has been part of distance education since the days of correspondence education and is also in the forefront of open and distance learning activities today. 5.0 Summary To recap what you have learned in this unit, click on the video below or copy the link and paste on a web browser. The video is a summary of what you have read in this unit. You could also click on the audio version and listen. You can also download them and play offline. Video Audio 6.0 References/Further Reading Ajadi, T. O., Salawu, I. O. & Adeoye, F. A. (2008). E-learning and distance education in Nigeria. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 7 (4) available at https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503472.pdf Jegede, Oluwagbemiro (2016). Open and distance learning practices in Nigeria higher institutions of learning. A paper presented at the Annual Distance Learning Centre Distinguished Lecture and Stakeholders’ Forum Held at the International Conference Centre, University of Ibadan. Available at www.olugbemirojegede.com/odl_practices_in_tertiary_institutions_in_nigeria. pdf 17 Unit 2 Characteristics of the Open and Distance Learning System Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Characteristics of Open and Distance Learning 3.1.1 Separation of Teacher and Learner 3.1.2 Openness 3.1.3 Flexibility 3.1.4 Accessibility 3.1.5 Affordability 3.1.6 Technological Driven 3.1.7 Use of Mixed Media Courseware 3.1.8 Interactivity 3.1.9 Learner-Centredness 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 Introduction In the previous unit, you have been taken through a brief history of the development of open and distance learning. You have learned about its evolvement from the humble stages of correspondence education to the point of becoming driven by the technological breakthrough of information telecommunication technology. You have also learnt about the operations of open and distance learning in Nigeria especially its modes of operation in mono and dual modes. In this unit, we are going to examine the things that makes open and distance learning unique and differentiate it from the well- known conventional face-to-face learning system. 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) By the end of this unit, you will be able to: List the characteristics of open and distance learning Discuss the characteristics of open and distance learning Compare open and distance learning with conventional system Evaluate the concept of openness. 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Characteristics of Open and Distance Learning As indicated above, there are certain traits that distinguishes open and distance learning from the conventional universities. In this unit, we will examine these qualities one after the other. 18 3.1.1 Separation of Teacher and Learner One major distinguishing feature of open and distance learning system from the conventional system is the distance between the teachers and the learners. This separation occurs in two planes: place and time. By place, we mean that the teachers and the learners do not live or meet at any time. Let us take NOUN as an example, while the headquarters, which houses most of the faculties where the lecturers are, is situated at Abuja, the students are literally scattered across the country. In fact, most of the students may never meet any of the lecturers till they graduate from the university. This is distance in place. Distance in time in the real sense, may not exist when learners and teachers are in the same country (except for countries where more than one time zones exists) but when we have them in two different countries, it would exist. For example, when a student in Nigeria studying Masters in Instructional Design and Technology at the Open University of Malaysia, The Nigerian student and other students in Africa are at a different time zone from the lecturers and other students at Malaysia. Malaysia is 7 hours ahead of Nigeria. When they are at the office in the morning, let’s say by 8:00am, Nigeria is at 1:00am (in the early hours of the day when in Nigeria people are sleeping). Distance in time could also occur in study time. Unlike the conventional method of teaching where students are expected to meet with their teacher at a particular time, in Open and Distance Learning, you can study at your pace. Let assume you have two NOUN students – Amadi and Gambo admitted into M.Ed. Educational Administration and Planning in the Faculty of Education. Since Amadi and Gambo are in the same programme, it means they will be using same course materials. But by the virtue of ODL they may not be studying course materials at the same time. Amadi may choose to study at nights while Gambo may prefer early hours. So they have the opportunity of setting out the time that is best for them to study. This separation between teachers and students in place and or time is usually constant in open and distance learning system. 3.1.2 Openness Openness is the keyword behind the philosophy of open and distance learning. To make you understand the concept of openness, look at Mishra (2012) explanation of openness. She opines that to open something, must to admit that it has been closed before, thus by default, we must accept that education system have been closed before now and there is the need to open it up. Openness in open and distance learning can be discussed in three major areas: people, places and ideas (Kanwar, 2015). Go over these briefly. 3.1.2.1 Openness as to People At this level, openness is directed to the people that are seeking higher education. It means that access to higher education has to be increased. Sometimes, this is done by reducing the rigidity in entry requirements or by 19  removing them entirely. While in most countries like Nigeria, it has been difficult to enforce the practice of open entry, according to Mishra (2012) Asian open universities have been practicing the concept of open entry. Other ideas included in openness as to people include the provision of opportunity to study subjects of choice to earn a degree as well as learning at one’s pace and time. These would be discussed later when flexibility is being discussed. 3.1.2.2 Openness as to Place Openness at this level means the removal of the boundary of the educational institution. In open education, it has become the norm that learning does not have to take place within the walls of the classroom in a university campus. In open learning, learning can take place anytime and anywhere. In other words, the learners are allowed to learn where it is most convenient to them with no regards to the place and the time. This philosophy has been given impetus by the use of smart phones that allows students to access their materials in the bus, train, car or office and as well as their homes. They can also do this any time. 3.1.2.3 Openness as to Ideas In opening discussion on openness to ideas, Mishra (2012) has this to say, “In the field of computer science, the word open connotes free and unrestricted distribution of the source code with rights to create derivative works”. Translating this to the field of education, it means that educational institution should also open up on their courseware. This led to David Wiley to coin the term open content in 1998. Open content refers to educational content that can be reused, revised, remixed and redistributed without violating copyright laws. This movement eventually led to the birth of the Open Educational Resources (OER) movement and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) concept. It is important to note that NOUN is a participant in both OER and MOOCs. 3.1.3 Flexibility Flexibility is another distinguishing factor for open and distance learning. For Musingafi, Mapuranga, Chiwanza & Zebron (2015), flexibility is one of the major benefits of open and distance learning. Flexibility too can be examined in three areas: place, time and pace. 20 3.1.3.1 Flexibility in Time There are times when learners would not be available when learning activities would be going on. Through the use of asynchronous learning methods, the learners could still go back and participate in what has been taught. Asynchronous learning still open wide the possibility of peer learning and tutor interaction unlike in the conventional system when absence from class makes it impossible to participate again. 3.1.3.2 Flexibility in Place Open learning has made it possible for learners to learn wherever they are at any point in time. In a research carried out by Ndudzo and Nyatanga (2013), it was discovered that “employed professionals may be moved occasionally as part of their work. Respondents (97%) indicated that they are attracted to ODL because their education is not adversely affected by temporary migration which takes place as a result of job transfers” (p. 25). This is also true of NOUN as we have heard students transferred to other cities and they are permitted to write examination in the centres where they find themselves during the examination period. 3.1.3.3 Flexibility in Pace Flexibility in pace has to do with the learning speed of the learners. Though seldom used by students in NOUN, learners have the opportunity to take the number of courses they can cope with as long as they register for nothing less than 10 credit units in a semester. Ndudzo and Nyatanga (2013) also confirm this as their research shows that “90% indicated that they chose ODL because of its flexibility on the speed required when pursuing their degree and diploma programmes” (p. 25). 3.1.4 Accessibility Apart from accessibility due to relaxation of entry requirements discussed under openness, open and distance learning offers “learning opportunities to individuals who are disadvantaged because of their location or gender or economic constraints” (p. 11). The disadvantaged people include prisoners. NOUN has study centres in many prisons in Nigeria and some of the prisoners have graduated from their chosen courses. Hitherto, prisoners in Nigeria have no access to higher education due to the closed nature of universities and the closed nature of the prison too. Apart from prisoners, women in purdah too have been securing access to higher education because of the accessibility offered by the open and distance learning. The physically challenged, especially the blind are being given access to higher education by NOUN. This is because the university has brailled some of her course materials and still in the process of brailling others. 21 3.1.5 Affordability In a research carried out by Rupanda and Nyenya (2014) in Zimbabwe, 90% of the students agree that open and distance learning is affordable. And “many of the respondents, who argued that open and distance learning is affordable, were highlighting the flexible payment plans” (p. 26). It is important to know that NOUN also run flexible payment plans in two streams. Firstly, a student is allowed to pay the compulsory fees at once and defer the payment of the course registration and the examination fees. These can also be paid separately. The most important thing however is that the fees have to be paid completely before the registration closes and this usually takes between 2 to 3 months. Secondly, a student can just register for a minimum of 10 credit hours per semester till he completes all the required credits for graduation. It is also a credit to NOUN that no other forms of payment are made by the students as long as they have paid their fees. No lecturer sells books or materials to them and no one is harassed for any other fees. Referring to the Rupanda and Nyenya (2014) research, the remaining 10% that thinks that open and distance learning is not affordable thinks so because “the student still has to budget for travelling from his home to the regional centres for tutorials” (p. 26). However, unlike Zimbabwe Open University, NOUN allows tutorials in all centres, thus there is no need for students to travel to another centre for tutorials. Apart from this, NOUN has many study centres and students are encouraged to register at the centre closes to their home or office as the case may be, thereby avoiding huge transportation cost. 3.1.6 Technologically Driven Even in the days of distance education, technological advancement had always contributed to the development of the educational industry. We have also stated in Unit 1 that technological development accelerated the coming of open and distance learning. Fozdar (2015) also says that the advancement of information and communication technologies “have given rise to new opportunities for sharing information, resources, and experiences, as well as providing network opportunities with student peers, tutors, and the instructors” (p. 9). Describing the variety of opportunities opened up for educational delivery through the use technological advancement, Pena-Bandalaria (2007) has this to say: Fourth generation DE can be aptly described using terms e-Learning (electronic learning), m-Learning (mobile learning), and u-Learning (ubiquitous learning). The fourth generation can also be viewed as an ‘empowered phase.’ For teachers, the use of ICTs helped enhance their skills and knowledge. For students, use of ICTs enabled them to assert more control over their learning environment, specifically the ‘how,’ the ‘when,’ and the ‘where,’ and sometimes even the ‘what’ they will learn. Both students and 22 teachers now have more flexibility to shape and structure their learning/teaching environment to take full advantage of fellow participants’ prior experiences. This dynamic of ‘sharing prior knowledge and skills and contextualizing within the course materials’ makes the educational experience far richer and more conducive to critical and higher-order thinking. Though not all these media are available yet in Nigeria, but you will agree that open and distance learning is technologically driven. 3.1.7 Use of Mixed Media Courseware The use of various types of media to pass on instruction to the learners is a major feature of the open and distance learning system. The mixed-media courseware includes print, radio, television broadcast, audio, video, computer- based instruction and telecommunications. Though we have to admit that this feature is just partially operated in NOUN currently, it has been clearly stated in the university’s blueprint that it is the way to go about instructional delivery. We also have to admit that the university is striving to ensure that this is done in the nearest time possible. You need to know that the aforementioned media can be synchronous or asynchronous and interactive and non-interactive. Mishra (2017) gives a graphic view of this as shown below: Media Non-Interactive Interactive Print-based Text books Self-instructional print (text and materials (partially graphics interactive). An example of based this is the NOUN course materials. Audio-based Audiocassette and radio Telephone, audio broadcasts. conferences, audio-vision and interactive radio. Video-based Video and television Video conferencing and broadcasts interactive television Computer- Textual delivery of materials Integrated multimedia, based in Compact Discs (CDs), computer-mediated floppy and static web-pages communication, e-mails, chats, discussion groups, automated response system Source: S. Mishra (2017). Media and Technology in Distance Education 3.1.8 Interactivity One of the major criticisms against all odds is the lack of contact between students and lecturers on the one hand between learners on the other. To resolve this problem, practitioners of open and distance learning have touted interactivity. Speaking in this vein, Nakpodia (2010) believes that the 23 separation of student and teacher imposed by a vital link of communication between these two important stakeholders in open and distance learning. The link is what is being reintegrated through interactivity. Jheengut (2010) defines interaction as a “kind of action that occurs between 2 or more ‘objects’ where the action creates an impact” (p. 2). For Tomei (2008) interactivity is the silent, critical, creative conversation within a student's mind that is spurred on and supported by the learning environment. There are four kinds of interactivity, namely: learner-to-content, learner-to-instructor, learner-to-learner and learner-to-technology interactivities. 3.1.8.1 Learner-to-Content This is the interactivity that comes when the learner studies or examines the course content (Moore & Keasley, 1996) and other instructional activities. The content can take any or a combination of the following forms: text, audio or videotape, CD-ROM, computer programme or an online communication. Zimmerman (2012) says that, in its most basic definition, learner-content interaction refers to time spent with course content including textbooks, PowerPoint, web pages and discussion forums. 3.1.8.2 Learner-to-Instructor This is the interaction that transpires between the learners and the lecturers that is intended to reinforce students’ understanding of the course contents. Sher (2009) says that the interaction can take the following forms: instructor’s delivery of information, encouraging the learner or the provision of feedback. It also includes the learners’ interaction with the instructor by asking questions or communication with the instructor regarding course activities. 3.1.8.3 Learner-to-Learner This is the interaction that occurs among learners in a web-based instruction. It can be between one learner and another learner or among several learners. For effective learning to take place, four types of peer behaviour are necessary: participation, response, provision of effective feedback and short focused messaging. Learner-learner interactivity is expected to promote the understanding of the course content and to stimulate critical thinking. Sher (2009) defines learner-learner interactivity as the “exchange of information and ideas that occurs among students about the course in the presence or absence of the instructor” (p. 104). This interaction can take the form of group projects or group discussion. Thus it fosters learning through student collaboration and knowledge sharing. 3.1.8.4 Learner-to-Technology At the beginning of research in interactivity, the earlier named types of interactivity were the ones usually named as held as the basics or foundation of interactivity (Moore, 1989; Anderson, 2003; Conrad et al., 2013). However, it has now dawned on more scholars that in the open and distance learning 24 system, most of the time, technology is the major, if not the only medium. For example, the instructor uses technology to present the content to the students and the students also make use of technology to access the content. Consequently, learner-to- technology came up as the fourth type of interactivity. You need to note that other scholars call this learner-to-interface interactivity (Hillman, Willis & Gunawardena, 1994). Learner-to- technology is the interactivity between the learners and the technological tools that has been used to present the content that is to be learnt by the learner. 3.1.9 Learner-Centeredness Mykrä (2015) defines learner-centred teaching as a learning activity in which “learners must be actively engaged in the processing of information and that the teaching and learning process involves an interaction among the teacher, the students and the content” (p. 7). Learner-centred learning shifts focus of instruction from the teacher to the learner. It aims at improving students’ learning and success rather than the transmission of information. Below is a graphic illustration of the traditional teacher centred learning and learner- centred learning: Source: atlascorps.com From the above illustration, you can see the flow of interaction in learner- centered approach in comparison with same in the teacher-centered approach. 25 Self-Assessment Activity Differentiate between an open and Distance University and a conventional university. 4.0 Conclusion In this unit, you have taken a brief overview of the characteristics of open and distance learning from the general characteristics like separation of teacher and learner (which has been a dominant feature of distance learning from correspondence learning to open learning) to learner-centeredness, a more recent approach to learning. Other characteristics include: openness (which is expressed in three categories: openness as to people, place and ideas); flexibility (which is also expressed in three categories: flexibility in time, place and pace); accessibility, affordability, interactivity (which is also expressed in four categories: learner to content, learner to instructor, learner to learner and learner to technology interactivities) and learner-centeredness. 5.0 Summary To recap what you have learned in this unit, click on the video below or copy the link and paste on a web browser. The video is a summary of what you have read in this unit. You could also click on the audio version and listen. You can also download them and play offline. Video Audio 6.0 References/Further Reading Conrad, D., Mackintosh, W., McGreal, R., Murphy, A. & Witthaus, G. (2013). Report on the assessment and accreditation of learners using OER. Retrieved 14 February 2018 from http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/232 Jheengut, I. (2010). Importance of interactivity in open and distance learning continuous professional development courses, available in http://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/2257 Mishra, S. (2017). Media and technology in distance education, available in www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/6540/1/Unit-5.pdf 26 Unit 3 Teaching and Learning in the Open and Distance Learning System Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Learning Environment 3.2 The Teacher in Open and Distance Learning 3.2.1 Creator and Manager of Learning Environment 3.2.2 Instructor 3.2.3 Facilitator 3.3 The Learner in Open and Distance Learning 3.3.1 Learners’ Demography 3.3.1.1 Gender 3.3.1.2 Age 3.3.1.3 Employment Status 3.3.2 Characteristics of Open and Distance Learning Learners 3.3.2.1 Independence versus Collaboration 3.3.2.2 Motivated 3.3.2.3 Adaptation to Technology 3.3.2.4 Discipline 3.3.2.5 Active Participation 3.3.2.6 Effective Communication 3.3.2.7 Reflective Skills 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 Introduction In the previous unit, you have examined the unique features that characterize the open and learning system of education. By now, you should be able to define accessibility, affordability and flexibility and also write extensively on the various dimensions of openness such as openness to ideas, openness to ideas as well as openness in terms of contents. In this unit, you would be introduced to teaching and learning in open and distance learning system. In the open and distance learning system, learning and teaching takes place in what is known as the learning environment. You will also be exposed to the two important people in the system: the teacher and the learner. 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) By the end of this unit, you will be able to: Define learning environment Navigate any given learning environment Identify the roles of the teacher in the open and distance learning Identify functions of a learner in the open and distance learning 27  Demonstrate the skills required as an open and distance learner. 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Learning Environment Learning environment is a broad term and it refers to the physical (or virtual) locations, contexts and cultures in which students learn. Hall (2001) defines it as follows: A learning environment is software designed as an all-in-one solution that can facilitate online learning for an organization. It includes the functions of a learning management system for those courses within the learning environment, but it may not be able to track online courses that were not created within this particular learning environment. A learning environment is characterized by an interface that allows students to register and take courses, staying within that environment for the duration of the course. The program will usually include some self-instructional portions, along with an academic model of a multi-week course. An instructor often facilitates this model, where a group can proceed on a week-to-week basis into seminar assignment. Most learning environments include an authoring capability for creation of additional courses for the instructor. The learning environment has been seen largely as the ‘third teacher’ that can either enhance learning, optimize students’ potential to respond creatively and meaningfully or detract from it. Researchers have come to an understanding that the learning environment is more that the physical space (Fraser, 2012). This is the basis for Warger and Dobbin’s (2009) definition of learning environment: The term learning environment encompasses learning resources and technology, means of teaching, modes of learning, and connections to societal and global contexts. The term also includes human behavioural and cultural dimensions, including the vital role of emotion in learning, and it requires us to examine and sometimes rethink the roles of teachers and students because the ways in which they make use of spaces and bring wider societal influences into play animates the educational enterprise. The focus on information technology in education is expanding from the enhancement of learning spaces to include factors beyond hardware, software, and the network. The learning environment is a composite of human practices and material systems, much as an ecology is the combination of living things and the physical environment. 3.2 The Teacher in Open and Distance Learning As you would have noticed, there is a world of difference between conventional institutions and distance learning institutions. These differences are not restricted to the characteristics alone, it affects the role of the teachers 28 too. There is no question that the role of the teacher is changing in the contemporary world. “The teacher is no longer the ‘dispenser of information’ (O’Neil, 2006), unlike in traditional education where the teacher has absolute control of the learning environment and information. Commenting on the changing role of the teacher in the open and distance learning system, Beaudoin (1990) says the emergence of the increasingly student-centered learning activities in the 1990s, facilitated by new instructional technology introduced in the 1980s, is contributing to a dramatic evolution in faculty roles. The following are the major roles of the teacher in the open and distance learning system. 3.2.1 Creator and Manager of Learning Environment In the sub-unit above, you have studied about the learning environment in the open and distance learning system. The first role of the open and distance learning teacher is hinged on the learning system. According to Berge (1995), the teacher in the open and distance learning system has the “responsibility of keeping discussion tracks, contributing special knowledge and insights, weaving together various discussion threads and course components, and maintaining group harmony”. To perform this function, a function that may be regarded as the core function, the teacher becomes a team member and looses the total control of the learning environment (O’Neil, 2006). As Muirhead (2001) opines, the role of the teacher changes from that of information transmitter to that of a guide who meaningfully arrange the learner-centered experiences. This function is what Bull (2013) referred to as that of a tour guide. He says: … the online teacher plays the role of guiding students through one or more online learning experiences. These experiences are most often designed and planned long before the course starts so that the teacher can devote more time to guiding the students and less time preparing lessons. Within this role, the teacher directs and redirects the attention of learners toward key concepts and ideas. This undoubtedly is the most important or the basic function of the teacher within the open and distance learning system. 3.2.2 Instructor Another role the teacher takes up in the open and distance learning system is to be an instructor. Pereira (2005) says that the teacher has to “provide instruction about the contents of the learning; to clarify specific items to students; and to provide individual support to the students so that they can recognize their abilities, gain self-confidence, identify the best study methods and self-evaluate acquired learning” (p. 52). The functions of the teacher as an instructor include the motivation of students to perform planned tasks and activities. To enable the motivation of learners, the teacher has to “clarify the learning programme in advance, make the target explicit and, if possible, provide an indication about how to achieve 29 the goals” (Pereira, 2005:52). Sometimes this would involve giving the students an academic calendar of the course from the beginning and giving out rubrics when assignments are given. Another activity that the teacher has to undertake as an instructor is the maintenance of interaction with the learners and this can be done mostly through the e-mail and the telephone where desirable. 3.2.3 Facilitator In the open and distance learning environment, learning is usually collective. The teacher in this environment functions as a facilitator. In the collaborative learning model, interaction occurs among learners about the content. Thus, “the teacher assumes the role of facilitator of interactive process among learners, trying to manage this interaction in order to achieve high learning standards” (P. 53). Consequently, the teacher features often in the discussion forums acting like a compere of the discussion. 3.3 The Learner in Open and Distance Learning 3.3.1 Learners’ Demography When dealing with the issue of learner characteristics in open and distance learning, the demography is very important because it gives insight to the nature of student population of the institution. Exposing you to these details would help you as a student to have an idea of the demographical analysis of the people you would be relating with during your course of study. In the first sub-unit of this section, three demographic elements, namely: gender, age and employment status would be examined. 3.3.1.1 Gender In a study carried out at the Lagos Study Centre, Adewale (2014) discovered that 40% of the respondents were male while 60% were females. Though while the overall difference in gender may not be high as ratio 40:60, this shows that National Open University of Nigeria has more female students than male. Lagos Study Centre, being the largest study centre of the university in terms of student’s population can actually be representative of the entire university. 30 3.3.1.2 Age In the same study referred to above, the age distribution of the students is as follows: S/N Age Range Percentage 1. 16 – 20 5% 2. 21 – 30 40% 3. 31 - 40 25% 4. 41 - 50 20% 5. 51 and above 10% Total 100% This implies that nearly half of the respondents are in their youthful age. This finding corresponds too with Gao (2012) who also concludes that most of the students in China’s open and distance learning institutions are young adults within the ages of 21 to 40. The importance of this finding for you as a student is that no matter your age range, you have your mates to identify with. This means that no one is excluded or isolated in terms of age. 3.3.1.3 Employment Status The same study also showed the employment status as follows: S/N Employment Status Percentage 1. Unemployed 30% 2. Self-Employed 24.8% 3. Employed 45.2% Total 100% The above table shows that the working class students in NOUN are about 70% of the total population while 30% are not in any form of employment. This thus shows that many students are really gaining in the university’s work and learn opportunity. As a student, you would know that whether you are working or not, you would always have students in your employment category to mingle with and work with. 3.3.2 Learning Characteristics of ODL Learners It has always been indicated among scholars that there are certain characteristics that marked out the distance learners, and these have been used in deciding the pedagogical approach. However, some or most of these qualities are no longer tenable or can be said to be in contention. For example, Cranton (1989) have suggested that most students of open and distance learning institutions are adult students. In the past, this assertion is correct but across the globe today, this characteristic is changing fast. Let us refer to Adewale (2014) and Gao (2012): the two were able to show that currently, young adults from 16 to 31 form the majority of open and distance learning institutions’ student population. This fact is attributable to the low carrying capacity of conventional institutions on one hand and the problems of unemployment on the other. Thus, in this section, we would be examining the 31 current characteristics expected of a learner of an open and distance learning institution with a view of letting you know the qualities you need to have to succeed. 3.3.2.1 Independence versus Collaboration Traditionally and to a large extent today, the open and distance learner can find himself isolated and independent (if he or she chooses to). It is easy to find yourself isolated as you may not even go to the study centre except during registration as a new student. However, “the independence and isolation characteristic of the industrial era of distance education is being challenged by the collaborative approaches to learning made possible by learning networks” (Anderson and Garrison, 1998:100). This means that rather than suffer the pains of being isolated and studying alone; you can have the luxury of collaborating with other students in your course. As Dabbagh (2007) opines, you can share your work, “interact with small and large groups in virtual settings and collaborate on projects online or otherwise risk isolation in a community growing increasingly dependent on connectivity and interaction” (p. 219). 3.2.3.2 Motivated Most learners in the open and distance learning institutions are said to be intrinsically motivated and thus do not require a lot of motivation to get them interested in their course of study. It has been argued that the physical absence of the teacher and other peers usually leads to distraction and discouragement, therefore, as a student in the open and distance learning institution you need to keep yourself motivated. To successfully keep yourself motivated, it is important to connect with other classmates (Littlefield, 2012). Also, “collaborating with peers in the discussion groups can be an effective way to motivate learners to stay on task (Seckel, 2007:23). 3.2.3.3 Adaptation to Technology For most of the young adults who have found their way into the open and learning institutions, working in an online environment may not be a problem as they are all digital natives. However, if you are above the age of 50 (you belong to the group that are either digital illiterates or digital migrants), there is the need for you to adapt to the use of technology. As you would have discovered, there is no way you can survive in NOUN if you are not computer literate or computer savvy. From your admission process to registration for courses and examination registration, you have to go through an automated process. Apart from this, all Tutor Marked Assignments as well as the 100 and 200 levels, examinations are administered electronically. If you know you are not good on technology, my advice is that you begin to train yourself until you are able to do most of these technologically based tasks on your own. 32 3.2.3.4 Discipline If you want to be successful as a distance-learning student, you must be able to discipline yourself. As Cheurprakobkit et al. (2002) reports, students in online learning environments must possess “self” behaviours such as “self- discipline, self-monitoring, self-initiative, and self-management”. For example, as a result of the physical absence of a lecturer, it is very easy for learners to feel tired and skip reading assignments. It takes a lot of self-discipline to be able to read, complete assignments or participate in online discussion forums that may be demand usually on a daily basis. As Dabbagh (2007) rightly asserts, “given the physical absence of an instructor in online learning, the ability of learners to monitor and regulate their own learning is critical” (p. 220). As part of your self-discipline, you should be able to draw a personal study time-table to ensure that you study daily and systematically cover all the courses as well as topics you are supposed to cover. You should also be able to check if you are achieving the objectives as set forth in the course. 3.2.3.5 Active Participation This means that as a student you must participate actively in all the demands of the course as directed by your facilitator. This includes participation in the discussion forums as well as the chat forums. To participate actively means you would have to make you comments on the discussion topic as well as comment on the contributions of the other students. This is an essential process of learning in the open and distance learning environment. This is confirmed by Seckel (2007) who says “active participation is the essential element in engaging in the learning process” (p. 25). He states further that when students participate actively in collaborative discussion, provide positive feedback and encourage others to build a collaborative learning community as “peripheral or passive participation can give the student insight into a topic, it does not allow for mastery of a concept” (Seckel, 2007:25). 3.2.3.6 Effective Communication To be able to keep up with the demands of your course and active participation in online discussion forums and chat rooms, you must learn to be an effective communicator. Since the major avenue that you have to express your learning and mastery of concepts is communication with the others you must be good at communication. For example, you must avoid monosyllable responses like ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers and use enhanced discussions. In describing effective responses to online discussion forums, Seckel (2007) has this to say: the content must “relates to the key concepts, provokes … peers to think more insightfully about the concepts, and provides examples or readings to enhance their peers’ understanding of the material” (p. 24). This aspect is what Dabbagh (2007) termed discursive or dialogical skills. This he said “include ability to discuss issues (being discursive), share and debate ideas, negotiate meaning, demonstrate openness to multiple perspectives, and possess good articulation and listening skills” (p. 221). 33 Apart from the above concept of communication, there are two other aspects. The first is that you should avoid keeping mute when you have issues either with the technology or with the course contents. In Seckel’s (2007) words: “e- learners must be responsible for locating, reading, and analyzing their assignments, understanding the expectations involved, asking questions when they arise, and communicating with the instructor to clarify requirements” (p. 24). The other issue is that of netiquette. 3.2.3.7 Reflective Skills Reflective skill is one of the important skills expected of an open and distance learning institution’s student. Dabbagh (2007) defines reflective skills as the ability to apply frequent and substantive consideration and assessment of one’s learning process and products. Through this process, the learner can identify their strengths and weaknesses and then build up an improvement. As Seckel (2007) says, these types of assessment takes the form of “diaries, online blogs, or reflection assignments and are useful in revisiting the material they have covered in the course, and reflect on what was gained from the experience and from the materials covered” (p. 25). Self-Assessment Activity In your context, list the characteristics of open and distance learning students and compare yourself with those to determine if you fit in. 4.0 Conclusion In this unit, you have seen the various definitions of the learning environment and you have also been allowed to explore characteristics and learning environment of the distance leaner. In fact, your participation in this course is taking place through a learning environment. You have also examined the role of a teacher in the open and distance learning system as a manager of the learning environment, instructor and facilitator. You have also looked at the characteristics required of an open and distance learning system which is expected in seven areas: independent and collaborative learning, motivated learning, self-disciplined learning, technologically savvy, active participation, effective communication and reflective skills. 5.0 Summary To recap what you have learned in this unit, click on the video below or copy the link and paste on a web browser. The video is a summary of what you have read in this unit. You could also click on the audio version and listen. You can also download them and play offline. 34 Video Audio 6.0 References/Further Reading Bull, B. (2013). Eight roles of an effective online teacher. Faculty Focus, available at http://facultyfocus.com/author/bernard-bull-edd Hall, B. (2001). New technology definitions. Available at www.brandonhall.com/public/glossary/index.htm Littlefield, J. (2012). Is distance learning right for you? Retrieved from http://distancelearn.about.com/od/isitforyou/a/considering.htm 35 MODULE 2 STUDY SKILLS FOR THE DISTANCE LEARNER Unit 1 Listening Unit 2 Speaking Unit 3 Reading Unit 4 Writing Unit 5 Study Strategies Unit 1 Listening Contents 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Listening as an Essential Study Skill 3.1.1 Strategies for Efficient Listening 3.1.2 Types or Purposes of Listening 3.1.3 Advantages of Learning through Listening 3.1.4 Barriers to Effective Listening 3.1.5 Essential Components of Listening 3.1.6 Steps to Becoming an Effective Listener 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 Introduction Listening is considered to be the first of the four basic language skills (viz: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing). It is an activity we perform daily which involves receiving sounds through the ears, and processing it into meaningful bits. When we listen, it is not only the ears that are at work, but the brain too. When we receive sounds through our ears, our brain converts these messages for proper assimilation and understanding. Can you think of situations where you have listened? Of course! You listen in the classroom when lectures are going on, or to your course mates when you are having group class discussions. You also listen to your parents, siblings and friends at home and many other people you meet every day. Often, we interchange listening with hearing but while both words may have similar or common grounds for understanding, they are primarily different. Hearing is the most basic level of the use of our ears. It involves a simple physical act of sounds filtering into our ears automatically as long as there are no hearing impairments while listening is a more intense and mental activity whereby meaning is assigned to the sounds received by the brain. This 36 means that listening will entail much more than simply hearing but also a concentrated effort to assimilate and to understand what is heard. Hearing is said to be a physiological process (passive and physical) while listening is a cognitive process (active and mental). As a student, you should strive to be a good listener, as your success will hinge on it. You are expected to listen with rapt attention to all cues, both verbal and non-verbal and remember always that your main objective of listening is to comprehend what you are hearing. In this unit, you will be studying about listening, what it entails and how you can effectively improve your learning through listening. 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs) By the end of this unit, you will be able to: List the importance of listening as a study skill Identify strategies that will enhance effective listening Define listening Explain types of listening Distinguish between listening and hearing. Identify the type of listening that could be applied to various speaking situations. Identify factors that may influence the effectiveness of your listening List the characteristics of a good listener Identify the barriers to effective listening Demonstrate the skills of listening in acquiring new knowledge. 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Listening as an Essential Study Skill Listening is one very essential skill that you must acquire to be able to succeed in your study. It is in fact, an essential part of your daily activity. As a student, listening is considered to be your primary medium of learning because you have to listen to lectures. Your unique situation as an Open and Distance Learner means you could listen to your lectures through a variety of resources. You could listen to your lectures via online virtual classroom, tape recorders, radio, television etc. You listen in two major ways. You either listen in general or you listen for specific purposes. When you listen in a social setting, you are listening in general but when you listen to get information or direction, you are listening for a specific purpose. As a student, when you listen to lectures, you are also listening for a specific purpose. There is no doubt that listening is an essential skill that you must consciously develop if you desire efficiency in your study. It will help you as a student to 37 become an active learner and this will significantly improve your interpersonal and verbal communication skills. 3.1.1 Strategies for Efficient Listening Have you ever felt disturbed after listening to a 2 hour lecture and still feel like you have gained nothing! Perhaps you have been listening the wrong way. Let us look at some strategies that encourage efficient listening. 3.1.1.1 Stop Talking and Pay Attention The first step towards listening effectively is to stop talking. When someone else is talking, be attentive and prepared to listen. Do not interrupt their speech or try to complete their sentences because you think you know what they want to say. Ideally, you should let the speaker finish talking then you can clarify to actually confirm that you have received the actual message they have passed and not what you think it should be. 3.1.1.2 Maintain Eye Contact with the Speaker When you are genuinely interested in what someone is saying, you face the person and occasionally make eye contact while they are talking. In addition to this, you nod and smile at appropriate times to let the speaker know that you are following them. 3.1.1.3 Empathize with the Speaker You should make the speaker feel free talking to you. You can achieve this when you have an open mind. You should let go of pre-conceived ideas or notions on particular subjects, while you try to understand the speaker’s perspective. Even when you disagree with the speaker, do not jump in or interrupt, wait to the end to bring out your disagreements constructively. 3.1.1.4 Remove Physical and Mental Distractions When you want to optimize your listening ability, you are encouraged to cast away other infiltrating thoughts and focus on the speaker. The tendency for other things to stream through your thoughts while you are listening to another thing may be there, but do not let your mind wander from the topic or speech. Endeavour to make a conscious effort to be in the present, to be there for the speaker alone. 3.1.1.5 Be Alert to Non-verbal Cues from the Speaker When you are truly listening, you will notice that the speaker communicates much more through unspoken cues, gestures, facial expressions, voice tone, body language etc. It is important that you understand the motives and the attitudes behind a speaker’s message. For example, your friend says "I'm fine thank you” while wearing a long face and a shrug of the shoulders in response 38 to your enquiry about his wellbeing could mean that things are not really as fine as should be. 3.1.1.6 Take Notes A good listener puts down important points while listening to enable him to remember, summarise and clarify whatever doubts that may arise. Note taking will reinforce in you, what you have heard from what have been said and as such, provide a permanent record that you can refer back to. 3.1.2 Types or Purposes of Listening As mentioned earlier, listening is an integral part of our daily life as students and as individuals. We listen for different purposes. As a student, you listen for academic purposes; an example is when you listen to your lecturer teaching. You could also listen at seminars, workshops and during class presentations. Let us look at some other reasons for listening. 3.1.2.1 The Active or Attentive Listening This describes situations when you listen intently to learn. In Active or Attentive Listening, you are expected to listen attentively to understand the actual message the speaker is delivering. Here, you are expected to focus on understanding the speakers words and message accurately; taking in both the verbal and non-verbal cues. Instances are when you listen to classroom lectures or other academic lectures. 3.1.2.2 The Critical or Analytical Listening The Critical or Analytical Listening involves listening to be able to evaluate and analyse received message or what you are being told. The focus is to evaluate whether the message is logical and reasonable to enable you decide on either accepting or rejecting it. 3.1.2.3 The Emphatic or Therapeutic Listening This type of listening takes place when you listen to provide emotional support to the speaker. Instances are when you give ear to friends, relations and acquaintances that need to pour out their feelings to someone. The focus of the Emphatic or Therapeutic Listening is to understand the speaker’s feelings without delivering judgments. 3.1.2.4 Appreciative Listening Appreciative Listening involves listening for pure pleasure and for enjoyment. It is also described as the process of listening with an intention to appreciate what the speaker is talking about. It is mostly used when you are listening to various entertainment packages, like listening to certain music or radio/television for the purpose of enjoyment, and to some speakers because 39 you like or admire them. You should note that in appreciative listening, it is your response as a listener that defines it not the source or speaker. 3.1.3 Advantages of Learning through Listening 3.1.3.1 Increased Academic Understanding When you listen, you are in a better position to understand the speaker’s content and can easily identify the main ideas expressed in the speech or teachings. You are better equipped to concentrate, retain information in your memory and are able to recall and build upon this knowledge when the need arises. 3.1.3.2 Improved Communication Skills Learning through listening greatly enhances a students’ communication skill. Intensive listening will enhance your ability to absorb and transmit information given during a communication exchange. As a student, you are able to show your ability to listen and comprehend when you can interact with fellow students and the tutor or speaker at the end of a lecture. A well-developed listening skill will improve your communications and offer your future listeners greater clarity and empathy. 3.1.3.3 Ability to Block out Distractions This is an essential aspect of active listening. Intensive listening teaches you to block out distractions that are present where you are communicating, to enable full concentration and comprehension. 3.1.3.4 Increased Retention A good listener will develop an increased ability to process and retain ideas and information heard. As you listen, you build on previous learning and experiences thereby deepening your comprehension on the ideas or topics discussed and consolidating a long-term memory of the topic. 3.1.3.5 Large Vocabulary Development Active Listening exposes you to new words and vocabulary daily. When you encounter these words in the course of listening, you may decide to ask questions or look them up in the dictionary, thereby effortlessly increasing your vocabulary. This is a technique you intrinsically develop in the process of listening. 3.1.4 Barriers to Effective Listening A number of factors could pose as barriers to effective listening. We would look at some of these barriers to enable identification and possible resolution. 3.1.4.1 Physical Barriers One major constraint to effective listening is hearing impairment. Imagine you have a deaf student in your class and your teacher cannot use sign language. This spells disaster for the student because he will not be able to actively listen and participate in class except he is equipped with hearing aid. 40 A noisy non-conducive environment is another barrier. Let us look at two examples. Firstly, if your classroom is close to a busy road with its attendant blaring horn and sirens from motorists, your listening will certainly be affected. Secondly, if you find yourself sitting at the back of the class during lectures and surrounded by a noisy group, certainly, your listening will be affected. To avoid this situation, always come early to classes so you can get comfortable sitting with little or no distractions. 3.1.4.2 Physiological Barriers When the mental/physical state of the individual is compromised e.g. the listener could be ill, tired and/or sleepy. Imagine you had an all-night prayer vigil and you are still required to attend class the next day, your listening will be greatly impaired as you will be fighting sleep all through the lecture period. 3.1.4.3 Psychological Barriers We view psychological barriers as thoughts or feelings that could cause distractions when we are trying to listen. This could be as a result of anxiety, preoccupation, egocentrism or prejudice. 3.1.4.4 Linguistic Barriers Language plays a very significant role in communication. A listener might be deprived of getting the full impact of a speech when there arises a disconnect between the speaker and listener based on linguistic challenges. Some of these challenges are: use of specialized language, unfamiliar words or jargons, complex sentences, pace of speech delivery (either too fast or too slow) among others. 3.1.4.5 Perceptual Barriers The experiences of perceptual barriers arise when the speaker and the listener possibly view the same situation from varying points. This could be because of socio-cultural differences, intellectual expectations etc. There are also instances where individual perceptions are limited or become selective. This results in the listener taking-in what he wants only and discarding the rest. All these invariably affect understanding. 3.1.5 Essential Components of Listening Listening might appear to be a simple process, but it is actually a complex aspect of the communication process. It is made up of several core components as featured below. 3.1.5.1 Hearing or Receiving This refers to the physical response process of receiving the sound filtering into the ears. It involves focusing on hearing first, the message from the speaker and being able to filter out other intruding stimuli. Effective learning requires attentiveness and concentration at the hearing stage. 3.1.5.2 Comprehending or Understanding At this point, you are able to truly understand the speaker’s verbal message and other subtle mannerisms and unspoken cues. Comprehension is usually 41 influenced by differences in our backgrounds, previous knowledge, perception and experience. 3.1.5.3 Remembering The process comes to bear after the listener has received messages through hearing, interpreted and understood the messages and then stored it in his memory to enable future recall. 3.1.5.4 Evaluating Evaluating consists of judging or deciding the value of information received. Often times we unconsciously evaluate a speaker’s underlying intentions or motives based on our personal biases and prejudices. The result is that evaluations of the same information may vary from one listener to another. 3.1.5.5 Responding or Feedback The feedback, which happens at the end of the communication, helps the speaker to determine if his message has been received. This is the only way to determine the degree of success in information transmission. Feedback can both be given verbally and/or nonverbally 3.1.6 Steps to Becoming an Effective Listener The art or skill of effective listening requires practice as well as developing an awareness of what is happening in and around you when you are listening to others. You must understand what is involved in the listening process and develop the necessary techniques required for effective listening. There are a good number of procedures you can utilise towards becoming an effective listener. But for the purpose of this course, we will only treat four. 3.1.6.1 Be Prepared to Listen You should prepare yourself mentally to listen and assimilate as best as you can what you are listening to with an overall intention of understanding the topic. You are here advised to quieten the wandering of your inner thoughts and make room for the speaker’s agenda. It is also good to have a pre- knowledge of what you have come to listen to, that way, you can construct a mental outline of where the speaker is going in his speech without being overtly pre-emptive. 3.1.6.2 Concentrate on the Speaker’s Content and Context While listening, you should keep in mind the background and theme of speech. This strategy will trigger residual knowledge and enable you to absorb the content quickly and efficiently. That way, you will be more in tune with the speaker, picking out key words, phrases and emotions. 3.1.6.3 Ask questions when the Time is Right You should ask the right questions at the right time. This is quite different from interruption. When you are following the progress of a speech or lecture, you should be able to determine the appropriate time to interject with your questions. Questioning ensures you have clarification of what has