Micronutrients PDF

**CHAPTER 4** **MICRONUTRIENTS** **Objectives:** At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to: 1\. explain the classifications of micronutrients: vitamins and minerals; and 2\. recognize the roles of these micronutrients in the diet. **VITAMINS** The word vitamin comes from the L...

**CHAPTER 4** **MICRONUTRIENTS** **Objectives:** At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to: 1\. explain the classifications of micronutrients: vitamins and minerals; and 2\. recognize the roles of these micronutrients in the diet. **VITAMINS** The word vitamin comes from the Latin word vita meaning life and the suffix amine, which is a nitrogen compound. It was discovered later that not all vitamins contain nitrogen; nevertheless, \"vitamin\" has been used pervasively and has become a common word. Vitamins are a group of unrelated organic compounds found in food which are needed only in minute quantities in the diet but essential for specific metabolic reactions within the cell and necessary for normal growth and maintenance of health. They are also crucial in the growth, repair, and healthy functioning of body tissues, Vitamins do not give energy to the body. They merely help convert food into energy through many biochemical reactions. Taking extra vitamins cannot increase one\'s physical capacity. However, shortage of vitamins may lead to fatigue. A long-term vitamin deficiency even results in the deterioration of health. The human body cannot make its own vitamins except vitamin D and niacin which are produced in the human body cannot make its own vitamins except vitamin D and niacin which are produced in the body. Shortage of vitamins particularly A, B, and C may result in loss of appetite. Lost appetite can be restored by taking more of these vitamins. Vitamins do not have caloric value. Vitamin supplements, however, may contain few calories in their sugar coating. Normally, however, the amount is negligible. **Terms Associated with Vitamins** 1\. **Precursors or Provitamins** - These are compounds that can be changed to active vitamins. For example, carotenes and cryptoxanthin are precursors of vitamin A. Ergosterol when radiated becomes vitamin D. 2\. **Preformed Vitamins** - These are naturally occurring vitamins that are in inactive form and ready for biological use. 3\. **Avitaminosis** - This refers to a condition resulting from lack of a vitamin. In the later stage of this condition when more defined signs and symptoms occur, a nutritional deficiency disease is recognizable. For example, avitaminosis A leads to night blindness and xerophthalmia. Avitaminosis C leads to scurvy and a deficiency of vitamin B leads to beriberi. 4\. **Hypervitaminosis** - This is sometimes referred to as \"vitamin toxicity,\" a result of excessive accumulation of a vitamin in the body. 5\. **Vitamin Malnutrition** - The prefix \"mal\" meaning bad denotes that too much or too little vitamin is not good for the health. 6\. **Vitamin-like Compounds** - Some substances have physiological roles like vitamins but they are present in larger amounts and are partially synthesized in the body. These substances include inositol, choline, lipoic acid, and ubiquinone. 7\. **Antivitamins or Vitamin Antagonists** - These are substances that interfere with the normal functioning of a vitamin. They need to be similar in chemical composition as the vitamin they \"antagonize.\" Examples are dicumerol against vitamin K, avidin against biotin, and thiaminase against thiamine or vitamin B1. **Table 7** **Toxicity Symptoms for Selected Vitamins** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **VITAMINS** | **Toxicity from Overdose** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Water-soluble vitamins:** | Diarrhea | | | | | Vitamin C | Nausea, cramps | | | | | | Formation of excess oxalic acid | | | in the body | | | | | | Acidification of urine | | | | | | Interference with the use of | | | therapeutic drugs | | | | | | Conditioning to a higher | | | requirement both in infants and | | | adults | | | | | | Intestinal obstruction | | | | | | False positive urine diabetic | | | test | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Niacin | Skin burning, flushing, and | | | itching | | | | | | Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea | | | | | | Liver and eye damage | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Vitamin B12 | Allergic shock, especially when | | | vitamin is injected | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Fat-soluble vitamins:** | Liver damage | | | | | Vitamin A | Hair loss | | | | | | Bone damage | | | | | | Potential birth defects | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Vitamin D | Severe high blood calcium | | | | | | Brain damage | | | | | | Heart damage | | | | | | Potential birth defects | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Vitamin E | Cramps, diarrhea | | | | | | Dizziness, blurred vision, | | | headaches | | | | | | Increased serum triglycerides in | | | women | | | | | | Decreased serum thyroid hormone | | | in men and women | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Vitamin K | Formation of blood clots | | | | | | Jaundice in infants | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Table 8** **Nomenclature of the Vitamins** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **ORIGINAL** | **CURRENT NAME** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Vitamin A (anti-infective) | Vitamin A (retinol) | | | | | Vitamin B1 (anti-beriberi, | Vitamin B1 (thiamine) | | antineuritic) | | | | Riboflavin | | Vitamin C (B2) | | | | Niacin (nicotinic acid, | | Pelagra Preventive Factor | niacinamide) | | | | | Vitamin B complex | Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) | | | | | Vitamin C | Vitamin B12 (cyanocabalamin) | | | | | Vitamin D | Folasin (folinic acid, | | | pteroylglutamic acid) | | Vitamin E | | | | Biotin | | Vitamin K | | | | Ascorbic acid | | | | | | Vitamin D (calciferol) | | | | | | Vitamin E (tocopherol) | | | | | | Vitamin K (menaquinone and | | | phylloquinone) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Historical Background** Vitamins are formally called \"accessory food factors\" because their presence in minute quantities is easily overlooked. They are the last group of organic compounds which were discovered to be vital to life maintenance and growth. Animals fed with pure mixtures of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and Ho showed poor growth and deficiency signs. The word vitamin was coined by Casimir Funk in 1912 when he was searching for a constituent in rice bran which could cure beriberi. The missing substance he called vitamine comes from vita meaning necessary for life and amine denoting that the anti-beriberi factor contained nitrogen. He hypothesized that nutritional deficiencies which were observed in the past such as scurvy, pellagra, and rickets were due to the lack of \"vitamine.\" Researchers later showed that not all these dietary factors contained nitrogen, so the final letter \"e\" was dropped, hence the word \"vitamin.\" **Classification of Vitamins on the Basis of Solubility** 1\. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K in association with lipids are found in foods. 2\. The water-soluble vitamins are B complex and vitamin C. **General Properties and Stability** Besides solubility properties, fat-soluble vitamins differ from water-soluble vitamins based on the following factual criteria: 1\. Fat-soluble vitamins generally have precursors provitamins. or 2\. Because they can be stored in the body, deficiencies are slow to develop. 3\. They are not absolutely needed daily from food sources. 4\. They are generally stable, especially in ordinary cooking methods. On the other hand, water-soluble vitamins have the following general characteristics: 1\. They must be supplied every day in the diet. 2\. They do not have precursors. 3\. They are not stored significantly in the body and any excess is excreted in the urine. 4\. Deficiency symptoms develop relatively fast. 5\. Being water-soluble, they are most likely to be destroyed in ordinary cooking. **A. Fat-soluble Vitamins** **1. Vitamin A (Retinol)** a\. *Chemical and physical nature* *a.1* Preformed vitamin A - animal sources *a.2* **Provitamin A** - precursor carotene; pigment found in green and yellow plants; body converts into vitamin A b\. *Absorption and storage* *b.1* Absorption aided by bile salts, pancreatic lipase, and dietary fat *b.2* Carotene converted into vitamin A in intestinal wall *b.3* Absorbed through lymphatic system and portal blood to liver (same route as fat) *b.4* Large storage capacity in liver, hence potential toxicity levels with large intakes *c. Stability* *d. Physiologic functions* e\. *Deficiency* f\. *Toxicity* g\. *Food sources* **Table 9** **Recommended Vitamin A Intakes for Specific Population Groups** ------------------ ----------------------- --------------- Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/day **Infants, mo** 6 375 9 400 **Children, y** 1-3 13 400 4-6 19 400 7-9 24 400 **Males, y** 10-12 34 400 13-15 50 550 16-18 58 600 19 and over 59 550 ------------------ ----------------------- --------------- **2. VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL)** a. b. c. d. e. **Table 10** **Recommended Vitamin D Intakes for Specific Population Groups** --------------------- ----------------------- --------------- Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/day **Infants, mo** 6 5 9 5 **Children, y** 1-3 13 5 4-6 19 5 7-9 24 5 10-18 **Males** **5** **Females** 5 **Adults, y** Males (19-49) 59 5 Females 51 5 50-64 10 65 and over 15 **Pregnant women** 5 **Lactating women** 5 --------------------- ----------------------- --------------- f. g. *Food Sources* **3. VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROL)** a. b. *b.1* Absorbed with other fat-soluble vitamins, aided by bile and fats *b.2* Stored especially in adipose tissue c. d. **Table 11** **Recommended Vitamin E Intakes for Specific Population Groups** ------------------------------ ----------------------- --------------- Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/day **Infants, mo** 6 3 9 4 **Children, y** 1-3 13 5 4-6 19 6 7-9 24 7 **Males, y** 10-12 34 10 13-15 50 12 16-18 58 13 19 and over 59 12 **Female, y** 10-12 35 11 13-15 49 12 16-18 50 12 19 and over 51 12 **Pregnant/Lactating women** 12 ------------------------------ ----------------------- --------------- e. f. ***Toxicity*** g. *Food sources* **4. VITAMIN K (PHYLLOQUINONE, MENADIONE)** a. b. c. *Physiologic functions* d. *Stability* **Table 12** **Recommended Vitamin K Intakes for Specific Population Groups** ------------------------------ ----------------------- --------------- Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/day **Infants, mo** 6 6 9 9 **Children, y** 1-3 13 13 4-6 19 19 7-9 24 24 **Males, y** 10-12 34 34 13-15 50 50 16-18 58 58 19 and over 59 59 **Females, y** 10-12 35 35 13-15 49 49 16-18 50 50 19 and over 51 51 **Pregnant/Lactating women** 51 ------------------------------ ----------------------- --------------- e. *Deficiency* f. g. *Food sources* B. **WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS** The water-soluble vitamins are **vitamin C or ascorbic acid** and the **B complex vitamins.** Vitamin C is called the \"**fresh food vitamin**\" since it is found in the growing parts of plants. All raw fresh fruits fruits and vegetables contain ascorbic acid in varying amounts. Vitamin C performs a number of biological roles as well as serves as an antioxidant. The B-complex vitamins important in human nutrit**ion are thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12. niacin-folic acid, pantothenic acid, choline, inositol, and biotin.** They are found together in nature and generally have related functions although they are chemically unrelated. 1. **VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)** a. b. c. ***Physiologic functions*** d. **Table 13** **Recommended Vitamin C Intakes for Specific Population Groups** --------------------- ----------------------- --------------- Population Group Reference Weight (kg) RNI µg RE/day **Infants, mo** 6 30 9 30 **Children, y** 1-3 13 30 4-6 19 30 7-9 24 35 **Males, y** 10-12 34 45 13-15 50 65 16-18 58 75 19 and over 59 75 **Female, y** 10-12 35 45 13-15 49 65 16-18 50 70 19 and over 51 70 **Pregnant women** 80 **Lactating women** 1^st^ 6 mos 105 --------------------- ----------------------- --------------- e. f. g. 2. **VITAMIN B COMPLEX** **B-COMPLEX VITAMINS** **GROUP I: CLASSIC DISEASE FACTORS** 1. a. b. c. ***Deficiency*** **Types of Beriberi** - - - d. ***Toxicity*** e. ***Requirement or allowance*** f. 2. a. ***Functions*** b. ***Stability*** c. *Deficiency* d. ***Toxicity*** e. ***Food sources*** 3. a. ***Functions*** b. ***Stability*** c. ***Deficiency*** d. *Toxicity* e. *Food sources* **B-COMPLEX VITAMINS** **GROUP II: MORE RECENTLY DISCOVERED COENZYME FACTORS** 1. 1. ***Functions*** 2. ***Deficiency*** 3. ***Toxicity*** 4. ***Food sources*** 2. **PANTOTHENIC ACID (B5)** a. *Functions* b. ***Stability*** c. ***Deficiency*** d. ***Toxicity*** e. ***Requirement or allowances*** f. ***Sources*** 3. 4. **BIOTIN (B7)** a. ***Functions*** b. ***Stability*** c. ***Deficiency*** d. ***Toxicity*** e. ***Requirements or allowances*** f. ***Food sources*** **B-COMPLEX VITAMINS** **GROUP III: CELL GROWTH AND BLOOD-FORMING FACTORS** 1. a. ***Functions*** b. ***Stability*** c. ***Deficiency*** d. ***Sources*** 1. a. ***Functions*** ***a.1* Cobalamin is e**ssential for normal metabolism and growth of all cells, especially those in the **Gl tract, bone marrow, and nervous tissue.** ***a.2*** Along with folic acid, choline, and methionine, cobalamin aids in the transfer of methyl groups in the synthesis of nucleic acids, purines, and pyrimidine intermediates. *a.3* It is involved in myelin formation essential for carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism, and is associated with **folic acid** absorption and metabolism. b. ***Stability*** c. ***Deficiency*** ***c.1* Demyelination** of the large nerve fibers of the spinal cord ***c.2* Pernicious anemia** d. ***Toxicity*** e. ***Sources*** **B-COMPLEX VITAMINS** **GROUP IV: OTHER RELATED FACTORS (PSEUDO-VITAMINS)** 1. **INOSITOL** a. It occurs in meat and meat extractives, muscle and glandular organs, brain, legumes and nuts, fruits, vegetables, and grains. b. It is abundant in the diet, minimum requirements for inositol are not known. c. Its chemistry is closely similar to **glucose**, hence it is alternatively called \"muscle sugar\". d. It is a **lipotropic agent**. It is linked with phospholipids as **phosphoinositols** which help in the transport and metabolism of fats. 2. a. b. c. d. e. **MINERALS** Minerals pertain to the elements in their **simple** **Inorganic form**. In nutrition, they are commonly referred to as mineral elements or, in the case of those present or required in small amounts, they are known as **trace elements or trace minerals.** **MINERAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY** There are **21 mineral elements** now known to be essential in nutrition. Analysis of minerals, however, shows the presence of **more than 25**. The minerals of the body are **calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron, zinc, selenium, NDT manganese, copper, iodine, molybdenum, cobalt, chromium, fluorine, vanadium, nickel, tin, and silicon. There are also traces of barium, bromine, strontium, gold, silver, aluminum, bismuth, gallium, arsenic, and others.** Mineral elements exist in the body and in food in organic and inorganic combinations. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | CLASSIFICATION | | MINERALS | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Macronutrients | Calcium | Chloride | | essential at levels | | | | of 100 mg or more/day | Phosphorus | Sodium | | | | | | | Sulfur | Magnesium | | | | | | | Potassium | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Micronutrients | Iron | Iodine | | essential at levels | | | | higher than a few | Fluorine | Chromium | | mg/day | | | | | Zinc | Cobalt | | | | | | | Copper | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Micronutrients | Silicon | Manganese | | essential, but | | | | amounts needed for | Vanadium | Nickel | | humans cannot be | | | | estimated at present | Tin | Molybdenum | | | | | | | Selenium | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Minerals present in | Strontium | Aluminum | | humans; function not | | | | known | Bromine | Bismuth | | | | | | | Gold | Arsenic | | | | | | | Silver | Boron | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ A. **GROUP I: MAJOR MINERALS** 1. **CALCIUM** a. *Distribution* b. *Function* c. *Utilization* d. *Food sources* +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Kuhol | Cheese | | | | | Seaweed | Bagoong | | | | | Gamet | Dried fish | | | | | Malunggay | Alakaak | | | | | Leaves | Biya | | | | | Saluyot | Galunggong | | | | | Carabao\'s | Sardinas | | | | | Milk | Dried | | | | | Dilis | Ayungin | | | | | Hipon | Dried dilis | | | | | Tagunton | Dried hibi | | | | | Susong | Milk, evaporated | | | | | Pilipit | | | | | | Talangka | | | | | | Silinyasi | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ e. *Effects of deficiency or excess* - - - - f. *Effect of excess* 2. a. b. c. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Nuts | Seafood | | | | | Soybean | Whole grains | | | | | Meat | Dried beans | | | | | Milk | Peas | | | | | Cocoa | Green plants | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ d. 3. **SODIUM** a. *Distribution* b. *Functions* *b.1* Sodium is responsible for maintaining fluid balance. *b.2* It is also responsible for maintaining acid-base balance. *b.3* It allows the passage of materials like glucose through the cell wall and maintains normal muscle intability or excitability. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Carrots | Preservatives and additives | | | | | Celery | Canned foods (luncheon meat | | | sardines) | | Beets | | | | Spinach | | Soy sauce | | | | Peas | | Catsup | | | | Vetsin | | Processed | | | | Fish sauce | | Foods (tocino, tapa, bacon, ham, | | | hotdog) | | | | | | NaCl (40% Na) | | | | | | -1 gm NaCl-400 mg Na | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ d. e. *Effects of deficiency or excess* 4. a. b. c. *Food Sources* +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Meat | Fruit juice | | | | | Legumes | Dark green | | | | | Milk | Vegetables | | | | | Raw and dried | Unrefined | | | | | fish | Cereals | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ d. e. - - - - - 5. a. *Distribution* b. *Functions* c. *Food sources* +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cheese | Poultry | | | | | Milk | Fish | | | | | Dairy products | Eggs | | | | | Meat | Dried beans | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ d. *Effects of excess* 6. **SULFUR** a. *Distribution* b. *Function* c. *Food sources* Protein contains about 1% sulfur so that a diet adequate in protein will contain enough sulfur. d. *Effects of deficiency or excess* A hereditary defect in tubular reabsorption of amino acid cystine may lead to excessive excretion in the urine causing **cystinuria**. However, repeated production of cystine in the kidney also causes the formation of cystine kidney stones. 7. **CHLORINE** a. *Distribution* Chlorine is a major anion in the extracellular fluid. The cerebrospinal fluid has the highest concentration of chloride. The normal range for plasma level is from **95- 105 mEq/liter or 340-370 mg/100 mL.** A relatively large amount of ionized chlorine is found in the Gi secretion as HCL It may also be found to some extent within the celis. b. *Functions* b.1 Chlorine maintains fluid and electrolyte balance and acid-base balance. b.2 It contributes to the acidity necessary in the stomach (**HCI**). c. *Food source -* table salt (**NaCl**) d. *Effects of deficiency* **Alkalosis** results when there is an excessive loss of chloride ions from the gastric secretions during continued vomiting, diarrhea, or tube drainage. **GROUP II: TRACE MINERALS** 1. a. *Distribution* The body weight contains about 75 mg/kg tat-free body weight of iron. This is about 3-5 gm. The amount varies with age, sex, nutrition, general health and size of iron stores. Of this amount, 60% to 75% is present as part of the hemoglobin and 5% as myoglobin, the muscle hemoglobin. About 26% is found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. b. *Function* *b.1* As constituent of hemoglobin and myoglobin, iron serves as a canter of oxygen needed for cellular respiration. *b.2* It is necessary for hemoglobin formation. *b.3* It is an active component of tissue enzyme Involved in the conversion of betacarotene into vitamin A synthesis of purines, antibody production, collage synthesis, and other functions associated with the respiratory chain. c. *Utilization* Iron in ferrous form is better absorbed than in ferric form. Several factors affect the absorption of iron: **Types of Iron** 1\. **Heme Iron** is found only in meal (fish and poultry) and is more efficiently absorbed by the body 2**. Non-heme** iron comes from other on- containing foods like cereals, vegetables, and eggs. In the Filipino diet, most of the iron comes from vegetables or sources of non- animal origin. Eating meat with non-heme iron and vitamin C helps with the absorption of non-heme iron by the body. **Body needs** When the unbound transferring is saturated with iron, the absorption of iron is decreased. When the level of the unbound transferring is high, indicating that blood has been freed of iron, the absorption of iron is high. If a person has a higher need for iron as in growth pregnancy, and lactation and when a person is in a state of iron deficiency, then the level of iron absorbed is high. compared with persons with normal levels hemoglobin. **Bulk in the diet** An increased fiber in the det interferes with the absorption n in green leafy vegetables of iron. Hence, iron is poorly absorbed. **Intake of coffee** Whether coffee is taken an hour after a meal or with the meal, Iron absorption is reduced. The reduction is even greater with stronger coffee intake. **Presence of ascorbic acid** Forty to 50 mg of ascorbic acid added to a meal of or coffee increases iron absorption bread, egg and tea significantly, from 3.7% to 10.4%. d. *Effects of deficiency or excess* **Effect of deficiency:** - - - - - - - - - e. *Effect of excess:* - - - - - - - **2. COPPER** a. *Distribution* All tissue in the body contains traces of copper. Large amounts are found in the liver, brain, heart, and kidney. b. *Functions* c. *Effects of deficiency or excess* **Effects of deficiency** - - - - - - d. *Effect of excess* Wilson\'s disease - excessive accumulation of copper 3. a. *Distribution* The adult body normally contains 20 to 30 mg of iodine. About 70% to 80% or about 8 mg is concentrated in the thyroid gland and the rest is widely diffused throughout all tissues, especially in the ovaries, muscles, and blood. b. *Functions* lodine is needed for the production of thyroid hormone, It is an element required for the synthesis of thyroxine. c. *Effects of deficiency* *c.1* Goiter-enlargement of the thyroid gland. *c.2* Cretinism caused by insufficient iodine intake of a mother during pregnancy which deprives the fetus of the nutrient and the baby bom becomes a cretin. The child suffers from hypothyroidism, is physically dwarfed is mentally retarded, and has thick pasty skin and protruding abdomen. *c.3* Myxedema adults who have had problems with low iodine intake throughout their childhood and adolescence. 4. a. *Distribution* Only about 10 to 20 mg of manganese is present in the adult body. It is concentrated in the liver and kidneys with small amounts in the other tissues such as the retina, bones, and salivary glands. b. ***Functions*** *b.1* Manganese is an activator of a number of metabolic reactions. *b.2* It acts as catalyst of a number of enzymes necessary in glucose and fat metabolism. *b.3* It increases storage of thiamine. c. ***Effect of deficiency or excess*** No incidence of manganese deficiency or toxicity caused by diet has been observed in humans. 5. a. ***Distribution*** Cobalt is found only in trace amounts in the body. b. ***Functions*** ***b.1*** Cobalt is a constituent of vitamin B12. *b.2* It is necessary for RBC formation. *b.3* It is essential for the normal functioning of all cells. c. ***Requirements*** The nutritional requirement of cobalt is restricted to the body\'s need for vitamiin B12 as the body carinot utilize cobalt to synthesize the vitamin. d. ***Effects of deficiency or excess*** ***d.1* Deficiency - pernicious anemia** *d.2* **Excess -** polycythemia or increase in the number of RBC and hyperplasia of bone marrow. 6. a. ***Distribution*** b. ***Functions*** *b.1* It is involved in a wide range of cellular functions being an integral part of several metalloenzymes. It also acts as regulator of activities of certain enzymes in the body. *b.2* It is present in the RNA. *b.3* It is related to the hormone Insulin, glucagons. ACTH, growth hormone gonadotropin, and testosterone. *b.4* It enhances wound healing and helps maintain a normal sense of taste. c. ***Effects of deficiency or excess*** **Effects of deficiency** - - - - - - - **Effects of excess** - - - - - 7. a. ***Distribution*** Even if only 9 mg of molybdenum is present in the body, it is as important to health as the B vitamins and magnesium. Molybdenum is concentrated in the liver kidneys, adrenal glands, and blood cells. b. ***Functions*** It is present inbound as an integral part of the various enzyme molecules. Three of these enzymes are xanthine oxidase; aldehyde oxidase, a flavoprotein for catalyzing the oxidation of aldehydes to corresponding carboxylic acid, and sulfite oxidase which functions in the degradation of sulfur derived from amino acids. c. ***Requirement*** A daily intake of 50 to 500 mg is considered a safe and adequate intake for adults. d. ***Effects of deficiency*** - - - - - - **GROUP III: OTHER TRACE MINERALS** 1. a. *Distribution* Fluorine is found primarily in the bones and teeth and trace amounts in the thyroid gland and skin. b. ***Functions*** c. ***Food sources*** - - - - d. ***Effects of deficiency or excess*** **Effect of deficiency** - dental caries **Effects of excess** - dental fluorosis enamel (2-8 ppm)-melting of the - osteosclerosis (8-20 ppm) - growth depression (50 ppm or more) - fetal poisoning (extremely high levels) e. ***Distribution of Fluorides*** Teeth and skeleton have the highest concentrations of fluoride due to the affinity of fluoride to calcium. Fluoride content of teeth increases rapidly during early mineralization periods and continues to increase with age but at a lower rate. f. ***Role of Fluorides in Nutrition and Dental Health*** Nutrition and diet affect the development and integrity of the oral cavity as well as progression of diseases of the oral cavity. Oral infectious diseases, as well as acute, chronic, and terminal systemic diseases with oral manifestations impact on the functional ability to eat that affects diet and nutrition status. Nutrition plays a major role in craniofacial development and prevention of oral infections and oral cancers. g. ***Prevention of Cavities by Fluoride*** Cavities are holes (or structural damage) in the teeth. Fluoride concentrates in the growing bones and developing teeth of children help harden the enamel on baby and adult teeth before they emerge. Fluoride helps to harden the enamel on adult teeth that have already emerged. 2. a. ***Distribution*** Selenium content in the diet is dependent on the soil content where the food source is grown. b. ***Functions*** c. ***Food sources*** - Organ meats - Cereals - Muscle meats - Dairy products d. ***Effects of deficiency or excess*** - **Muscle pain and tenderness** - pancreatic degeneration - hemolytic anemia 3. a. ***Distribution*** The fatal body content of chromium is about 6 to 10 mg. b. ***Functions*** ***b.1* Chromium** raises abnormally low fasting blood sugar levels and improves faulty uptake of sugar by body tissues. ***b.2* It** stimulates the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol in the liver c. ***Food sources*** - Corn oil - Vegetables - Clams - Meats - Whole-grain cereals d. ***Requirement*** Normal adults - 50 to 200 mcg/day 4. a. *Distribution* Vanadium is a constituent of human tissues. b. *Function* It is involved in the appetite crystal formation of tooth enamel, hence may contribute to resistance to dental decay. c. *Requirement* 0.1 to 0.3 mg/day. **GROUP 2** **SUBMITTED TO:** Lexter King S. Jimenez *Clinical Instructor* **SUBMITTED BY:** EJ Shamiel A. Acoba Jezzemine T. Cardenas Amirah Grace B. Elizaga Dianna Kaye A. Leano Jirah Lynette N. Reloza Angelica P. Tejada ***21 - BSN -09***