GROUP-2-ELT211-PPT-REPORT-2.pptx

PRINCI PLES AND THE ORIES OF LANGUAGE ELT 211 – CODE A C Q U I S I T175 ION AND LE ARNING  TABLE OF CONTENTS AGE AND ACQUISITION ORDER OF ACQUISITION DISPELLING MYTHS SOME AGE-AND-ACQUISITION TY...

PRINCI PLES AND THE ORIES OF LANGUAGE ELT 211 – CODE A C Q U I S I T175 ION AND LE ARNING  TABLE OF CONTENTS AGE AND ACQUISITION ORDER OF ACQUISITION DISPELLING MYTHS SOME AGE-AND-ACQUISITION TYPES OF COMPARISON AND INSPIRED LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS CONTRAST THE CRITUCAL PERIOD HUMAN LEARNING LEARNING AND TRAINING HYPOTHESIS NEUROLOBIOLOGICAL PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING CONSIDERATIONS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ACENT AUSUBEL’S SUBSUMPTION THEORY COGNITIVE CONSIDERATIONS HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY AFFECTIVE CONSIDERATIONS TYPES OF LEARNING LINGUISTICS CONSIDERATIONS STYLES AND STRATEGIES PROCESS, STYLE AND STATEGY INTERFERENCE BETWEEN FIRST LEARNING STYLES AND SECOND LANGUAGES  AGE AND ACQUISITION The increased pact of research on first language acquisition in the last half of the Twentieth century attracted the attention not only of linguists in many subfields but also of educators in various language- related fields, Today the applications of research findings in first language acquisition arc widespread just like in language art education. Foreign Language Education Most standard texts and curricula now include some introductory material on first language acquisition. The reasons for this arc clear. We have all observed children acquiring their first language easily and well, yet individuals learning a second language, particularly in an educational setting, can meet with great difficulty and sometimes failure.  DISPELLING MYTHS The first step in investigating age and acquisition might be to dispel some myths about the relationship between first and second language acquisition. Some common arguments raised from time to tome (Stern, H. H., 1970, pp.57-58) 1. In language teaching, we must practice and practice, again and again. Just watch a small child learning his mother tongue. He repeats things over and over again. 2. Language learning is mainly a matter of imitation. You must be a mimic. Just like a small child. He imitates everything. 3. First, we practice the separate sounds, then words, then sentences. That is the natural order and is therefore right for learning a foreign language. 4. Watch a small child's speech development. First he listens, then he speaks, Understanding always precedes speaking. 5. A small child listens and speaks and no one would dream of making him read or write, Reading and writing are advanced stages of language development. 6. You did not have to translate when you were small. If you were able to learn your own language without translation, you should be able to learn a foreign language in the same way. 7. A small child simply uses language. He does not learn formal grammar. You don't tell him about verbs and nouns. Yet he learns the language perfectly.  These statements represent the views of those who felt that "the first language learner was looked upon as the foreign language teacher's dream: a pupil who mysteriously laps up his vocabulary, whose pronunciation, in spite of occasional lapses, is impeccable, while morphology and syntax, instead of being a constant headache, come to him like a dream" (Stern, 1970, p. 58).  There are flaws in each of the seven statements. Sometimes the flaw is in the assumption behind the statement about first language learning; sometimes it is in the analogy or implication that is drawn; sometimes it is in both The Haws represent some of them is understandings that need to be demythologized for the second language teacher.  As cognitive and constructivist research on both first and second language acquisition gathered momentum, second language researchers and foreign language teachers began to recognize the mistakes in drawing direct global analogies between first and second language acquisition. Stern (1970). Cook (1973. 1995), and Schachter (1988), among others, addressed the inconsistencies of such analogies, but at the same time recognized the legitimate similarities that, if viewed cautiously, allowed one to draw some constructive conclusions about second language learning.  TYPES OF COMPARISON AND CONTRAST At the very least, one needs to approach the comparison by first considering the differences between children and adults. It is, in one sense, illogical to compare first language the second language acquisition of a childacquisition with the of an adult It is much more logical to compare first and second language learning in children or to compare second language learning in children and adults, child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition are common and important categories of acquisition to compare. an adult is considered to be one who has reached the age of puberty. first considering the differences between children and adults  The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) claims that there is such a biological timetable. Initially the notion of a critical period was connected only to first language acquisition.  THE CRITICAL HYPOTHESIS Pathological studies of children who failed to acquire their first language, or aspects thereof, became fuel for argument of biologically determined predispositions, timed for release, which would wane if the correct environmental stimuli were not present at the crucial stage The "classic" argument is that a critical point for second language acquisition occurs around puberty, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a second language. This has led some to assume, incorrectly, that by the age of 12 or 13 you are "over the hill" when it comes to the possibility of successful second language learning. Such an assumption must be viewed in the light of what it means to be "successful" in learning a second language, and particularly the role of accent as a component of success. To examine these issues, we will first look at neurological and phonological considerations, then examine cognitive, affective, and linguistic considerations. NEUROLOGIC AL C ONSIDERATI  One of the most promising areas of inquiry in age and acquisition research has been the study of the function of the brain in the process of acquisition. How might neurological development affect second language success? Does the maturation of the brain at some stage spell the doom of language acquisition ability? HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or "lateralized," to the left hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be largely located in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs.  HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION (CONT.) Language functions appear to be controlled mainly in the left hemisphere, although there is a good deal of conflicting evidence. For example: Patients who have had left hemispherectomies have been capable of comprehending and producing an amazing amount of language. HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION (CONT.) Millar and Whitaker’s conclusion of over 20 years ago still stands: "Enough data have accumulated to challenge the simple view that the left hemisphere is the language hemisphere and the right hemisphere does something else." HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION (CONT.) Eric Lenneberg (1967) and others suggested that lateralization is a slow process that begins around the age of 2 and is completed around puberty. HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION (CONT.) It has been found that children up to the age of puberty who suffer injury to the left hemisphere are able to delocalize linguistic functions to the right hemisphere, to "relearn" their first language with relatively-little impairment. For example: A longitudinal study of a boy who at 8 years of age had no speech, underwent a left hemispherictomy, and then at the age of 9 suddenly began to speak! HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION (CONT.) Thomas Scovel (1969) proposed a relationship between lateralization and second language acquisition. He suggested that the plasticity of the brain prior to puberty enables children to acquire not only their first language but also a second language. BIOLOGICAL TIMETABLES One of the most compelling arguments for an accent-related critical period came from Thomas Scovel's (1988) fascinating multidisciplinary review of the evidence that has been amassed. Scovel cited evidence for a sociobiological critical period in various species of mammals and birds. BIOLOGICAL TIMETABLES (CONT.) Scovel's evidence pointed toward the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty, enabling species: (1) to form an identity with their own community as they anticipate roles of parenting and leadership, and (2) to attract mates of "their own kind" in an instinctive drive to maintain their own species. BIOLOGICAL TIMETABLES (CONT.) The sociobiological evidence that Scovel cited persuades us to conclude that native accents, and therefore "foreign" accents after puberty, may be a genetic leftover that, in our widespread human practice of mating across dialectal, linguistic, and racial barriers, is no longer necessary for the preservation of the human species. "In other words," explained Scovel (1988, p. 80), "an accent emerging after puberty is the price we pay for our preordained ability to be articulate apes." BIOLOGICAL TIMETABLES (CONT.) Walsh and Diller (1981) proposed that different aspects of a second language are learned optimally at different ages: Lower-order processes such as pronunciation are dependent on early maturing and less adaptive microneural circuits. Higher-order language functions, such as semantic relations, are more dependent on late maturing neural circuits. RIGHT-HEMISPHERIC PARTICIPATION Another branch of neurolinguistics research focused on the role of the right hemisphere in the acquisition of a second language. Obler (1981) noted that in second language learning, there is significant right hemisphere participation and that "this participation is particularly active during the early stages of learning the second language." RIGHT-HEMISPHERIC PARTICIPATION (CONT.) Obler cited the strategy of guessing at meanings, and of using formulaic utterances, as examples of right hemisphere activity. Others like Genesee (1982) and Seliger (1982) also found support for right hemisphere involvement in the form of complex language processing as opposed to early language RIGHT-HEMISPHERIC PARTICIPATION (CONT.) Genesee (1982) concluded that "there may be greater right hemisphere involvement in language processing in bilinguals who acquire their second language late relative to their first language and in bilinguals who learn it in informal contexts." RIGHT-HEMISPHERIC PARTICIPATION (CONT.) Such studies seem to suggest that second language learners, particularly adult learners, might benefit from more encouragement of right-brain activity in the classroom context. RIGHT-HEMISPHERIC PARTICIPATION (CONT.) CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS Research Findings: A number of empirical and observational studies indicate that adults might benefit from a healthy dose of right-brain-oriented activities in the foreign language classroom. RIGHT-HEMISPHERIC PARTICIPATION (CONT.) CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS Teaching Implications: Some approaches to language teaching. For exampIe: Total Physical Response, the Natural Approach advocate a less analytical approach and a more psychomotor, integrated, social atmosphere in the classroom. ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Some adults have been known to acquire an authentic accent in a second language after the age of puberty, but such individuals are few and far between. Anthropologist Jane Hill (1970) provided an intriguing response to Scovel's (1969) study by citing anthropological research on non-Western societies that yielded evidence that adults can, in the normal course of their lives, acquire second languages perfectly. ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE (CONT.) Sorenson (1967) reported that during adolescence, individuals actively and almost suddenly began to speak two or three other languages to which they had been exposed at some point. Moreover, in adulthood a person may acquire more languages; as he approaches old age. ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE (CONT.) The language acquisition situation seen in adult language learners in the largely monolingual American English middle class speech communities may have been inappropriately taken to be a universal situation in proposing an inn a list explanation for adult foreign accents. Multilingual speech communities of various types deserve careful study. ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE (CONT.) Even more recently, Mover (2004) has reminded us of a multitude of cognitive, social, psychological, and strategic variables affecting the ultimate attainment of proficiency in a second language. THE SIGNIFIC ANCEOF ACCE NT  The emergence of what we commonly call "foreign accent" is of some importance in our arguments about age and acquisition. We can appreciate the fact that given the existence of several hundred muscles (throat, larynx, mouth, lips, tongue, and others) that are used in the articulation of human speech, a tremendous degree of muscular control is required to achieve the fluency of a native speaker of a  Research on the acquisition of authentic control of the phonology of a foreign language supports the notion of a critical period. Most of the evidence indicates that persons beyond the age of puberty do not acquire what has come to be called authentic (native- speaker) pronunciation of the second language. Possible causes of such an age-based factor have already been discussed: neuromuscular plasticity cerebral development sociobiological programs and; the environment of sociocultural influences  It is tempting immediately to cite exceptions to the rule "My Aunt Mary learned French at 25, and everyone in France said she sounded just like a native". These exceptions, however, appear to be (1) isolated instances or  Gerald Neufeld (1977, 1979, 1980, 2001) undertook a set of studies to determine to what extent adults could approximate native-speaker accents in a second language never before encountered. In his earliest experiment, 20 adult native English speakers were taught to imitate 10 utterances, each from 1 to 16 syllables in length, in Japanese and in Chinese. Native-speaking Japanese and Chinese judges listened to the taped  While Neufeld recognized the limitations of his own studies, he suggested that "older students have neither lost their sensitivity to subtle deference in sounds, rhythm, and pitch nor the ability to reproduce these sounds and contours."  It is important to remember in all these considerations that pronunciation of a language is not by any means the sole criterion for acquisition, nor is it really the most important one. We all know people who have less than perfect pronunciation but who also have excellent and fluent control of a second language, control that can even exceed that of many native speakers.  The acquisition of the communicative and functional purposes of language is, in most circumstances, far more important than a perfect native accent. Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) reminded us of the positive side of the miracle of second language acquisition: The miraculous levels of proficiency that second language learners (at all ages) in fact can reach, despite the constraints that are unposed by our biological scheduling. The subtle differences that we have assumed to exist between near-native and native proficiency are probably highly insignificant in all aspects of the second language speaker's life and endeavors, although very significant for a theory of human capacity for language learning.  Cook (1995) warned against "using native accent as the yardstick" in our penchant for holding up monolingualism as the standard. And so, maybe instead, we can turn those perspectives into a more positive focus on the "multi-competence" of second language learners.  Bongaerts et al. (1995) found results that suggested that certain learner characteristics and contexts may work together to override the disadvantages of a late start. Slavoff and Joluison (1995) found that younger children (ages 7 to 9) did not have a particular advantage in rate of learning over older (10- to 12-year-old) children.  Studies on the effects of Universal Grammar, of instructional factors and of contextual and sociopsychological factors are all highly promising domains of research on age and COGNITIVE CONSIDERATIONS IN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Understanding the Role of Cognitive Development in Learning Languages PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Formal Operational Stage (11-16 Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process. Children continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. Sensorimotor Stage Birth- 2 years During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.  Sensorimotor Stage Birth- 2 years First Language (L1) During this stage, infants primarily learn language through direct interaction with their environment. e.g. A baby might say "mama" after repeatedly hearing the word associated with their mother.  Sensorimotor Stage Birth- 2 years Second Language (L2) It’s uncommon for a second language to be acquired at this stage unless the child is in a bilingual environment. Preoperational Stage 2-7 years During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols. However, Piaget noted that they do not yet understand concrete logic.  Preoperational Stage 2-7years First Language (L1) Children rapidly expand their vocabulary and begin to form more complex sentences. e.g. A child might start to use simple sentences like "I want cookie" and later more complex ones like "I want a big cookie."  Preoperational Stage 2-7years Second Language (L2) Children at this stage might start picking up vocabulary and simple phrases, especially through songs, games, and repetition. e.g. They might say "cat" in L1 (English) and "gato" in L2 (Spanish), showing their ability to associate words across languages. Concrete Operational Stage 7-11 years Children in this stage think about tangible (concrete) objects and specific instances rather than abstract concepts. They can make logical conclusions about concrete examples but may struggle with hypothetical situations.  Concrete Operational Stage 7-11 years First Language (L1) Children develop logical thinking skills and can understand more complex sentence structures, including those involving multiple clauses. They begin to use language for academic purposes, like reading and writing in school.  Concrete Operational Stage 7-11 years Second Language (L2) In this stage, children can grasp grammar rules and apply them to the second language. They can also start translating basic sentences between L1 and L2. They might engage in classroom learning of the second language, understanding instructions, and participating in simple conversations. Formal Operational Stage 12-16 years The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas..  Formal Operational Stage 11-16 years First Language (L1) Adolescents develop abstract thinking, allowing them to understand and produce more sophisticated language, such as metaphors, idioms, and complex arguments. e.g. They might write essays that analyze themes in literature or engage in debates.  Formal Operational Stage 11-16 years Second Language (L2) Learners at this stage can handle more abstract aspects of the second language, like understanding cultural nuances, idiomatic expressions, and complex grammar. Critical Period Hypothesis The Critical Period Hypothesis suggests there is an optimal window for language learning, usually before puberty. After this period, language acquisition becomes more challenging but not impossible.  The Role of Formal Thought in Language Learning Formal operational thought develops around age 11, enabling abstract thinking. Adults use abstract thinking to analyze and learn complex language structures. Lateralization and Language Learning Lateralization refers to the dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in controlling certain functions. As the left hemisphere becomes dominant, adults may focus more on analytical aspects of language learning. Equilibration in Language Acquisition Equilibration involves moving from cognitive uncertainty to stability, motivating language learning. Children are driven to resolve cognitive ambiguities, which fuels their language acquisition.  Rote vs. Meaningful Learning Rote learning involves memorization without understanding, while meaningful learning connects new information to existing knowledge. Meaningful learning is more effective for long-term retention.  Child and Adult Language Learning Children acquire languages naturally through immersion and interaction. Adults often learn languages in structured settings, which can limit natural language use.  AFFECTIVE CONSIDERATIONS Emotional Factors in First and Second Language Learning  Emotional Influence on Language Learning Human beings are influenced by emotions in all aspects of life. Emotions play a critical role in language acquisition.  Egocentricity and Language Learning Egocentric Development in Children Inhibitions During Development  The Concept of Language Ego Language ego is the sense of self tied to one’s native language. Challenges for Adults Adults may have a protective language ego that resists new Alexander language learning. Guiora  Role of Attitudes in Learning Negative Attitudes: Can hinder language acquisition. Differences in Peer Pressure Children: Face strong peer pressure to conform, including in language use. Adults: Experience less peer pressure, but may be more self-conscious about errors  LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS A growing number of research studies are now available to shed some light on the linguistic processes of second language learning and how those processes differ between children and adults.  Bilingualis m It is clear that children learning two languages simultaneously acquire them by the use of similar strategies.  Learning two first languages, and the key to success is in distinguishing separate contexts for the two languages. Coordinate bilinguals have two meaning systems compound bilinguals who have one meaning system. Children generally do not have problems with "mixing up languages," regardless of the separateness of contexts (Cook,1995).  "bilinguals are not two monolinguals in the same head" (Cook, 1995, p. 58). Code-switching (the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of one language into the other) INTERFERENCE BETWEEN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGES -The research confirms that the linguistic and cognitive processes of second language learning in young children are in general similar to first language processes. EXAMPLE: Dulay and Burt (1974a) found, for example, that 86 percent of more than 500 errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English reflected normal developmental characteristics—that is, expected intralingual strategies, not interference errors from the first language. Hansen-Bede (1975) examined such linguistic structures as possession, gender, word order, verb forms, questions, and negation in an English-speaking three-year-old child who learned Urdu upon moving to Pakistan. Adult second language linguistic processes are more vulnerable to the effect of the first language on the second, especially the farther apart the two events are. Adults, more cognitively secure appear to operate from the solid foundation of the first language and thus manifest more interference. But it was pointed out earlier that adults, too, manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make. The first language, however, may be more readily used to bridge gaps that the adult learner cannot fill by generalization within the second language. LANGUAGE AND TEACHING METHODS  On language teaching in the "modern" era may have been sparked by Francois Gouin's observation of his young nephew's first language acquisition. Language teaching methodology in a historical context reveals a number of instances of methods that were inspired by observation of and research on child second language acquisition. Total Physical Response The founder of the Total Physical Response (TPR) method, James Asher (1977) He also gave some attention to right-brain learning. Motor activity is a right-brain function that should precede left-brain language processing. language classes were often the locus of too much anxiety and wished to devise a method that was as stress-free as possible, Commands were an easy way to get learners to move about and to loosen up: "Open the window," "Close the door," "Stand up," "Sit down," "Pick up the book," "Give it to John," More complex syntax was incorporated into the imperative: "Draw a rectangle on the chalkboard." "Walk quickly to the door and hit it." Humor was easy to introduce: "Walk slowly to die window and jump." "Put your toothbrush in your book" Interrogatives were also easily dealt with: "Where is the book?" "Who is John?" (students point to the book or to John). -Other methods of the twentieth century, TPR—as a method—had its limitations. -TPR is used more as a type of classroom activity, The Natural Approach Stephen Krashen's (1982) theories of second language acquisition have been widely discussed and hotly debated since the 1970s. One of the hallmarks of Krashen's theories is that adults should acquire a second language just as children do: they should be given the opportunity to “pick up” a language, and shouldn't be forced to ‘study’ grammar in the classroom. The Natural Approach Natural Approach advocated the use of TPR activities at the beginning level of language learning, when "comprehensible input" is essential for triggering the acquisition of language. The natural approach was aimed at the goal of basis interpersonal communication skills, that is everyday language situation. Question ? Who is the founder of the Total Physical Response (TPR) method? What types of approach that advocated the use of TPR activities at the beginning level of language learning, when "comprehensible input" is essential for triggering the acquisition of language?  Human Learning Human learning refers to the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes through experiences and interactions. It involves the cognitive and behavioral changes that occur in individuals as a result of their interactions with the environment.  According to Plato, learning is a passive process where knowledge is already innately in an individual at birth, and any information acquired is merely a recollection of knowledge the soul already holds. John Locke later offered a contrasting ‘blank slate’ theory where humans are born without any innate knowledge which is gained from the environment. Behaviorism: According to the theory of behaviorism, learning occurs by linking stimuli and responses. Knowledge is independent, and it becomes cemented by way of punishments and rewards. Cognitivism: This theory of learning is grounded in the work of Jean Piaget, which states that learning occurs through the processing of information internally rather than merely responding to an external stimulus. Constructivism: It is based on the premise that individuals learn by constructing new ideas, and an understanding of the world is based on prior knowledge and experiences Connectivism: This newer educational learning theory is grounded in the notion that learning is through the formation of connections between each other as well as their roles, hobbies, and other aspects of life. Humanism: This theory is closely related to constructivism and adult learning theory, and states that learning is a natural desire with the ultimate goal of achieving self-actualization  Learning and Training How do human beings learn? Are there certain basic principles of learning that apply to all learning acts? Is one theory of learning "better" than another? If so, how can you evaluate the usefulness of a theory? These and other important questions need to be answered in order to achieve an integrated understanding of second language acquisition. What would you need to know about your dog and how would you go about the training program? these are the four steps: 1. First, you will need to specify entry behavior: what your dog already "knows." What abilities does it possess upon which you, the trainer, can build? What arc its drives, needs, motivations, limitations? 2. Next, you need to formulate explicitly the goals of the task. You have a general directive: what are your specific objectives? flow successfully and with what sort of "style points" must this dog perform? In what differing environments? 3. You would also need to devise some methods of training- Based on what you know about entry behavior and goals of the task, how would you go about the framing process? Where would you begin? Would you start at 3 feet? Place the Frisbee in the dog's mouth? Would you use rewards? Punishment? What alternatives would you have ready if the dog failed to learn? 4. Finally, you would need some sort of evaluation procedure. How would you determine whether or not the dog had indeed learned what you set out to teach? You would need to determine short-term and long-term evaluation measures. If the dog performs correctly after one day of training, what will happen one month later? That is, will the dog maintain what it has learned’ You must have a comprehensive knowledge of the entry behavior of a person, of objectives you wish to reach, of possible methods that follow from your understanding of the first two factors, and of an evaluation procedure. These steps derive from your conception of how human beings learn, and that is what this chapter is all about.  PAVLOVS CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM  In the early 20th century, Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov conducted the well-known classical conditioning experiments with dogs, demonstrating how neutral stimuli could elicit reflexive responses through repeated associations. This behavioristic tradition had a profound influence on learning theories and language teaching practices for many years.  SKINNER ’S OPERANT CONDITIONING  SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING In 1938, B. E Skinner published his Behavior of Organisms and in so doing established himself as One of the leading behaviortsts in the United States. He followed the tradition of Watson and Thorndike, But other psychologists (see Anderson and Ausubel, 1965. P, 5) have called Skinner a neobehaviorist Because he added a unique dimension to behavioristic psychology.  SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING Skinner called Paviovian conditioning respondent conditioning since it Was concerned with respondent behavior— that is, behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus. Skinner’s operant conditioning attempted to account for most of human learning and behavior.  SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING The infant may look in The direction from which the sound came, become curious about it, and after several such “accidental” Responses discover exactly which toy it is diat makes the sound and how to produce that sound. The baby Operated on her environment. Her responses were reinforced until finally a particular concept or behavior Was learned.  SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING According to Skinner, the events or stimuli— the reinforcers—that follow a response and that tend to Strengthen behavior or increase the probability of a recurrence of that response constitute a powerful force In the control of human behavior, Reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning than is mere association Of a prior stimulus with a following response, as in the classical conditioning  AUSUBEL’S SUBSUMPTION THEORY  AUSUBEL’S SUBSUMPTION THEORY David Ausubel contended that learning takes place in the human organism through a meaningful Process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions—hanging New items on existing cognitive pegs. Meaning is not an implicit response, but a “clearly articulated and Precisely differentiated conscious experience that emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols, Concepts, or propositions are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure on A nonarbitrary and substantive basis” (Anderson & Ausubel, 1965, p.  Linguistic Considerations It refer to the various factors related to language that impact learning and communication. This includes understanding the unique characteristics of language learners, such as their pronunciation, listening skills, and informal language use.  Linguistic Considerations A growing number of research studies are now available to shed some light on the linguistic processes of second language learning and how those processes differ between children and adults. Bilingualis m It is clear that children learning two languages simultaneously acquire them by the use of similar strategies. People who learn a second language in separate contexts can often be described as Coordinate bilinguals Compound Coordinate they have two meaning bilinguals: Compound system one meaning system bilinguals: Children generally do not have problems with "mixing up languages," regardless of the separateness of contexts for use of the languages  Interference between First and Second language A good deal of the research on non- simultaneous second language acquisition In both children and adults, has focused on the interfering effects of the first and second languages. It confirms that the linguistic and cognitive processes of second language learning in young children are in general similar to first language processes. Similar strategies and linguistic features are present in both first and second language learning in children.  First has different names such as, mother language tongue, native language and primary language. A Second acquisition is needed for education, language employment and other purposes, and it is typically an official or societal language  ROGERS’S HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY This humanistic approach, outlined by Rogers, emphasizes emotions over cognition and underscores the importance of genuine connections in facilitating learning. - Roger's humanistic psychology focuses on emotions rather than cognition. - In Client-Centered Therapy (1951), he outlines 19 principles of human behavior, emphasizing learning from a "phenomenological" perspective. - Unlike Skinner, Rogers studied the "whole person," primarily as an emotional being. - He emphasized the development of self-concept and personal sense of reality. - Rogers believed that a "fully functioning person" lives at peace with their feelings and reactions. - Teachers must establish genuine interpersonal relationships with students to facilitate learning. TYPES OF LEARN I NG Robert Gagne’ (1965), Identifies 8 Types of Learning: 1.SIGNAL LEARNING 2. STIMULUS-RESPONSE LEARNING 3. CHAINING 4. VERBAL ASSOCIATION 5. MULTIPLE DISCRIMINATION 6. CONCEPT LEARNING 7. PRINCIPLE LEARNING 8. PROBLEM SOLVING TRANSFER, INTERFERENCE, AND OVERGENERALIZATION TRANSFER- A general term describing the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent.  Positive learning - occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning ask. Negative learning - occurs when the previous performance disrupts the performance on the second task. INTERFERENCE - previously learned the material interferes with subsequent material-- a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned. The interfering effect of the native language on the second language. GENERALIZATION - A crucially important and pervading strategy in human kind in which to infer or drive a law, rule, or conclusion, usually from the observation of particular instances. -Also a process that occurs as the second language learner acts within the target language, generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language -- irrespective of the native language -- beyond legitimate bounds. INDUCTIVE REASONING DEDUCTIVE REASONING TRADITIONAL - especially grammar translation-- methods have overemphasized the use of deductive reasoning in language teaching. PROCESS, STYLE , AND STRATEGY Process - is the most general of the three concepts, it is characteristic of every human being. All human of normal intelligence engage in certain levels or types of learning. Style - refers to consistent and rather enduring tendecies or preferences within an individual. Strategy - are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned design for controlling and manipulating certain information. LEARNING STYLES  LEARNING STYLES A few years ago I landed at the Naples, Italy, airport at 3:00 A.M., after a harrowing day of missed flights, delays, and rerouting that had started early the previous morning in Barcelona. The airport was practically deserted, and to top it off, my luggage was missing! No one at that hour could speak English and my Italian was limited to a couple of handy phrases that were now useless to me. What did I do? With a style that tends to be generally tolerant of ambiguity. first told myself not to get flustered, and to remain calm in spite of my fatigue and frustration. My left-brain style told me to take practical, logical steps and to Focus only on the important details of die moment.  LEARNING STYLES Simultaneously, my sometimes equally strong propensity to use a right-brain approach allowed me to empathize with airport personnel and to use numerous alternative communicative strategies to get messages across, I was reflective enough to be patient with miscommunications and my inability to communicate well, yet impulsive to the extent that I needed to insist on some action as soon as possible.  LEARNING STYLES Learning styles might be thought of as 'cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment" (Keefe, 1979) Skehan (1991) defined learning style as "a general predisposition, voluntary or not, toward processing information in a particular way."  9 Styles Relevant to Second Language Acquisition 1.Field independence-dependence 2.Random (non-linear) vs. sequential (linear) 3.Global vs. particular 4.Inductive vs. deductive 5.Synthetic vs. analytic 6.Analogue vs. digital 7.Concrete vs. abstract 8.Leveling vs. sharpening 9.Impulsive vs. reflective  Field independence Do you remember, in those coloring books you pored over as a child, a picture of a forest scene with exotic trees and flowers, and a caption saying, "Find the hidden monkeys in the trees"? If you looked carefully, you soon began to spot them, some upside-down, some sideways, some high and some low.a dozen or so monkeys camouflaged by the lines of what at first sight looked like just leaves and trees. The ability to find those hidden monkeys lunged upon your field independent style: your ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a "field" of distracting items.  Field independence A field independent (FI) style enables you to distinguish parts from a whole, to concentrate on something (like reading a book in a noisy train station), or to analyze separate variables without the contamination of neighboring variables. The literature on field independence-dependence (FID) (Wilkin & Goodenough. 1981;Witkin, 1962) has shown that Fl increases as a child matures to adulthood, that a person tends to be dominant in one mode or the other, and that FID is a relatively stable trait in adulthood.  Field independence (Fl) Three main factors traditionally used to define intelligence: Analytical factor Verbal comprehension Attention concentration  Ambiguity Tolerance A third style concerns the degree to which you are cognitively willing to tolerate ideas and propositions that run counter to your own belief system or structure of knowledge. Some people are, for example, relatively open-minded in accepting ideologies and events and facts that contradict their own views; they are ambiguity tolerant, that is. more content than others to entertain and even internalize contradictory propositions. Others, more closed-minded and dogmatic, tend to reject items that are contradictory or slightly incongruent with their existing system; in their ambiguity intolerance, they wish to see every proposition fit into an acceptable place in their cognitive organization, and if it does not fit, it is rejected.  Reflectivity and Impulsivity It is common for us to show in our personalities certain tendencies toward reflectivity sometimes and impulsivity at other tunes. Psychological studies have been conducted to determine the degree to which, in the cognitive domain, a person tends to make either a quick or gambling (Impulsive) guess at an answer to a problem or a slower, more calculated (reflective) decision. David Ewlng (1977) referred to two styles that are closely related to the reflectivity/impulsivity (R/l) dimension; systematic and intuitive styles.  Reflectivity and Impulsivity The implications for language acquisition are numerous, ft has been found that children who are conceptually reflective tend to make fewer errors in reading than impulsive children (Kagan, 1965); Impulsive persons are usually faster readers, and eventually master the "psycholinguistic guessing game" (Goodman, 1970) of reading so that their impulsive style of reading may not necessarily deter comprehension.  Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles Visual learners tend to prefer reading and studying charts, drawings, and other graphic information. Auditory learners prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes. And kinesthetic learners will show a preference tor demonstrations and physical activity involving bodily movement.  AUTONOMY, AWARENESS, AND ACTION Implied in any consideration of the role of styles and strategies in learning a second language are three linked concepts: autonomy, awareness, and action. These three "As" of learner development have taken on significance in recent years, especially with increasing pedagogical emphasis on learner-centered language teaching (Wenden,2002). TWO TYPES OF STRATEGIES  Learning Strategies Metacognitive is a term used in information- processing theory to indicate an "executive" function, strategies that involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed (Purpura. 199~).  Learning Strategies Cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. Socio affective strategies have to do with social- mediating activity and interacting with others.  Communication Strategies While learning strategies deal with the receptive domain of intake, memory, storage, and recall, communication strategies pertain to the employment of verbal or nonverbal mechanisms for the productive communication of Information.