Growing Up With Literature, 6th Edition (PDF)

SIXTH EDITION GROWING UP WITH This page intentionally left blank SIXTH EDITION GROWING UP WITH LITERATURE Walter E. Sawyer, EdD Foreword by Francis P. Hodge Hodge Podge Books, Albany, NY Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Growing Up With Literature, © 2012 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Sixth Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Locate your local office at: international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Wadsworth Cengage Learning, visit www.cengage.com/wadsworth Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 DEDICATION To Jean C. Sawyer, who truly understands the beauty and power of literature. W.S. This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Foreword by Francis P. Hodge xvii Preface xix About the Author xxv Acknowledgments xxvii CHAPTER 1 WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 1 THE VALUE OF LITERATURE 4 Learning about the World 5 Building Positive Attitudes 7 The Human Connection 10 EMERGING LITERACY AND LITERATURE 11 Theory and Research on Literacy 13 A Literacy Curriculum 17 Reading Skills 18 Realistic Expectations 20 Authors and Illustrators 23 SUMMARY 24 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 24 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 25 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 26 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 29 vii viii CONTENTS CHAPTER 2 PLANNING FOR SUCCESS 31 KEY PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 32 CONDITIONS OF LEARNING 34 CREATING A GOOD ENVIRONMENT FOR INFANTS 35 Emerging Language 35 Linking Language to Literature 36 Reading to Infants 36 Reading Areas for Infants 37 CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR TODDLERS 38 Using Language 38 Toddler Humor 39 Toddler Interests 40 Reading Areas for Toddlers 41 CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR PRESCHOOLERS 42 Using Language 43 Preschool Humor 43 Preschooler Interests 44 Reading Areas for Preschoolers 46 CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT FOR KINDERGARTEN 46 The Power of Language 47 Kindergarten Interests 48 Reading Areas for Kindergarten Children 51 Practical Considerations for Reading Areas 52 Kinds of Materials Needed 53 Creating a Reading Area 56 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 57 HOLDING A BOOK FOR STORY TIME 58 Choosing a Place 58 Discovering Great Books 59 Adults and Children as Storytellers 63 Accommodation of Special Needs 64 SUMMARY 66 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 66 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 67 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 70 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 71 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER 3 CHOOSING THE BEST LITERATURE 73 HOW TO BEGIN 74 ASPECTS OF GOOD CHILDREN’S LITERATURE 77 Characterization 78 Setting 82 Plot 84 Theme 86 PRESENTATION 89 Text Style 89 Narrative Style 91 Illustrations and Photographs 93 Anti-bias Factors 100 SUMMARY 103 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 103 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 104 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 108 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 109 CHAPTER 4 USING VARIOUS TYPES OF LITERATURE 111 HISTORY OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE 112 FINGERPLAYS/CHANTS/RHYMES 113 Fingerplays and Chants 114 Rhymes 115 MOTHER GOOSE TALES/NURSERY RHYMES 115 Mother Goose Activities 116 Nursery Rhymes 116 FABLES/FOLKTALES/FAIRY TALES 117 Fables 117 Folktales 117 Fairy Tales 119 Different Versions 121 Legends 122 PICTURE BOOKS/WORDLESS PICTURE BOOKS 122 x CONTENTS CONCEPT BOOKS 123 Counting Books 124 Alphabet (ABC) Books 125 Selecting Alphabet Books 126 Alphabet Activities 127 FICTION: REALISTIC FICTION/FANTASY FICTION 128 Realistic Fiction 128 Historical Fiction 130 Fantasy Fiction 131 INFORMATIONAL BOOKS: FICTION AND NONFICTION 132 Presenting Information 132 Selecting Books 133 Social Studies 134 Science 135 POETRY 137 Poetic Devices 138 Using Poetry 138 Fostering Creativity with Poetry 140 Selecting Poetry 141 AWARDS AND PRIZES IN CHILDREN’S LITERATURE 141 SUMMARY 143 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 143 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 144 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 149 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 150 CHAPTER 5 MAGIC MOTIVATIONS 151 CAPTURING THE ATTENTION OF CHILDREN 152 Planning the Sharing of a Story 152 More Motivation Ideas 159 IDENTIFYING POSSIBLE PROBLEMS 161 The Importance of Prereading 161 Children’s Interests 162 CONTENTS xi SMOOTH TRANSITIONS 164 Transition Ideas 164 A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT 165 Children Sitting Too Close 166 Disruptions during Reading 167 Acting-Out Children 167 Peer Relations 168 Ignoring Normal Behaviors 169 Regaining Attention 169 How Not to Handle Disruptions 170 SUMMARY 170 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 171 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 172 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 174 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 175 CHAPTER 6 HOW MANY WAYS CAN A STORY BE TOLD? 177 READING ALOUD 178 Using Read-Aloud Books 179 Good Choices for Read-Alouds 180 STORYTELLING 183 How to Be a Storyteller 184 Aili Paal Singer, Storyteller 185 Doug Lipman, Storyteller 189 Join in with the Voice 189 Join in with the Body 190 Make Suggestions 191 A Balance of Participation 193 Good Choices for Oral Storytelling 193 FLANNEL BOARD STORIES 195 Making Flannel Board Materials 196 How to Share Flannel Board Stories 198 Good Choices for Flannel Board Stories 198 xii CONTENTS THEATRICAL STORYTELLING 200 Puppetry 200 Creative Dramatics 205 CHILDREN AS AUTHORS, STORYTELLERS, AND ILLUSTRATORS 210 How to Encourage Children as Authors 212 Good Choices for Child-Created Stories 214 SUMMARY 216 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 216 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 217 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 220 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 220 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATING LITERATURE INTO THE CURRICULUM 223 WEBS AS ORGANIZATIONAL TOOLS 224 A Web for Understanding 224 Planning with a Web 226 Literature Web 226 THEMES FOR DEVELOPING WEBS 229 Subject Area Themes 229 Books That Don’t Fit Themes 235 FACILITATING INTEGRATION 236 Re-creating the Experience 236 Using Children’s Interest 236 A Sense of Flexibility 238 LITERATURE USE IN INTEGRATED UNITS 238 Science Units 241 Social Studies Units 244 Basic Concept Units 245 Cross-Cultural Units 246 SUMMARY 252 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 252 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 253 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 256 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 258 CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER 8 BIBLIOTHERAPY: USING BOOKS TO HEAL 259 UNDERSTANDING BIBLIOTHERAPY 259 Books as Therapy and Didacticism 260 The Chronically Ill Child 261 BENEFITS OF BIBLIOTHERAPY 262 Information 263 Mutuality 263 Empathy 263 Options for Action 264 Reaffirmation of Life 265 USING BIBLIOTHERAPY 265 Developmental Appropriateness 266 Choice of Books 267 Strategies for Presentation 267 ADDRESSING THE CONCERNS OF CHILDREN 270 Self 270 Family 273 Friends 275 Other People 277 Illness and Death 279 The World 281 SUMMARY 284 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 284 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 285 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 291 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 292 CHAPTER 9 USING COMMERCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL MEDIA 293 MEDIA AND LITERATURE 294 TELEVISION: SEEING THE WORLD FROM A CHAIR 294 Negative Aspects of Television 295 Controlling Television Viewing 296 xiv CONTENTS Positive Aspects of Television 297 Using Elements of Television 299 AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS 299 Criteria for Selecting Audiovisual Materials 300 Using Audiovisual Materials 301 MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS 303 Criteria for Selecting Magazines and Newspapers 305 Using Magazines and Newspapers 305 COMPUTERS AND SOFTWARE 306 Criteria for Computer Use 306 Methods of Computer Use 308 Multiple Literacies 309 Useful Websites 310 SUMMARY 310 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 311 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 312 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 313 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 313 USEFUL WEBSITES FOR PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS: EMERGENT LITERACY 314 CHAPTER 10 INVOLVING THE COMMUNITY 317 PLACES TO GO: EXPLORING THE COMMUNITY 318 Field Trip Planning 318 Libraries 319 Museums, Parks, and Zoos 321 Places Serving the Community 324 PEOPLE TO SEE 327 Involving Parents 328 Communicating with Parents 329 Community Representatives 331 SUMMARY 333 QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 333 CHILDREN’S BOOKS CITED 334 SELECTED REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 336 INTERNET REFERENCES AND HELPFUL WEBSITES 337 CONTENTS xv APPENDIX A Publishers and Suppliers 339 APPENDIX B Caldecott Medal Winners 341 APPENDIX C Thematic Unit Outline for Preschoolers: Bears 345 APPENDIX D Subject Groups and Multicultural Authors 349 Author Index 355 Subject Index 365 This page intentionally left blank FOREWORD BY FRANCIS P. HODGE I am delighted to introduce the sixth edition of Growing Up with Literature. Many texts are available emphasizing classroom instruction in literature at all grade levels. Many texts also are on the market offering guidance to parents about the importance of books in the development of young children. This text, with 200 newly added children’s book titles, takes the best of the aforementioned examples and treats the continuity of one to the other. This feature distinguishes Growing Up with Literature from many other contemporary literature-related texts. Dr. Walter Sawyer is eminently qualified to address this topic. I have known Dr. Sawyer, who is both a father and an educator, for over thirty-five years. He has worked diligently with his own children in their development as literate human beings. He has studied and guided school programs aimed at improving literary facility among school children, particularly at the early childhood level. Dr. Sawyer’s approach is truly grassroots in origin. He starts with the WHYS and carefully leads the early childhood educator and the parent along the road to the WHAT, WHYS, and the HOWS. His approach is a carefully conceived road map of operational ideas and suggestions. His points have been tested and have proven successful in numerous cases. He offers alterna- tives, suggesting titles that might be utilized; he indicates areas of concern; and, significantly, he advises caution and thoughtful planning by both parents and teachers. xvii xviii FOREWORD Encouraging a love for literature, developing good readers, and making reading an integral part of everyday life are so important for young readers.Without a foundation from home and early childhood, children often experience difficulty in school, especially in mastery of reading skills. Working through the suggestions and recommendations offered by Dr. Sawyer in Growing Up with Literature can instill in young readers a love for and understanding of literature. PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION The sixth edition of Growing Up with Literature is a book that celebrates the interaction that can take place when quality literature is shared with children. It is a comprehensive guide for the individual wishing to learn how to use children’s books effectively in early childhood programs. Sections are included on selecting appropriate books, motivating children to participate in the experience, integrating literature into a program, and managing the process. Although the primary audience for this text is practitioners in early childhood education programs, parents will find a wealth of information here as well. Philosophy of the Book The philosophy of the book is to present literature as a primary focus of an educational program rather than as an isolated feature used only at storytime. This approach is supported by much of the current thinking, theory, and research on language development and emergent literacy. While the foundation of the book rests on firm conceptual ground, the practical aspects of working with children are at the forefront of the presentation. The book is a hands-on tool for both short- and long-range program planning. It explains such concepts as the link between language and thinking, the role of technology, and emerging literacy in easily understood terms that are easily translated into classroom practice. xix xx PREFACE The text, which focuses exclusively on picture books for young children, makes a valuable contribution to the field of early childhood education. Few practical books on using literature in early childhood programs are based upon the thinking, research, and theory on emerging literacy. Growing Up with Literature provides a wealth of practical ideas and strategies that can be imple- mented in the classroom. The clear, concise explanations describing the process of implementation ensure their transfer. In addition, hundreds of books appropriate for young readers are cited. A wide range of titles is used to familiarize the reader with the variety of books available. The citations range from classics to the latest contemporary publications. The sixth edition includes a listing of two hundred additional children’s book citations. They represent the best of children’s titles published over the last few years. Organization and Key Content Many special features are included. First, and most important, is the approach stressed within the book. The focus is on integrating literature as an integral part of education throughout all areas of the curriculum. This edition also includes expanded sections about nonfiction and multicultural titles for young children. Each chapter includes both references for further reading and a set of questions for thought and discussion. The questions tend not to seek rote types of answers. Rather, they require a more careful analysis of the material in the chapter in order to give a thoughtful and logical response. The chapters of this book are arranged in an order that provides a logical development to understanding an early childhood literature program. They may, however, be read in any order that suits the needs of the reader. Chapter 1 provides an introduction, while Chapter 2 describes a variety of physical environments for enhancing the sharing of literature. Chapters 3 and 4 focus on literature itself. They describe criteria for selecting quality books and strategies for using various types of literature with children. Chapters 5 and 6 describe a variety of procedures for the motivational and creative sharing of literature. Chapter 7 explores the critical aspect of integrating literature with all parts of the curriculum. It provides a variety of approaches and suggestions for developing units. Chapter 8 addresses ways of using books to assist children with their emotional understanding of the world through bibliotherapy and a cautionary note on didacticism. Chapter 9 discusses the influence of television, media, and technology on literature and how they can be used effectively with children. Finally, Chapter 10 summarizes the concept of using the community in conjunction with a literature program for children. PREFACE xxi New to This Edition Major changes and updates found throughout the entire book include: Two hundred of the best new children’s literature titles are suggested for use in activities outlined in the book. These new titles were selected for their relevance, interest, and beauty. Also included are strategies for locat- ing virtually any picture book desired. Key terms and phrases within the context of each are identified with boldface type. The Tips for Teachers sections have been expanded. Major changes and updates by specific chapters include: Chapter 1 updates research on the increased active and background electronic video screen viewing by young children and its effect on literacy. Chapter 2 includes an increased emphasis on children’s books about the vari- eties of families and cultural backgrounds that young children experience. Chapter 3 presents a new section about children’s books that include the concept of sexual orientation as well as how to approach the topic. Chapter 4 provides new content on the history of children’s literature, ac- commodating children with special needs, and a new section dealing with controversial topics found in children’s books (e.g. same sex marriage, child abuse, incarceration of a family member). Chapter 5 includes new material on guidelines for the development of good listening skills, strategies for using formative and summative evaluation of children’s learning, and tools for emphasizing positive reinforcement as a classroom management strategy. Chapter 6 describes new ways for involving children, parents, and community members in the story telling experience. Chapter 7 contains new tools for planning literary units and a revised section on holidays to better meet the needs of children from diverse backgrounds. Chapter 8 presents new material addressing the issues of racial bias, trau- matic brain injury, the death of a friend or family member, and Internet resources for bibliotherapy. Chapter 9 includes revised material on the use of computers, literature- related CDs, DVDs, on-line programs, podcasts, digital imaging, and the Internet, as well as new material on digital literacy. Chapter 10 provides new information on websites that provide for digital field trips to story book settings and new strategies for increasing the xxii PREFACE involvement of children, parents, and community members in the education of children. Features Tips for Teachers This feature is presented in highlighted boxes in numerous locations throughout the chapters, and is directly related to the content in the surrounding text. Each of the tips found here is a practical idea for using the concepts when working with children. End of Chapter Resources Summary—This section, found at the end of each chapter, serves to remind the readers of the major ideas and concepts presented. It can be a useful tool allowing readers to reflect upon whether they feel comfortable with the degree of their new knowledge. Questions for Thought and Discussion—These questions provide an opportunity to demonstrate an understanding of the material presented in the chapter. Rather than focusing on rote recall of information, these questions require readers to demonstrate comprehension, analysis, syn- thesis, and evaluation of the material they have learned. Children’s Books Cited—This section includes a listing of every children’s book noted or described in the chapter, including publication information. Selected References and Resources—This section includes all of the professional literature cited in the text as well as other sources of related information that readers may wish to explore. Internet References and Helpful Websites—This section includes all of the websites cited in the text as well as other websites containing related information that readers may wish to explore. The author and Cengage Learning affirm that the Website URLs referenced herein were accurate at the time of printing. However, due to the fluid nature of the Internet, we cannot guarantee their accuracy for the life of the edition. Appendices The four appendices at the end of the book which provide readers with a wealth of additional resources. Appendix A provides a listing of major publishers and PREFACE xxiii suppliers of children’s literature, including contact information. Appendix B presents a complete listing of all of the Caldecott Medal winning books, authors, and illustrators. Appendix C provides a complete thematic unit outline for preschoolers on the topic of bears, giving readers a practical model for understanding the material presented in the book. Appendix D lists numerous classic and contemporary children’s books by subject heading and lists numerous classic and contemporary children’s book authors by their cultural background. Ancillaries Instructor’s Manual The Instructor’s Manual, available online, contains answers to the questions for thought and discussion at the end of each chapter, as well as supplementary activities and projects. Companion Website The companion website to accompany the sixth edition of Growing Up with Literature contains many features to help focus your understanding of children’s literature: Author’s biography—find out more about the author and his or her motivation for writing this book. Checklist with criteria for selecting nonfiction and multicultural children’s literature and evaluating a classroom literary environment. Web links to homepages of children’s book authors. Sample evaluations. Tables as organizational tools. Full-color photos of selected children’s book covers. Extension Activities corresponding to each chapter; apply what you have learned to your own classroom. You can find the Growing Up with Literature companion website at www.cengage. com/education/sawyer. This page intentionally left blank ABOUT THE AUTHOR Walter Sawyer is a graduate of Siena College, Assumption College, and the State University of New York at Albany. He holds B.A., M.A., and EdD degrees. He is certified in and has worked at all levels of education from nursery school through graduate school. Currently an independent consultant and writer, he served for many years as an administrator in the Waterford-Halfmoon School District in upstate New York while teaching graduate courses in the field of literacy at Russell Sage College. He has been an active member at all levels of the International Reading Association, and is past president of a local reading council. He was named “Educator of the Year” in 1994 by the School Administrators Association of New York State. He has a deep personal interest in storytelling and has published over sixty articles, books, papers, and chapters in the field of literacy. He is also author of The Storm, a children’s picture book (Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen, 1999). xxv This page intentionally left blank ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to extend an acknowledgment to several key people in this endeavor: To Jean Sawyer who listened to and provided critical feedback on many of the chapters in addition to watching the children. To the authors and storytellers who provided photographs for this book. To the publishers who generously granted permission to reprint covers of their children’s books. To Frank Hodge for the Foreword to this book and for guiding us all down the right road. To my editors for their support and encouragement. To the following reviewers whose perceptive feedback and useful comments were both insightful and helpful: Donna Graham Claire Batt-Vandenburg Ozarks Technical Community College Lansing Community College Springfield, MO Lansing, MI Deborah Ann Jensen Betty Ann Watson Hunter College—CUNY Harding University New York, NY Searcy, AR Amy M. McGraw Bonita Friend Williams Iowa Western Community College Columbus State University Council Bluffs, IA Columbus, GA Donna Rafanello Long Beach City College Long Beach, CA xxvii This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 1 What ’s so Special about Literature? © Cengage Learning Making reading a joyful experience for children lies at the heart of A child’s world is fresh and this book. Introduced correctly, literature can be seen throughout new and beautiful, full of life as the friend and companion it deserves to be. In order for this wonder and excitement. to happen, the adults who work with young children must foster this relationship with literature in their own lives. One cannot teach chil- —RACHEL CARSON dren to love reading and literature without possessing that same love. Children are quite perceptive; they can often quickly spot false enthusiasm. This chapter begins with an exploration about the value of literature in terms of connecting with the world, supporting positive attitudes, and creating connections with others. This is followed by an examination of the concept of literacy and how authors, illustrators, and readers contribute to helping young children learn to read. Some of the best books written today are written for children. The books available for children are a wonderful place to begin or to extend a love for literature. The success of the strategies suggested in this book will depend on this love. Literature has a special place in the development of the young child. Stories shared aloud in a warm atmosphere and at an appropriate 1 2 CHAPTER 1 pace can be the vehicle through which children learn about their world. The technology of television, telecommunications, and computer science sends information at us at an ever increasing speed and in greater abundance than ever before. However, people are not always capable of processing this information in any meaningful way. This is true for adults and it is true for children. When the amount of information is too great and the speed too rapid, the full meaning is lost. The nuances are not noticed. The subtle humor slips past. The message becomes devoid of emotion. TIPS FOR TEACHERS Appendix D lists a variety of children’s books for reading aloud, theme development, and sharing with young children. The listing is organized by topic, making it a valuable resource for future use. Each of the books in the listing has been used many times, with children responding enthusiastically to the stories. There has been an abundance of research over the past quarter of a century that stresses the importance of books and literature as part of a child’s development. When children come to school already reading or with a deep interest in reading, certain critical facts can often be found in their preschool experiences: They usually had books in the home. They observed adults reading. They were read to by adults. They had someone to talk to about books, reading, and literature. While experience is a powerful teacher for a young child, books and literature can have a profound influence as well. Early in life, children strive for meaning. They try to find out how things work. They attempt to learn how people respond to them and what control they have over their environment. Young children need experiences with print that let them hear, tell, create, and WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 3 explore the world around themselves as they seek to find meaning (Davis & Williams, 1994). The purpose of literature and education is to help people arrive at this meaning. Given this, a broad exposure to literature is a critical component of child development. Although families acknowledge the importance of books and reading, and there is an increasing number of children’s books published each year, it is still difficult to foster literacy development. Our society seems to raise the value of the celebrity culture while trying to foster a more balanced environment for children. The listing of the top fifty magazines cited by the Magazine Publish- ers of America is tilted dramatically toward those focused on celebrities seen on television. Research (Nielsen Wire, 2009) has found television viewing by young children is at an all time high. Children aged two to five watch an average of twenty-five hours of TV per week plus another seven hours of DVDs, video games and computers. Children aged six to eleven watch an average of twenty-two hours of TV per week plus another six hours of DVDs, video games, and computers. Added to this is background television, which disrupts children’s play. Background television refers to a situation where a television is on in the child’s environment, perhaps being viewed by an adult, while the child is not specifically attending to it. These numbers are also increased by one to two hours per day for children who attend home-based daycare centers as opposed to center-based care (Christakis & Garrison, 2009). Recent research on brain development and television viewing provides some important information. Citing research conducted over the past several decades, the National Institute on Media and the Family reports that television’s impact can vary depending on the quantity and quality of the viewing. For example, preschoolers who watch some carefully created developmentally appropriate programs such as Sesame Street actually improve their literacy skills compared with those who do little or no viewing. Viewers of extended amounts of cartoons and general entertainment do more poorly. The institute also reports on studies that conclude that a large amount of television viewing over an extended period of time can negatively influence the development of brain neural networks as well as decrease the time devoted to other literacy and cognitive development activities. In a separate 4 CHAPTER 1 study, Christakis, Zimmerman, DiGuiseppe, and McCarthy (2004) also concluded that attentional problems are linked to television viewing, particularly when the quality is not controlled by parents and other caregivers. Media and marketing stereotypes of boys as players, superheroes, slackers, and competitors are a constant negative force in the culture according to Brown, Lamb, and Tappan (2009). Murray (2001) describes the three major negative social effects (aggression, desensitization, fear) related to viewing television violence, identified as a result of thirty years of research. Increased aggressive behavior occurs due to changes in attitudes that come to accept the use of aggression as a problem- solving strategy. As children increase their exposure to televised violence they become not only less sensitive to violence but also more accepting of it as a part of everyday life. Television and video game violence can also trigger feelings of innate fear as viewers come to believe in an unrealistically high risk of violence to themselves. In his own study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for brain mapping, Murray found that exposure to televised violence activated brain areas involved with arousal, detection of threat, memory encoding/ retrieval, and motor programming. He subsequently described his findings as similar to the threat perception and memory storage found in posttraumatic stress disorder in terms of the emotional processing of the televised violence. Young children should be encouraged to develop interests and attitudes toward reading and literature that will stay with them throughout their lives. Reading is about feelings and relationships. It connects the reader to the author, to the characters, and to those sharing in the reading of the story. Such attributes can help children become competent students and thoughtful adults. Literature will enrich their lives and help them find meaning in their existence. THE VALUE OF LITERATURE Literature serves many needs and imparts many values. Literature helps to establish the values of appreciating the world, developing a positive self-image, and understanding the connection between all peoples of the world. The most important value, however, is the love of books and the personal enjoyment they can bring. WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 5 Although literature may not appear as spectacular as a computer game or television program, it provides something that neither of them can. Children and adults often need time to reflect on their experiences. Allowing time to think about the content can result in deeper learning and understanding. One can always go back to a book to reread an enjoyable, confusing, or important part. This often cannot be done with other media. For example, a child’s first experience with snow and playing in the snow can be thrilling. To make it even more meaningful and memorable, one might share Kim Lewis’s touching tale, First Snow, set in the snowy whiteness of northern England. Other good choices include Snow- song Whistling, a nostalgic look at rural New England by Karen Lotz, and When Winter Comes by Robert Maass. A related story based on a German folktale is Grandmother Winter by Phyllis Root. This tale tells of a grandmother with her snow white geese preparing for the season of winter, which she truly loves. TIPS FOR TEACHERS Encourage children to relate their experiences to the story being read. Ask, “Can anyone tell us about a pet cat or dog?” Keep the child speaking by responding with, “What happened next?” Let children finish their explanations. Use open-ended questions. If a child seems reluctant about playing in the snow, one might read Emily Arnold McCully’s First Snow. Told entirely in illustrations, it is the story of the smallest member of a mouse family who overcomes a hesitancy to play in the snow. Each of these books can be shared over and over again with a child. The issue is not a matter of literature being positive and technology being negative. Rather, it is more a problem of balance. Both may be used for helping children develop in appropriate ways. There is certainly a need for children to be aware of the technology of their world. It will be an important part of their lives. However, it is equally important for books and literature to be an integral part of living. Literature can help children comprehend their world, build positive attitudes, and make a connection with their humanity. Learning about the World Through books, children can both learn about and make sense of their world. They learn about their world when books inform about or explain various parts of it. In so doing, books can also arouse the curiosity of children. After reading 6 CHAPTER 1 © Cengage Learning Children should feel comfortable with books. about something, youngsters will often seek to learn more about it. They may request similar books. They may re-create scenes from the book. Children can understand their world better through the reinforcement of books. They may have experienced or seen something they do not fully understand. By learning more about it in books, they are often better able to achieve an accurate understanding. When plans are made for children to see or experience something new, books about the topic can be shared prior to the experience. If a trip to the zoo or a fair is planned, one might choose The Pumpkin Fair by Eve Bunting. If it is an agricultural fair, Higgledy-Piggledy Chicks by Barbara Joose is just the book with its tale of danger, mischievous chicks, and a mother hen who is always there for them. Peek-A-Zoo by Marie Cimarusti engages younger children by having them lift flaps for clues to identify the animals by the sounds they make. Books will enable children to have more meaningful experiences. Learning is a process of relating new things to things that are already known. Because the pages of books can be studied, reread, and thought about over time, books are ideal tools for helping children learn and understand. However, do not wait for the right theme to come along to introduce a great book. Books should be chosen and read frequently just because they contain great stories or they contain ideas and values that should be shared on a regular basis. WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 7 Building Positive Attitudes Besides learning about their world, it is critically important that children develop positive attitudes about many things. They need to develop positive self-esteem and to see themselves as competent human beings capable of caring and of being loved. They need to develop tolerance for others who may not share their beliefs or who may be different from themselves in various ways. They need to develop a curiosity about learning and life. Books and literature can become primary tools for developing and satisfying that curiosity. Self-Esteem. Literature can help children develop positive self-images in “Book Cover” from BEBE a stressful world. Economic hardships, crime, drugs, and confl icts in the world GOES TO THE BEACH, may be readily apparent even to young children. Family and health problems may Text copyright © 2008 by Susan Middleton Elya, be factors children are dealing with as well. Parental love is strong and usually Illustrations copyright exists even when there is tremendous hardship. The concept of parental love can © 2008 by Steven Salerno, be reinforced with books such as The Mouse That Jack Built by Cyndy Szekere reproduced by permission and Koala Lou by Mem Fox. In the latter story, Australian author/educator Mem of publisher Houghton Fox illustrates parental love in its purest form. The patience found in parental love Miffl in Harcourt Publishing Company. is brought out by Susan Middleton Elya in Bebe Goes to the Beach, an English/ Spanish-language story about how Mama just wants to relax on the beach, while Bebe keeps things going at a lively pace until she tires herself out. Two children discover the love found in a family in Kitchen Dance by Maurice Manning. They wake up at night to discover Mama and Papa happily singing and dancing in the kitchen. The parents eagerly sweep the two children into the act in this wonderful bedtime book. In Waiting for Gregory, Kimberly Willis Holt gives voice to the idea that siblings as well as parents are involved in the birth of a new baby. Through books, children can identify with others like themselves. They can see how others deal with similar problems. By sharing a story with an adult, children can be encouraged to talk about some of these issues. Literature can help children define their feelings and develop a sense of self. Perceptive adults can choose stories that mirror the child’s situation or are at least related to the situation. Reading about others who are attempting to make sense of a similar situation can bring hope. Learning that some feelings are normal can enable children to understand that they themselves are normal. Cover from Kitchen Dance by Maurie J. Manning. Jacket They can learn that there is no need for guilt. In Clumsy Crab, Ruth Galloway illustration copyright © 2008 tells how Nipper the crab hates his claws because they always seem to get in his by Maurie J. Manning. way. Later in the story, Nipper rescues an octopus from the seaweed and learns Reprinted by permission of that everyone has a special gift. In Adios by Susan Middleton, Little Piggy has Clarion Books, an imprint of Houghton Miffl in Harcourt mixed feelings about selling at the family yard sale the tricycle that he has grown Publishing Company. All too big to use. The rhyming narrative interspersed with Spanish words explores rights reserved. with sensitivity the idea of letting go of parts of childhood. 8 CHAPTER 1 Many books explore the idea of self-concept. Many address this as an issue of developing relationships among siblings and peers. Watty Piper’s classic, The Little Engine That Could, has long been used in this way. The importance of developing relationships with new friends can be explored in Baby Duck’s New Friend by Frank Asch and Devin Asch. In this tale, a young duck learns a lesson about relating to others and discovers something new about himself. The problem of childhood obesity can have a negative effect on children’s self-concept, and it is important not to add to those feelings by drawing additional attention to it. Nancy Carlson deals with the issue from a positive angle by promoting exercise and a healthy lifestyle in Get Up and Go! The lively characters in this story are not depicted as idealistically thin. Tolerance of Others. Literature can help children understand how they fit in and how important it is to relate to others. Each year sees an increase in the publication of multicultural children’s books. By sharing these books, children can grow up appreciating many different people and cultures. Literature, through its art, imagery, humor, and empathetic characters, provides a teaching tool for developing tolerance. By learning how characters in stories develop solutions to social problems, children can begin to assume a role in goal setting and limit setting for their own behavior. There are wonderful books that explore the nature of differences among people and the acceptance of others. Watch Out for the Chicken Feet in Your Soup by Tomie dePaola explores the acceptance by a young boy of his grandmother and her Old World habits. Jamari’s Drum by Eboni Bynum and Roland Jackson identifies the importance of culture, tradition, and family through a story of African drum- ming. Two young girls near a temple in Vietnam demonstrate how all cultures value good deeds in Fly Free by Roseanne Thong. Karen English brings readers a look at traditional weddings in Pakistan in Nadia’s Hands. Bearsie Bear and the Surprise Sleepover by Bernard Waber raises the potential for accommodation. The relationship between parent and child is universal, even when there are bumps in the road. Hush! A Thai Lullaby by Minfong Ho shows a mother in Thailand putting her baby to sleep. Using a repeated rhyme, the mother goes to each of the animals in an attempt to quiet them down so that her baby can get to sleep. In the end, it is the mother who falls asleep while the baby stays awake enjoying the night sounds. The strong protective nature in the father/son relationship is shown by Karen Williams in A Beach Tail. From Australia, Mem Fox gives us the delightful Harriet, You’ll Drive Me Wild!, in which a pesky child and her harried mother connect in their special way. Sometimes, two different cultures are found in the same family. This is the case in Halmoni’s Day by Edna Coe Bercaw. In this story, Jennifer, a Korean American, brings her grandmother WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 9 Halmoni to school on grandparent’s day. The problem is that Halmoni is visiting from Korea, wears only traditional Korean clothes, and does not speak a word of English. Jennifer fears that she will be embarrassed. With her mother as a trans- lator, Jennifer is surprised by her classmates’ positive reaction as Halmoni tells of her childhood in wartime Korea. Set in Mexico, Tony Johnston’s My Abuelita portrays a fl ight of fancy involving a child and her grandmother with its universal theme of intergenerational love. Though not specific to a culture, The Family Book by Todd Parr explores the love found in all kinds of families. Adults who are successful in working well with others can provide good role models. They tend to know how to have their needs met in society while pleasing others at the same time. Besides providing a role model, adults work to set realistic goals and limits for group interaction. Providing appropriate role models is a powerful instructional tool. A particularly useful tool in this area is Multicultural and Multilingual Literacy and Language: Context and Practices, the publication edited by Boyd, Brock, and Rosendal (2003). It provides information and strategies to help those working with young children to foster self-identity, empathetic interaction, critical thinking skills, and the confidence to advocate for tolerance. The work provides information on creating a positive environment, implementing a sensitive program, and integrating these ideas throughout an early childhood program. Curiosity about Life. Children possess a curiosity about the world around them. They want to know about things and places. They want to know about different people. They are proud of the things they have learned. Keeping this sense of wonder alive through a literacy program that includes a sound read- aloud component will help to encourage success in later schooling and in life. Books keep introducing new and fascinating topics. They encourage children to ask more questions and to seek more answers. TIPS FOR TEACHERS Praise children when they demonstrate a skill or ability. Say, “You recognized the letter ‘S,’ Susan, just like in your name.” Comment, “When you told your story, you made it sound so funny.” Smile, nod, and respond when children speak to you. Acknowledge children’s interest and enthusiasm and other intangible responses. 10 CHAPTER 1 © Cengage Learning Interest and pleasure in reading are often enhanced by the good feelings shared in reading a book together. If children are to succeed in later schooling, it is critical that they want to learn and succeed. Although children can be forced to learn bits and pieces of isolated reading skills, no amount of pressure can force children beyond their capa- bility. Exerting this kind of pressure on young children can be destructive to their desire to learn and read. Pressure cannot force them to be curious and enthusias- tic about books and literature once they have decided that reading is tedious, dull, and boring. Once the desire to better understand one’s self and life is lost, it is difficult to revive it. It is far better for adults to focus on sharing appropriate stories that foster self-esteem, a tolerance for others, and a curiosity about life. The Human Connection Reading a book with a child can do many things for child and reader alike. For example, Feeling Thankful by Shelley Rotner and Sheila Kelly provides the reader and child with an opportunity to pause and talk about things they are thankful for as they explore the words and photographs in the book. Twinkle, Star of the Week by Joan Holub can spark a discussion about what it means to feel good about yourself. The sharing that emerges from the relationship cre- ates an important human connection. There is a personal interaction between the child and reader. There is time for the reader to react to the child’s delight, WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 11 confusion, anger, or fear. There is a feeling of warmth and safety for the child in the physical presence of the reader. The reader can assure the child that all is well and detect unasked questions. The book can be stopped or reread. Dis- cussion can take place at any point without destroying the overall experience of the story. The book becomes much more than a set of papers with markings and illustrations. The sound and rhythm of language can be slowed down, speeded up, made louder, or made to express emotions. The beauty of the language and the story can be developed in a manner appropriate to the children. The illustrations and photographs in the book can be touched, studied, discussed, and returned to as the story goes along. All of this is created within the relationship developed by the child and the reader. EMERGING LITERACY AND LITERATURE The National Association for the Education of Young Children (2005) identifies three key kinds of information that should always be used when working with young children in order to create developmentally appropriate practices. The first is a knowledge of child development and learning. This knowledge of age-related characteristics helps adults to develop materials and plan activities that will be healthy, engaging, and challenging to children. The second kind of knowledge is about the capabilities and interests of individual children, which is necessary in order to adapt and respond to those individuals. The third is a knowledge of the social and cultural environment of the lives of children. This information enables adults to develop meaningful learning experiences that are also respectful of the social and cultural environments of the children. All adults want children to learn to read. However, there has been sub- stantial debate as to when the teaching of reading should begin. Should reading skills be taught to preschool children? Should formal reading instruction be delayed until the child reaches seven years of age? Should the first-grade curriculum be pushed down into the kindergarten? Should children who have not mastered kindergarten readiness skills enter a transitional program between kindergarten and first grade until they have mastered the skills? The answers to these questions depend on what is actually meant by the word “reading.” Reading is the acquisition of meaning from a written text. The focus is on meaning. In view of this, children begin the process of learning to read from the moment of birth. They are engaged in learning to read when they first begin to listen for the voice of a parent, the rhythm of a story, or the soothing sounds of a lullaby. Some may argue that the very young child is using 12 CHAPTER 1 only listening skills, but this distinction between listening and reading is an ar- tificial one. The two are inextricably related to each other; each supports the other. In any case, even very young children are learning about books when stories are shared. They learn how to hold them, what to do when you finish a page, that the sentences go from left to right, and that words have meanings. Frank Smith, an educator who has studied, researched, and described the emergence of literacy for more than half a century, provides a brilliant summary of this concept in Reading without Nonsense (2005). He begins with the assumption that although not all children learn to do it at the same time, reading is a natural act much like talking. That is, children do not learn speech through a set of les- sons and skills exercises. Children learn to speak by living in a non-threatening environment with others, usually adults and older siblings, whom they observe using oral language to communicate. They see that the oral language has meaning and so they begin to make speech and use language themselves to communicate meaning. Just like oral language, reading should always make sense if it is to be learned effectively. Children learn to read by reading, even if an adult does some or most of the reading for them at the initial stages. Smith applies this framework of reading in his criticism of the manner in which letter recognition and phonics skills are frequently taught as a precursor step in the process of learning to read for meaning. He demonstrates the mean- inglessness and discouragement that can come from such an approach. First he notes that phonics at the letter level is both complex and unreliable. For example, putting just two letters together (for example, “ho”) can result in a wide range of sounds depending on the word in which they are found (for example, hop, hole, honest, hour, hoop, hoof, and so on). The rules and exceptions to the rules quickly become too numerous for a young learner. Secondly, Smith notes that the average adult reader has mastered approximately 50,000 words by sight without ever sounding out most of them. How could this happen? It happens in the same manner that millions of people learn Chinese, a language that has no alphabet, phonics, or sound–symbol correspondence. It happens because the symbols have meaning; when they are learned, they can be used. Smith, however, does not sug- gest that phonics skill is not useful. Rather, he contends that it is more useful to start with meaning to get at the sounds of letters and meanings of words. In other words, phonics is most useful if the reader has a good idea of what the words are to begin with. That knowledge typically comes from contextual meaning. Viewing grade levels as distinct is also an inadequate way of thinking about the way children learn to read. The grade levels in schools are for the convenience of adults rather than children. They enable adults to sort children based on age, ability, cultural awareness, and reading level. Children develop at widely varying rates and learn to read at different times in their development. Expecting all children to learn to read at a certain age or grade is hopelessly naive. Children tend to WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 13 send signals when they are ready for new challenges. It is up to the adults to do a better job of reading these signals and responding appropriately to them. There is a need to be aware of how literacy emerges long before formal schooling and to understand the role that literature can play in that emergence. To develop this awareness, one must comprehend the basic theory and research un- derlying the literacy development of young children. Following this, it is necessary to develop a concept of what is contained in a real literacy curriculum and to couple this concept with a realistic understanding of how reading skills emerge. Based on this view, a set of realistic expectations for individual children can be formulated. Theory and Research on Literacy The view held in this text concerning how children learn language and how to read and write is based on both the work of educators over the past century and developmentally appropriate practices. It is a view that has been described vari- ously as a holistic approach, whole language approach, and a whole child approach. Contrary to some comments in the popular media, a holistic approach is not the opposite of a skills-based, basal reader, or traditional approach. Rather, it is a set of assumptions and beliefs about children, learning, and language that, if understood, can support the literacy development of children. Assumptions of a Holistic Approach. As a springboard to understanding a holistic approach, four assumptions are identified: Although children are engaged in developing literacy from at least the moment of birth, they develop in different ways at different ages. This means that it’s inappropriate to do the same things with all children and expect all children to possess certain language skills at the same age. Using a single approach or program to foster literacy in children is inappropriate. Whether it is a commercially developed product or a program developed more informally, there is no single road to literacy. Caregivers, parents, and others in children’s lives are most valuable when they function as participants in literacy development. Instead of being in control of the learning, they interact, relate, share, and provide feedback to support literacy. Language, reading, and writing are not subjects to be studied. Rather, they are tools for thinking about and making sense of the environment and of life. With these assumptions in mind, we can begin to identify those things that are seen and used in a holistic approach to literacy. 14 CHAPTER 1 Characteristics of a Holistic Approach. A whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Each of the characteristics of a holistic approach can, and has been, studied as an individual concept (Butler, 1987; Hillman, 2002; Robbins, 1990). Including one or two features of a holistic approach in a more traditional approach, however, misses the spirit or essence. It is the combination of the characteristics that follow that guide caregivers in supporting literacy development. One of the initial characteristics is the use of whole texts. This means that whether language is used orally or in written form such as a storybook, it is used in large enough pieces that it makes sense. If children show interest in learning the name of an animal or how to write their first names, for instance, the skill always has a reference to a meaning. If Jill has difficulty remembering which direction to draw the capital letter “J,” we do not insist that she master that letter before encouraging her to write the remaining letters of her name. This leads to another characteristic, the use of children’s literature as a key component to literacy development. Although children see and hear language in every corner of their environment, storybooks have a special role. Shared reading, guided reading, repeated readings, and re-creating stories in play provide much of the content of literacy. Through storybooks, children see and hear words, rhythms, and concepts of language. A holistic approach is child centered. Language is about relationships and interactions. Through storybooks, connections are made among the author, child, reader, and text. A characteristic closely related to this is that a holistic approach typically includes numerous cooperative activities. These activities usually involve other children and tend to give all children ample opportunities to practice language and become confident users of language. A final characteristic of a holistic approach is parent involvement. Par- ents are the first teachers children have; they should continue to serve in that role as other caregivers and teachers become involved. Parents deserve thoughtful explanations of what is involved in literacy development. Caregivers and parents can learn much from each other by sharing observations, stories, and activities for the children. Theory Supporting a Holistic Approach. The theoretical support for a holistic view of language learning comes from both psychology and reading. The influence of two twentieth-century psychologists continues to be significant. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget provides key understandings on how children view the world. His work revealed that children actively seek information through play and interaction with their environment. Children categorize the world in ways that may be different from adults. It’s important to understand this, because children bring these differing worldviews to early childhood programs and situations (Duckworth, 1987). WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 15 Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky connected the relationship of children to their social environments (Vygotsky, 1986). Through his study, Vygotsky noted that in play, children perform beyond the expectations one would have for their ages. This “zone of proximal development,” as he termed it, becomes the primary source for their development (Vygotsky, Cole, John-Steiner, & Scribner, 2006). In other words, that gap between the actual and expected performance represents the space where learning occurs. Over the past 100 years, teachers and educators have identified and explored key theoretical components of a holistic view. Louise Rosenblatt (1996) was the first to describe the act of reading as a transaction between the reader and the text. That is, children bring their own experiences to the story and this enables them to establish the meaning of the text. Sylvia Ashton Warner (1986), a pioneering educator in New Zealand, questioned the use of a mandated uni- form English reading program for Maori children. She discovered that language learning and reading dramatically increased when she made her instruction totally meaningful to the children. Using this earlier work as a springboard, educators further refined the concepts and eventually developed the “Language Experience Approach (LEA)” and the shared reading experience, two strategies that continue to successfully support the development of literacy in young children. The LEA begins with a shared common experience for children. That may include a field trip, storybook reading, or collecting leaves on a playground. The experience is accompa- nied and followed by language and discussion that can lead to the construction of stories, lists, and charts related to the experience. After a number of ideas are generated, the caregiver or teacher records the statements of the children as a story, describing the experience on large sheets of paper or poster board. The language of the child is accepted unless it is incomprehensible. In that case, the child can be asked to restate the idea or it might be paraphrased. With younger children the LEA may consist of a few words or a sentence; older children may create a story with several sentences. The recorder must write quickly, use large, legible manuscript letters, include as many children as possible, use the names of the children in the story, and draw quick sketches about each statement. Finally the story is read, reread, and discussed. It can also be copied, displayed on the wall, or collected into a big book (Dorr, 2006; Ivey & Fisher, 2006). LEA stories can help children develop the schema of a story, increase vocabulary, reinforce left–right and top-to-bottom concepts, and provide opportunities for meaningful reading (Roe, Stoodt-Hill, & Burns, 2007). The shared reading experience, which encourages the use of children’s storybooks as the significant material in teaching reading, was pioneered by New Zealand educator Donald Holdaway. A teacher or caregiver using this 16 CHAPTER 1 approach typically uses an easel and what is called a “Big Book,” a version of a book with print and illustrations large enough for all children in a group to see. The children are totally immersed in the reading. Prior to reading aloud, the adult reader might explore the relevant background of the children, introduce new vocabulary, and set the purpose for reading. As the story is read, the reader points to each word. At pauses in the reading, children are encouraged to discuss the possibilities presented by the story, predict events, and listen to confirm their ideas. Following the reading, children are involved in stating personal responses to the story, rereading the story, and recreating the story in art and play (Fisher & Medvic, 2000). Research Supporting a Holistic Approach. Over the years during which the theory and strategies for a more holistic approach to literacy were being developed, educational researchers were studying these issues. However, since classrooms, centers, children, and teachers/caregivers are so varied, the behav- ioral model of empirical research is not an appropriate research tool. Goodman (1989a, 1989b, 2005) also notes that while a controlled experiment seeks to control discrete parts of the environment, in a holistic approach the whole environment must be examined, and that environment is greater than the sum of its parts. Therefore, case study research on single children and ethnographic studies on individual classrooms is the appropriate method for studying a holistic approach (Bissex & Bullock, 1987). In his research on reading miscues (oral reading errors), Kenneth Good- man learned that readers are constantly in the process of predicting while they read and that they use the reading to confirm or refute their predictions. Based on this, it is known that emergent readers find storybooks easy or difficult, both in miscues and comprehension, depending on how predictable they are. This goes a long way in explaining the additional research that demonstrates that children come to understand phonic relationships more effectively when they are learned as part of the reading process rather than as isolated units in work- books (Goodman, 2005; Goodman & Goodman, 1978). An important tool for looking at research is the meta-analysis, a study of studies. In this process, researchers analyze a large number of individual research studies in order to identify a consensus of shared findings and conclusions. It is a powerful tool because it establishes ideas and frameworks in common that are supported by multiple investigations. A meta-analysis of studies on early literacy development research conducted over several decades was conducted by Gunn, Simmons, and Kameenui (1998); it yielded several major findings. Several of the findings are related to the social context of the literacy environment. Although a family’s socioeconomic status does not directly contribute to literacy development, other family factors such as interest in academics, learning to read, aspirations for the child, reading in WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 17 the home, and cultural activities are positively related to literacy. Storybook reading and adult-child interactions are powerful positive factors in literacy development. This is related to a finding that children learn to attend to language and to apply this knowledge by interacting with others who model language functions. Further, it was determined that these ongoing experiences with print help children develop an understanding of the purpose, functions, and conventions of print. In regard to letter recognition and phonemic awareness, skills were developed in these child–adult interactions and these associations were stored in memory. That is, the skills were developed through interactions with adult models using print in a meaningful context. This coincides with a later meta-analysis in which it was concluded that there is no unequivocal evidence of a causal link from phonemic awareness to reading and speaking acquisition (Castles & Coltheart, 2004). A Literacy Curriculum Over the past few decades there has been an abundance of research on how young children develop literacy. Obviously, literacy develops best in a literate environment. Given the view taken in this book, a literate environment possesses certain features. These features are the experiences and materials that will best enhance the ability of children to derive meaning from their environment. Jerome Harste and Virginia Woodward (1989) have studied early literacy programs for many years. Their research identifies three key aspects of a literate environment: Supporting the success of the learner; Focusing on learning language; and Allowing the learner to explore language. Each of their points must be considered. Supporting the Success of the Learner. This concept holds that children tend to learn best from firsthand experiences. The environment should be fi lled with a variety of printed material. Story time should have a prominent role in a program. Many opportunities should be available for children to read, write, and draw. The physical environment might have a variety of age-appropriate centers set up in such areas as housekeeping, art, music, mathematics, poetry, flannel board, puppet stage, magnetic/chalkboard, writing/publishing, and literature. Finally, the program should make use of the community by both exploring it on field trips and by inviting members of the community to visit. Focusing on Learning Language. Given the assumption that children acquire literacy skills at different points in their development, one must be will- ing to invite them to read and write on their own level. Literature should be seen as a vehicle for exploring the world rather than as a tool for teaching reading 18 CHAPTER 1 skills. Reading and writing should be seen as playing, learning language, experi- menting with words, sharing meaning, and clarifying thought. Exploring Language. Language is a complex concept, and mastering it can take a lifetime. Sophisticated strategies are required to fully master language and use it effectively. When there is an abundance of language opportunities and experiences, children learn to be strategic in their attempts at reading and writing. Having parents, teachers, and visitors as models encourages children to attempt more complex language skills. By providing extensive opportunities for them to expand their communication through story times, play, pretending, and dramatizing, adults can help children develop a sense of authorship. Authorship is the idea of putting one’s unique self into a story. Children may begin to do this by listening, creating, interpreting, reenacting, dramatizing, and discussing stories. Reading Skills Learning to read is important and necessary for all children. It occurs best after children have developed a love of stories and an interest in reading. A variety of reading skills are needed to be a competent reader. Some say that a phonetic approach in which children focus on learning the sounds of the letters is best. Oth- ers contend that a look–say approach that focuses on learning whole words is the superior approach. Advocates from both sides largely ignore the more important issues. They tend to believe that their position represents the focus of reading. They ignore the fact that reading is more than sounding out words or identifying a list of words. Reading has to do with finding meaning in written text. Children eventually need to develop both phonetic skills and a store of words that they can recognize on sight. However, they also need to understand other features of language such as semantics, syntactics, and pragmatics. Semantics refers to the meanings that words possess. Since the purpose of reading is to get meaning, understanding the meanings of words is critical to true reading. Syntax refers to the parts of speech. Nouns are different from verbs and verbs are different from adjectives. Each does something different in a sentence. What they do in combination is give a sentence meaning. Pragmat- ics refers to the practical functions of language. Such things as tone of voice, the degree of formality, and idioms might be grouped under this area. Each lends another key to the true meaning of the message. Although phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, and alphabet principles are important skills for decoding words, there is concern about the methods for learning them (Morrow, 2001). Phonemic awareness refers to the ability to recognize and discriminate individual sounds. Children with this ability can identify the three sounds in the word “cat,” and they understand that the three sounds can be blended into “cat.” Phonemic awareness does not refer to matching WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 19 a sound with the letter or letters that make that sound. Phonemic awareness is one aspect of phonological awareness that also includes the identification, rhyming, and matching of larger spoken units such as syllables and rhyming words. Alpha- betic principles refer to understanding the relationship between visual letters and oral sounds. Although all of these skills are useful to emergent readers, it is not developmentally appropriate to teach them directly to kindergartners and younger children. Governmental legislation encouraging or requiring such still does not make it developmentally appropriate. When they are taught, it should always be in relation to a meaningful text or story rather than as isolated skills. The final point on reading skills concerns how and when they are taught to or learned by children. Traditionally, both word attack and comprehension skills have been taught in isolation. That is, the skills are taught through word lists, parts of words, sentences, and brief paragraphs developed to teach a par- ticular skill. They may or may not then be tried out in an assigned piece of text. The belief is that if children are taught all of the little pieces of the “reading puzzle,” they will then be able to put the puzzle together. A contemporary holistic approach to teaching beginning reading uses real words in real books written by real authors. The skills of reading are taught in the context of literature. There are no reading skills that were traditionally taught in isolation that cannot be meaningfully taught in the context of literature. Such an approach provides far more opportunities to also teach the semantics, syntactics, and pragmatics of language. A holistic approach also includes parents in each part of the process: obtaining information about their child’s interests, sharing titles of books for follow-up reading, and learning about their values concerning books, learning, and literature. More appropriate methods for introducing, teaching, and learning would include adult–child interactions using storybooks. For example, the use of phonics to confirm young readers’ attempts to read words can be taught and practiced with When Sheep Sleep by Laura Numeroff. In this story, rhyme, predictable end words, and picture clues assist the reader in word reading attempts. The semantic skill of understanding word meanings can be developed in a reading of Don’t Be Silly, Mrs. Millie by Judy Cox. In this tale, kindergarten teacher Mrs. Millie interacts with the children and substitutes words, usually nouns, in delightfully obvious ways. Understanding parts of speech, a syntac- tic concept, can be developed through a story such as Joey and Jet by James Yang. In this story, a boy and his dog play fetch in a field of prepositions. In each situation, the object the dog seeks is found among, between, over, or on some other objects. Noises at Night by Beth Raisner Glass and Susan Lubner can be read in a repeating pattern between adult and child to reach an understanding of the pragmatic skill of the use of tone of voice. In this story, the boy tells of the noises he hears at night, thus providing an opportunity to use different tones 20 CHAPTER 1 of voice. An excellent resource on emergent literacy is Learning to Read and Write:Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children (2000), developed jointly by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the International Reading Association (IRA). It provides a comprehensive summary of reading issues, research, and appropriate practices for preschoolers, kindergartners, and children in the primary grades. Realistic Expectations Children need realistic expectations. Goals, when they are reached, can provide satisfaction and a sense of self-worth. If they are set too high they can lead to frustration, anger, and a sense of failure. If set too low they can encourage a lack of effort and a tendency to be satisfied with mediocrity. Who sets the expectations? In education, it is generally the teachers and parents who set expectations. Perhaps this system should be questioned. Children may need to become more involved in developing expectations. When someone else sets the goals, there is a lack of emotional involvement by those who must strive to attain those goals. This does not mean that children should have total control. They need the security of knowing that adults can be depended on to provide appropriate guidance and to set reasonable limits. At all governmental levels and in political campaigns, calls are heard for raising standards and greater accountability. Although most would agree that we always want our children to grow and achieve, the main response of govern- ment to meet this desire is an ever expanding use of standardized tests. More recently, this approach is beginning to be questioned in regard to all children, but particularly for young children, speakers of other languages, and those from different cultures and backgrounds. Kenneth Wesson (2001) identifies the key problems with the increased use of such tests: The tests correlate better with socioeconomic background than with learning. It is illogical to demand that all schools perform in the above-average range because statistically one-half must fall below average. Test scores for children from multicultural backgrounds tend to be lower but they do not accurately reflect ability. The tests only test what can be easily quantified and leave out many important goals of education: ingenuity, problem solving, loyalty, commitment, and so forth. When expectations are set too uniformly or too high, serious problems can occur. This is already happening in education. It is probably impossible to WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 21 determine exactly what happens first, but the net effect is often demoralizing to children. TIPS FOR TEACHERS Make sure the program is ready for all children. Prepare paint, crayon, and clay activities for children who must continue to develop their fine motor skills. Remove all physical barriers that would prevent wheelchair access. Communicate with parents of children with disabilities to learn about their hopes, needs, and interests. Use screening test results to help change a program, not to deny access to a program. Make note of a variety of reactions to stories. Accountability movements in education are an example. As the public demands improved education, legislatures respond with cost-effective devices. They tend to include such things as more rigorous standards for becoming a teacher and increased competency tests in reading, writing, and other basic skills for children. In order for children to be ready for the tests, the curriculum is pushed downward. Prospective kindergartners are now routinely screened for readiness to enter school. Kindergartners are frequently retained for a second year of kindergarten or placed in transitional first grades. Some school districts have two levels of kindergarten, one for those who are “ready,” and one for those who supposedly need more time to become “ready.” Various rationales are presented for each of these policies. They usually sound well intentioned, often citing a need to give children more time to prepare. Basically, however, this is a program designed to categorize children on the basis of such factors as intelligence, cultural background, and language skills. By separating more able children, it is likely that the expectations for them will be raised to an even more frustrating level. This separation also deprives them of the opportunity to share their skills with, and to develop an acceptance of, those who are less able. Separating less able children deprives them of a group of good language models and may also crush their sense of self-worth. A true literacy program can accommodate nearly all children whether they are gifted, average, culturally deprived, or have special needs. This is ac- complished by providing a rich language environment, accepting children with the skills they possess, and countering some of the narrow views of literacy that still exist. 22 CHAPTER 1 © Cengage Learning A book that is interesting to a child can take on a magical quality for that child. TIPS FOR TEACHERS Borrow library DVDs of authors reading their own books. Always read the book aloud to children before using a tape. Preview the DVD ahead of time. Give children something to listen for or discover in the tape, such as how the author reads certain lines of dialogue. Have children act out the roles of the characters in the story as the author reads it. WHAT’S SO SPECIAL ABOUT LITERATURE? 23 © Cengage Learning Children can often make their own decisions about when and where to read. Image not available due to copyright restrictions Image not available due to copyright restrictions Authors and Illustrators The people who write and illustrate books for children often rely heavily on their own childhood for ideas. They tend to be careful observers of youngsters they see 24 CHAPTER 1 around them. As such, they are quite in tune with much of childhood. Learning about the personal life and thoughts of an author or illustrator can be a powerful motivation for reading that author’s book. The knowledge can be shared with children at various points surrounding the reading of a book. Some books even allow readers to see how authors develop their books. The Art Lesson by Tomie dePaola is an autobiographical depiction of a young child who later becomes an author/illustrator of children’s books. How a Book Is Made by Aliki clearly and accurately depicts the creation of a children’s book. Information about authors can be found on book jackets, in reference books in the children’s sections of libraries, in the stories themselves, in magazines about children’s literature, and by writing to publishers. If resources are available, a day with an author can be a tremendously rewarding experience for children and adults alike. Author visits to bookstores are a low-cost option. Many authors also have Websites. SUMMARY Literature should be a joyful experience. It is really about the wonders of life. The basic assumption of this book is that literature has tremendous value for young children. Literature is different from other informational media in that it usually includes another human being with whom the story is being shared. Literature derives its value from three things. First, it informs and excites children about the world in which they live. Second, it contributes to developing a positive self-image and the acceptance of others. Finally, literature serves to help children connect to both the people sharing a story with them and the people within the story. Literature has a definite place within a literacy program. It serves as the material in which children explore language. Children do this through such things as listening to, reenacting, and interpreting the story. Unlike the passive viewing of television, literature forces children to actively visualize or imagine the story. Within the literacy curriculum one must determine the appropriate place of reading skills and how they will be learned. Realistic expectations mu

Growing Up With Literature, 6th Edition (PDF)

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