West Visayas State University Bachelor of Secondary Education PDF

WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY Luna St., La Paz, Iloilo City Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English A.Y. 2024-2025 UNIT IV. Personality and Sociocultural Factors The Affective Domain Affective Factors in Second Language Acquisition Stereot...

WEST VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY Luna St., La Paz, Iloilo City Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English A.Y. 2024-2025 UNIT IV. Personality and Sociocultural Factors The Affective Domain Affective Factors in Second Language Acquisition Stereotypes, Generalization, and Attitudes Social Distance Members: Faciolan, Alvine Cornelia Elbanbuena, Bernadith Mae Celestre, Gerritz Jay Laraya, Ma. Erenica Gina Napatang, Darl Syde Palmes, Marie Eugenie Jaen, Zoie Tacdoro, Angela Garalda, Doreen Mae Tajapal, Paul Christian October 2024  establishing a hierarchy of values within THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN the system AFFECTIVE ACTORS IN SECOND 5. Finally, individuals become LANGUAGE ACQUISITION characterized by and understand Faciolan, Alvine Cornelia themselves in terms of their value system (internalizing values). Individuals act consistently in THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN accordance with the values they have internalized and integrate beliefs, ideas, Affect refers to emotion or feeling. and attitudes into a total philosophy or ○ The Affective Domain is the world view. It is at this level that emotional side of human behavior, problem solving, for example, is and it may be juxtaposed to the approached on the basis of a total, cognitive side. The development of self-consistent system. affective states or feelings involves a Bloom's taxonomy was devised for variety of personality factors, feelings educational purposes, but it has been used both about ourselves and about for a general understanding of the affective others with whom we come into domain in human behavior. The contact. fundamental notions of receiving, Benjamin Bloom and Iris colleagues responding, and valuing are universal. (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964) Second language learners need to be provided a useful extended definition of receptive both to those with whom they are the affective domain that is still widely communicating and to the language itself, used today. responsive to persons and to the context of 1. At the first and fundamental level, the communication, and willing and able to development of affectivity begins with place a certain value on the communicative receiving. Persons must be aware of act of interpersonal exchange. the environment surrounding them and be conscious of situations, phenomena, Lest you feel at this point that the affective people, objects; be willing to domain as described by Bloom is a bit too receive—to tolerate a stimulus, not far removed from the essence of language, avoid it—and give a stimulus their it is appropriate to recall that language is controlled or selected attention. inextricably woven into the fabric of virtually 2. Next, persons must go beyond every aspect of human behavior. receiving to responding, committing themselves in at least some small Language is so pervasive a phenomenon in measure to a phenomenon or a person. our humanity that it cannot be separated Such responding in one dimension may from the larger whole—from the whole be in acquiescence, but in another persons that live and breathe and think and higher dimension, the person is willing feel. to respond voluntarily without coercion, and then receives satisfaction from that Kenneth Pike (1967, p. 26) said that response language is behavior, that is, a phase of 3. The third level of affectivity involves human activity which must not be treated in valuing: placing worth on a thing, a essence as structurally divorced from the behavior, or a person. Valuing takes on structure of nonverbal human activity. The the characteristics of beliefs or activity of man constitutes a structural attitudes as values are internalized. whole in such a way that it cannot be Individuals do not merely accept a subdivided into neat "parts" or "levels" or value to the point of being willing to be "compartments" with language in a identified with it, but commit behavioral compartment insulated in themselves to the value to pursue it, character, content, and organization from seek it out, and want it, finally, to the other behavior. point of conviction. 4. The fourth level of the affective domain is the organization of values into a system of beliefs, determining interrelationships among them, and AFFECTIVE FACTORS IN SECOND others, and from assessments of the LANGUAGE ACQUISITION external world around them. Three general levels of self-esteem have Understanding how human beings feel and been described in the literature to respond and believe and value is an capture its multidimensionality: exceedingly important aspect of a theory of 1. General or global self-esteem second language acquisition.We turn now to It is said to be relatively stable in a consideration of specific affective factors a mature adult, and is resistant in human behavior and how they relate to to change except by active and second language acquisition. extended therapy. The general or prevailing assessment one makes of one's own worth over time and across a SELF-ESTEEM number of situations. In a sense, it ATTRIBUTION THEORY AND might be analogized to a statistical SELF-EFFICACY mean or median level of overall Elbanbuena, Bernadith Mae self-appraisal. 2. Situational or specific self-esteem Self-esteem One's self-appraisals in particular life situations, such as Self-esteem is probably the most social interaction, work, education, pervasive aspect of any human behavior. It home, or on certain relatively could easily be claimed that no successful discretely defined traits, such as cognitive or affective activity can be carried intelligence, communicative ability, out without some degree of self-esteem, athletic ability, or personality traits self-confidence, knowledge of yourself, and like gregariousness, empathy, and self-efficacy–belief in your own capabilities flexibility. The degree of specific to successfully perform that activity. Malinowski (1923) self-esteem a person has may vary depending upon the situation or the All human beings have a need for trait in question. phatic communion—defining oneself and 3. Task self-esteem finding acceptance in expressing that self in Relates to particular tasks within relation to valued others. Personality specific situations. development universally involves the growth For example, within the educational of a person's concept of self, acceptance of domain, task self-esteem might refer self, and reflection of self as seen in the to one subject-matter area. In an interaction between self and others. athletic context, skill in a sport—or even a facet of a sport such as Well-accepted definition of netplay in tennis or pitching in self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967, pp. baseball—would be evaluated on the 4-5): level of task self-esteem. Specific The evaluation which individuals self-esteem might encompass make and customarily maintain with second language acquisition in regard to themselves general, and task self-esteem might It expresses an attitude of approval appropriately refer to one's or disapproval, and indicates the self-evajuation of a particular aspect extent to which individuals believe of die process; speaking, writing, a themselves to be capable, particular class in a second significant, successful, and worthy language, or even a special kind of In short, it is a personal judgment classroom exercise. of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold toward themselves. It is a subjective experience, which the individual PERSONA STUDY FINDINGS conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior. Adelaide The effects All three levels of Heyde of the three self-esteem People derive their sense of (1979) levels of correlated self-esteem from the accumulation of self-esteem positively with experiences with themselves and with  linguistic goals and to the personhood of on performance on their students. performanc the oral e of an oral production production measure, with Attribution Theory and task by the highest Self-efficacy American correlation Underlying the issues and questions college occurring about the role of self-esteem in language students between task learning are the foundational concepts of learning self-esteem and attribution and self-efficacy. French as a performance on foreign oral production Attribution Theory language. measures. Focuses on how people explain the causes of their own Watkins, Included The results successes and failures (based on Biggs, measures of revealed that the seminal work of psychologist and self-esteem self-esteem Bernard Weiner, 1986, 1992, 2000) Regmi in their appears to be an (l99l), studies of important Four explanations for success and/or Brodkey success in variable in failure in achieving a personal and language second objective [Weiner and others (Slavin, Shore learning language 2003; Dornyei, 2001b; Williams & (1976), acquisition, Burden, 1997)]: and particularly in (1)Ability Gardner view of (2)Effort and cross-cultural (3)Perceived difficulty of a Lambert factors of second task (1972) language (4)Luck. learning that will Two of those four factors are internal to be discussed in the Learner: ability and effort; and two are Chapter 7. attributable to external circumstances outside of the learner: task difficulty and What we do not know at this time is luck. the answer to the classic chicken-or-egg question: Does high self-esteem cause Learners tend to explain, that is, language success, or does language to attribute, their success on a task on success cause high self-esteem? these four dimensions. Depending on the Clearly, both are interacting factors. It is individual, a number of causal determinants difficult to say whether teachers should try might be cited. Thus, failure to get a high to "improve" global self-esteem or simply grade on a final exam in a language class improve a learner's proficiency and let might for some be judged to be a self-esteem take care of itself. consequence of their poor ability or effort, and by others to the difficulty of the exam Heyde (1979) found that certain ("that was a bear' of an exam!"), and sections of a beginning college French perhaps others to just plain old bad luck course had better oral production and (Weiner). self-esteem scores than other sections after This is where self-efficacy comes in: only eight weeks of instruction. This finding Learner with An appropriate suggests that teachers really can have a degree of effort may a high sense positive and influential effect on both the be devoted to Linguistic performance and the emotional of achieving success. well-being of the student. self-efficacy Falling short of one's -A learner personal goals may Andres (1999, p. 91) concurred feels he or then be attributable and suggested classroom techniques that she is capable to not enough effort can help learners to "unfold their wings.': of carrying expended, but rarely, Perhaps these teachers succeeded because in the case of out a given they gave optimal attention both to students with high task  - the intention to initiate self-efficacy, would an "excuse" be made communication, given a choice attributing the bad (Maclnryre et al., 2001, p. 309). performance to - commonly labeled as "shyness" something like bad (Maclnryre et al., 2002). luck. A number of factors appear to contribute Learner with may quite easily to predisposing one learner to seek and low attribute failure to another learner to avoid second self-efficacy external factors, a language communication (Maclnryre et relatively unhealthy psychological attitude al. (1998): to bring to any task might also attribute (Note: A high level of communicative ability failure to an initial does not necessarily correspond with a high lack of ability WTC.) Both attributions can create a self-fulfilling - Motivation: Learners with strong sense of failure at the motivation to learn the language are outset. more likely to communicate. - Personality: Extroverted What these strands of psychological individuals tend to have higher WTC theory say, in simple terms, is that it is compared to introverted ones. essential for learners to believe in - Intergroup Climate: A positive themselves in order to succeed at a set and supportive learning environment of tasks. The prospect of learning a second fosters higher WTC. language is itself potentially so - Self-Confidence: Two levels of overwhelming that learners can—and often self-confidence: do—lose momentum in the face of a Situational Self-Esteem or number of forms of self-doubt. One of the most important roles of successful teachers "state communicative is to facilitate high levels of self-efficacy in self-confidence": their students. Confidence in specific communication situations. L2 Self-Confidence: Overall WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE confidence in one's second INHIBITIONS language abilities. Celestre, Gerritz Jay - Social Support: Learners who receive social support, especially from friends, tend to have higher A factor related to attribution and WTC. self-efficacy, one that has seen a surge of recent interest in the research literature is INHIBITION the extent to which learners display a willingness to communicate as they tackle a second language. - refers to the defensive mechanisms we build to protect our ego, often WILLINGNESS TO COMMUNICATE stemming from a lack of (WTC) self-confidence or fear of judgment. - an underlying continuum representing the predisposition Has no concept of toward or away from communicating, its own self; given a choice (Maclnryre et al., Infancy gradually learns to 2002, p. 538). identify a self that is distinct from others.  Growing degrees of awareness, The Study responding, and valuing begin to Aim: to measure the effect of empathy on Childhood create a system of second language acquisition, but in actuality affective traits that one that highlighted inhibition. individuals identify Method: The researchers gave small with themselves. amounts of alcohol to a group of subjects, The physical, aiming to temporarily reduce their inhibitions emotional, and (which are linked to empathy). A control cognitive changes group received no alcohol. of the pre-teenager and teenager bring Results: The group that received alcohol on mounting defensive performed significantly better on a Thai inhibitions to pronunciation test than the control group. protect a fragile Adolescence ego, to ward off Conclusion: Guiora and colleagues ideas, experiences, concluded that a direct relationship exists and feelings that between empathy and pronunciation ability threaten to in a second language. They suggested that dismantle the organization of reduced inhibition, achieved through values and beliefs alcohol, improved pronunciation. on which appraisals of self-esteem have Criticisms been founded. Methodology: Thomas Scovel, one of the The process of Adulthood original researchers, later criticized the building defenses study's design and control conditions. continues. Empathy vs. Inhibition: Scovel Higher self-esteem and ego strength - questioned whether the study actually are more able to withstand threats to their measured empathy or simply reduced existence. inhibition. Weaker self-esteem maintain walls of Physical Effects of Alcohol: Scovel inhibition to protect what is self-perceived to argued that the alcohol's physical effects on be a weak or fragile ego, or a lack of muscle tension, which can influence self-confidence in a situation or task. pronunciation, might have been a more significant factor than its mental effects. Language Ego: - The personal, egoistic nature of Pronunciation as a Measure: Scovel second language acquisition pointed out that pronunciation is a limited involves identity conflict as learners indicator of overall language competence. adopt a new identity with their newly acquired competence. Important Hypothesis Adaptive language ego: - Enables learners to lower the - Inhibition plays a significant role in inhibitions that may impede success. language learning. - Reducing inhibition can potentially A classic study by Guiora et al. (1972a) improve language performance. investigating the relationship between empathy and second language Guiora's Valium Study (1980): acquisition:  Aim: To investigate whether actively, rather than just focusing on a chemical relaxant, Valium, grammar rules. could improve pronunciation Breaking down barriers: in a second language, Techniques are used to help inspired by findings that learners overcome their reluctance hypnotized subjects showed to communicate, such as pair work, improved pronunciation. group activities, and games. Results: The results were non-significant, meaning The Importance of Mistakes: there was no clear effect of Valium on pronunciation. Learning from Errors: Children learning However, the study revealed their first language and adults learning a a surprising finding: the second can really make progress only by tester (the person learning from their mistakes. If we never administering the ventured to speak a sentence until we were pronunciation test) had a absolutely certain of its total correctness, we more significant impact on would likely never communicate scores than the dosage of productively at all. Valium. Ego Threats: Mistakes can be perceived This suggests that the teacher's role in as threats to one's ego, both internally creating a supportive and encouraging (self-criticism) and externally (perceived environment might be more important than judgment from others). relying on external factors like medication to reduce inhibition. Earl Stevick (1976b) spoke of language learning as involving a number of forms The experiments have highlighted a most of "alienation": interesting possibility: that the inhibitions, the defenses, that we place between Between the critical me and the ourselves and others are important factors performing me. contributing to second language success. Between my native culture and my target culture. Ehrman's research (1999, 1993) Between me and my teacher. Between me and my fellow students. - Further emphasized the importance of "language ego" – the personal, This alienation arises endeavors from the egoistic nature of language learning. defenses that we build around ourselves. - He proposed that learners with These defenses inhibit learning, and their “thin” (permeable) ego removal can therefore promote language boundaries (more open and learning, which involves self-exposure to a tolerant) might have different degree manifested in few other endeavors. pathways to success than those with “thick” (not as permeable) ego CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS boundaries (more rigid and perfectionistic). Research Findings: The research spearheaded by Peter MacIntyre and his Techniques that reduce inhibition: colleagues suggests that saying a learner has a high WTC must be distinguished from Encouraging risk-taking: Learners simply describing a learner as extroverted, are encouraged to experiment with confident, or risk-taking. One of the key the language and try out new things, contributors to building WTC, as reported in even if they make mistakes. MacIntyre et al. (2001) seems to be social Oral practice: Emphasis is placed support. on speaking and using the language Teaching Implications: Current language Dufeu (1994) teaching methodology strongly supports The antidote to fears in language learning is such communicative techniques such as to establish an adequate affective group and pair work and related interactive framework. activities, all of which can potentially provide This framework helps learners "feel social support. What has been the extent of comfortable" as they navigate a foreign social support in your language classroom? language, fostering a climate of acceptance What techniques has your teacher used-or that stimulates self-confidence and have you used, if you have taught to encourages experimentation, allowing them promote social support? Have they led to to take risks without embarrassment. students' greater willingness to communicate? Ely (1986) Suggests that while we might assume high risk-taking leads to positive outcomes in second language learning, but this is often not the case. He argues that on a RISK TAKING continuum of risk-taking, high risk-taking ANXIETY doesn't always translate to better Laraya, Ma. Erenica Gina results. Risk Taking in Second Language Beebe (1983) Acquisition Cites a study suggesting that highly motivated individuals, while not necessarily Rubin and Thompson (1982): high risk-takers, are more likely to be Good language learners are willing to make moderate risk-takers. These individuals intelligent guesses and be impulsive. prefer to be in control and rely on their skills, avoiding unnecessary or reckless Beebe (1983) risks. Successful language learners seem to Described some of the negative follow a similar pattern, as they tend to ramifications that foster fear of risk taking make calculated guesses rather than taking both in the classroom and in natural wild risks. settings. Rubin & Thompson (1994) In the classroom, these ramifications Observed that successful language learners might include: are willing to make accurate guesses, a bad grade in the course striking a balance between boldness and a fail on the exam caution. a reproach from the teacher a smirk from a classmate Risk-taking variation seems to be a factor in punishment or embarrassment a number of issues in second language imposed by oneself acquisition and pedagogy. The silent student in the classroom is one Outside the classroom, individuals who is unwilling to appear foolish when learning a second language face other mistakes are made. negative consequences if they make mistakes: Self-esteem seems to be closely they fear looking ridiculous connected to a risk-taking factor: when they fear die frustration coming from those foolish mistakes are made, a person a listener's blank look, showing that with high global self-esteem is not daunted they have failed to communicate by the possible consequences of being they fear the danger of not being laughed at. able to take care of themselves they fear the alienation of not being Beebe (1983) able to communicate and thereby Suggested that fossilization of errors occurs get close to other human beings due to a reluctance to take risks. Learners perhaps worst of all, they fear a loss often stick to familiar patterns, even if they of identity. contain mistakes, because it feels "safe" and meets their communication needs. This avoidance of experimentation can hinder performance in a particular context like language learning progress. second language acquisition. Alpert and Haber (1960) and Scovel The implications for teaching are significant. (1978) While overly adventurous learners might They introduced the distinction between need some guidance, most students need debilitative anxiety (harmful) and encouragement to take more risks and be facilitative anxiety (helpful). This valued for their attempts. distinction suggests that not all anxiety is negative; a certain level of anxiety can actually be beneficial. Anxiety Facilitative anxiety: A moderate level of Intricately intertwined with self-esteem, anxiety can be beneficial, motivating self-efficacy, inhibition, and risk taking, the learners to focus, prepare, and perform construct of anxiety plays a major affective better. This is analogous to the positive role in second language acquisition. Even effect of "nervous energy" before a though we all know what anxiety is and we performance. all have experienced feelings of Debilitative anxiety: High levels of anxiousness, anxiety is still not easy to anxiety can be detrimental, leading to define in a simple sentence. avoidance, self-doubt, and poor performance. Spielberger (1983) Defined anxiety as "the subjective feeling of Spielmann & Radnofsky (2001) tension, apprehension, nervousness, and They suggest that tension can encompass worry associated with an arousal of the both dysphoric (detrimental) and autonomic nervous system. euphoric (beneficial) effects in learning a foreign language. This framing allows for a Scovel (1978) more balanced view of anxiety. Offers a simplified definition of anxiety. It Dysphoric refers to a negative, states that anxiety is characterized by unpleasant, or distressing state of mind. feelings of uneasiness, frustration, It's associated with feelings of unease, self-doubt, apprehension, or worry. anxiety, and discomfort. When applied to tension, dysphoric tension is detrimental This passage, drawing on the work of and can hinder performance. Horwitz (2001) and Oxford (1999) , Euphoric refers to a positive, uplifting, or explains that anxiety, much like self-esteem, pleasurable state of mind. It's associated can be experienced at different levels. It with feelings of joy, excitement, and identifies two primary categories: well-being. When applied to tension, euphoric tension is beneficial and can Trait anxiety: This refers to a more enhance performance. enduring, global predisposition towards anxiety. Individuals with high trait anxiety Spielmann & Radnofsky (2001), are generally anxious about many situations Ehrman & Oxford (1995), Young and events. This is a more permanent (1992), and Horwitz (1990): characteristic of their personality. These studies provide support for the notion State anxiety: This is a temporary, that facilitative anxiety can be beneficial in situational form of anxiety that arises in learning foreign languages. response to a particular event or act. It is more fleeting and specific to the situation at Bailey (1983): hand. Bailey's research explored the relationship between competitiveness and anxiety in MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) second language learning. Her findings Suggests that trait anxiety, a general suggest that facilitative anxiety, often linked predisposition to experience anxiety, has not to competitiveness, can be a key factor in been a reliable predictor of success in achieving success. learning a second language. This is because trait anxiety, being a broad and somewhat Rogers (Humanistic Theory): vaguely defined concept, lacks the Rogers's humanistic theory of learning specificity needed to accurately predict emphasizes a low-anxiety environment where learners feel safe to explore and themselves more often than less anxious learn without feeling threatened or learners. competitive. Kitano (2001): Badey (Self-Analysis): Kitano's research among college students in Badey's self-analysis provides a personal Japan found that anxiety levels were higher perspective on the interplay of when learners reported greater fear of competitiveness and anxiety in language negative evaluation and perceived their learning. She observed that while ability to be lower than others. competitiveness sometimes hindered her progress, it also motivated her to study Gregersen and Horwitz (2002): harder in order to feel more confident in her Their findings linked anxiousness with oral communication. perfectionism, suggesting that those with Sparks and Ganschow (Sparks & Ganschow, unrealistically high standards for themselves 2001; Sparks, Ganschow, & Javorsky, were more likely to experience anxiety. 2000): They propose the Linguistic Deficit Coding Hypothesis (LCDH), arguing that Bailey, Onwuegbuzie, and Daley language anxiety is a consequence of first (2000): language deficits, particularly difficulties Their study found that anxiety was with language "codes" (phonological, correlated with low-perceived self-worth, syntactic, lexical, semantic features). They competence, and intelligence. have conducted a series of studies to support this hypothesis. EMPATHY Horwitz (2000, 2001), MacIntyre INTROVERSION (1995a, 1995b): MOTIVATION AND THEORIES ON These researchers challenge the LCDH, MOTIVATION arguing that anxiety is a common source of Napatang, Darl Syde interference in all kinds of learning and that anxiety can exist even in highly proficient language learners. They also point out the EMPATHY prevalence of anxiety among language The human being is a social animal, and the learners, making it implausible to attribute it chief mechanism for maintaining the bonds solely to first language deficits. of society is language. Some approaches to language teaching fail to accomplish the Spielmann and Radnofsky (2001): goal of communication in the learner by Their research suggests that students who overlooking the social nature of language. can "reinvent" themselves in their foreign While we tend to recognize the importance language can experience more euphoric of the social aspect of language, we also tension, potentially leading to better tend to oversimplify that aspect by not performance. recognizing the complexity of the relation between language and society, or by Levine (2003): considering socially oriented problems in Levine's study of German as a foreign language learning as a simple matter of language found that anxiety varied "acculturation". depending on whether students were speaking with other students or with Transaction teachers. It is the process of reaching out beyond the self to others, and language is a major tool Rodriguez and Abreu (2003): used to accomplish that process. A variety They investigated the stability of anxiety of transactional variables may apply to across different foreign languages. second language learning: imitation, modeling, identification, empathy, Gregersen (2003): extroversion, aggression, styles of Gregersen's study of native Spanish communication, and others. speakers learning English found that anxious learners made more errors, In common terminology, empathy overestimated their errors, and corrected is the process of "putting yourself into someone else's shoes," of  reaching beyond yourself to immediate feedback from the reader, must understand what another person is communicate ideas by means of a very clear feeling. It is probably the major empathetic intuition and judgment of the factor in the harmonious coexistence reader's state of mind and structure of of individuals in society. knowledge. Language is one of the primary means of In a second language learning situation, the empathizing, but nonverbal communication problem of empathy becomes acute. Not facilitates the process of empathizing and only must learner-speakers correctly identify must not be overlooked. cognitive and affective sets in the listener, but they must do so in a language in which In more sophisticated terms, they are insecure. Then, learner-hearers, empathy is usually described as the attempting to comprehend a second projection of one's own personality language, often discover that their own into the personality of others in states of thought are misinterpreted by a order to understand them better. native speaker, and the result is that Linguistic, cognitive, and affective Empathy is not synonymous with information easily passes in one ear and out sympathy. Empathy implies more the other. possibility of detachment; sympathy connotes an agreement or harmony EXTROVERSION between individuals. Extroversion and its counterpart, Guiora et al.) introversion, are also potentially important Empathy is "a process of comprehending in factors in the acquisition of a second which a temporary fusion of self-object language. The terms are often boundaries permits an immediate emotional misunderstood because of a tendency to apprehension of the affective experience of stereotype extroversion. another." We are prone to think of an extroverted Hogan (1969) person as a gregarious, "life of the party" There are two necessary aspects to the person. Introverts, conversely, are thought development and exercising of empathy: of as quiet and reserved, with tendencies 1. an awareness and knowledge of toward reclusiveness. Western society one's own feelings, and values the stereotypical extrovert. Nowhere 2. identification with another person is this more evident than in the classroom where teachers admire the talkative, In other words, you cannot fully empathize outgoing student who participates freely in or know someone else until you adequately class discussions. On the other hand, know yourself. introverts are sometimes thought of as not being as bright as extroverts. Communication requires a sophisticated degree of empathy. In order to Extroversion communicate effectively, you need to be It is the extent to which a person has a able to understand the other person's deep-seated need to receive ego affective and cognitive states. enhancement, self esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people as opposed to Oral communication is a case in which, receiving that affirmation within oneself. cognitively at least, it is easy to achieve empathetic communication because there is Extroverts actually need other people in immediate feedback from the listener. A order to feel "good." But extroverts are not misunderstood word, phrase, or idea can be necessarily loudmouthed and talkative. They questioned by the hearer and then may be relatively shy but still need the rephrased by the speaker until a clear affirmation of others. message is interpreted. Introversion Written communication requires a special It is the extent to which a person derives a kind of empathy—a "cognitive" empathy sense of wholeness and fulfillment apart in which the writer, without the benefit of from a reflection of this self from other people. Contrary to our stereotypes, to attend to clear articulation in a foreign introverts can have an inner strength of language. character that extroverts do not have. Wakamoto (2000) Ausubel (1968) Found that junior college English majors in Noted that introversion and Japan who were extroverted were likely to extroversion are a "grossly misleading index make better use of learning strategies than of social adjustment," and other educators introverts. This finding suggests that have warned against prejudging students extroverts may have a strategic edge over on the basis of perceived extroversion In introverts, but it masks the possibility that language classes, where oral participation is extroverts may simply need the strategies in highly valued, it is easy to view active question. participants with favor and to assume that their visibility in the classroom is due to an Extroversion may be a factor in the extroversion factor (which may not be so). development of general oral communicative competence (see Dewaele & Furnham, Extroversion is commonly thought to 1998), which requires face-to-face be related to empathy, but such may not be interaction, but not in listening, reading, the case. The extroverted person may and writing. It is also readily apparent that actually behave in an extroverted manner in cross-cultural norms of nonverbal and order to protect his or her own ego, with verbal interaction vary widely, and what in extroverted behavior being symptomatic of one culture (say. the United States) may defensive barriers and high ego boundaries. appear as introversion is, in another culture (say, Japan), respect and politeness. At the same time the introverted, quieter, more reserved person may show MOTIVATION high empathy—an intuitive understanding and apprehension of others—and simply be Countless studies and experiments in more reserved in the outward and overt human learning have shown that motivation expression of empathy. It is not clear then, is a key to learning in general (Wciner, that extroversion or introversion helps or 1986; Deci, 1975; Masiow, 1970). In hinders the process of second language the field of second language acquisition, in acquisition. particular, the subject of motivation has garnered plenty of attention but broad The Toronto study (Naiman et al., claims can gloss over a detailed 1978, 1996) found no significant effect for understanding of exactly what motivation is extroversion in characterizing the good and what the subcomponents of motivation language learner. are. What does it mean to say that someone is motivated? How do you create, Busch (1982) foster,and maintain motivation? Explored the relationship of introversion and extroversion to English proficiency in adult THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Japanese learners of English in Japan, She hypothesized that extroverted students (as 1. From a behavioral perspective, measured by a standard personality motivation is seen in very matter of inventory) would be more proficient than fact terms. It is quite simply the introverts. anticipation of reward. Driven to acquire positive reinforcement, and Her hypothesis was not supported by her driven by previous experiences of findings. In fact, introverts were reward for behavior, we act significantly better than extroverts in their accordingly to achieve further pronunciation (one of four factors which reinforcement. Skinner, Pavlov, and were measured in an oral interview)! This Thorndike put motivation at the latter result clouded our stereotype of the center of their theories of human extroverted language learner as a frequent behavior. and willing participant in class activities. But more appropriately, it suggested that In a behavioral view, performance in introverts may have the patience and focus tasks—and motivation to do so—is likely to be at the mercy of external forces; parents, teachers, peers, educational requirements, in ways that are unique. But these unique job specifications, and so forth. acts are always carried out within a cultural and social milieu and cannot be completely 2. In cognitive terms, motivation separated from that context. places much more emphasis on the individual's decisions, "the choices Several decades ago, Abraham Maslow people make as to what experiences (1970) viewed motivation as a construct or goals they will approach or avoid, in which ultimate attainment of goals was and the degree of effort they will possible only by passing through a hierarchy exert in that respect" (Keller, 1983, of needs, three of which were solidly p. 389). Some cognitive grounded in community, belonging, and psychologists see underlying needs social status. Motivation, in a constructivist or drives as the compelling force view, is derived as much from our behind our decisions. interactions with others as it is from one's self-determination. Ausubel (1968), for example, identified Table 6,1. Three views of motivation six needs undergoing the construct of motivation: Behavioristic Anticipation of reward A. The need for exploration, for seeing Desire to receive positive "the other side of the mountain," for reinforcement probing the unknown External, individual forces in control B. The need for manipulation, for operating—to use Skinner's Cognitive term—on the environment and Driven by basic human needs causing change (exploration, manipulation, etc.) Degree of effort expended Internal, C. The need for activity, for movement individual forces in control and exercise, both physical and mental Constructivist Social context D. The need for stimulation, the need Community to be stimulated by the Social status Security of group environment, by other people, or by Internal, ideas, thoughts, and feelings interactive forces in control E. The need for knowledge, the need Motivation is something that can, like to process and internalize the results self-esteem, be global, situational, or of exploration, manipulation, activity, task-oriented. Learning a foreign language and stimulation, to resolve requires some of all three levels of contradiCtions, to quest for solutions motivation. For example, a learner may to problems and for self consistent possess high "global" motivation but low systems of knowledge "task" motivation to perform well on, say, the written mode of the language. F. Finally, the need for ego enhancement, for the self to be Finally, studies of motivation in second known and to be accepted and language acquisition often refer to the approved of by others, or, what distinction between integrative and Dornyei (2005, pp. 93) calls the instrumental orientations of the learner, "self-system" which we now consider. 3. A constructivist view of motivation places even further emphasis on social context as well as individual personal choices (Williams & Burden, 1997. p. 120). Each person is motivated differently, and INSTRUMENTAL AND INTEGRATIVE will therefore act on his or her environment ORIENTATION INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC fulfilled in learning a foreign language. The MOTIVATION importance of distinguishing orientation Palmes, Marie Eugenie from motivation is that within either orientation, one can have either high or low Instrumental and Integrative motivational intensity. One learner may be Orientation only mildly motivated to learn within, say, a career context, while another learner with One of the best-known and historically the same orientation may be intensely significant studies of motivation in second driven to succeed in the same orientation. language learning was carried out by Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert Research Findings: (1972). Over a period of 12 years they extensively studied foreign language Gardner and Lambert (1972) and learners in Canada, several parts of the Spolsky (1969) found that integrativeness United States, and the Philippines in an generally accompanied higher scores on effort to determine how attitudinal and proficiency tests in a foreign language. The motivational factors affected language conclusion from these studies was that learning success. integrativeness was indeed an important requirement for successful language Motivation was examined as a factor of a learning. number of different kinds of attitudes. Two different clusters of attitudes divided two But evidence quickly began to accumulate basic types of what Gardner and Lambert: that challenged such a claim. Lukmani (1972) demonstrated that among Instrumental Orientation: The Marathi-speaking Indian students learning instrumental side of the dichotomy English in India, those with instrumental refers to acquiring language as a orientations scored higher in tests of English means for attaining instrumental proficiency. Braj Kachru (1992, 1977) goals: furthering a career, reading noted that Indian English is but one technical material, translation, and example of a variety of "Englishes," which, so forth. especially in countries where English has Integrative Orientation: The become an international language, can be integrative side described learners acquired very successfully for instrumental who wished to integrate themselves purposes alone. into the culture of the second language group and become Theoretical Considerations: involved in social interchange in that group. In 1988, Au reviewed 27 different studies of the integrative-instrumental construct Distinction Between Motivation and and concluded that both its theoretical Orientation underpinnings and the instruments used to measure motivation were suspect. Because It is important to note that instrumentality the dichotomy was based on notions about and integrativeness are not actually types of cultural beliefs, numerous ambiguities had motivation as such, but rather, as Dornyei crept into the construct, making it difficult (2001), Gardner and Maclnryre (1990), to attribute foreign language success to and others have noted, are more certain presumably integrative or appropriately termed orientations. That is, instrumental causes. However, in 1993, depending on whether a learner's context or Gardner and Maclntyre disputed Au's orientation is academic or career related claims with strong empirical support for the (instrumental),or socially culturally oriented validity of their measures. (integrative),different needs might be Warden and Lin (2000) found no support at bringing about certain internally for an integrative orientation among rewarding consequences, namely, feelings university English majors in Taiwan. Then, of competence and self-determination. Masgoret and Gardner (2003) demonstrated that integrativeness was not Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation as significant a factor as motivational is is fueled by the anticipation of a reward intensity. In a later study, (Gardner et al., from outside and beyond the self, typical 2004) found integrative and instrumental extrinsic rewards are money, prizes, grades, orientation to have roughly the same impact and even certain types of positive feedback, on university learners of French in Canada. behaviors initiated solely to avoid Similarly, Lamb (2004) reported punishment are also extrinsically integrative and instrumental constructs to motivated.even though be almost indistinguishable. Finally, in a numerous intrinsic benefits can ultimately recent study, Csizer and Dornyei (2005) accrue to those who, instead, view found that, among 1,3- and 14-year-old punishment avoidance as a challenge that Hungarian students of foreign language, can build their sense of competence and integrativeness was the single most self-determination. important factor contributing to success! CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS Further Perspectives: Research Findings: An unpublished study McClelland (2000), cited the once reported an experiment In which two difficulty of defining integrativeness, matched groups of junior high school girls asserted that integration with a were asked to teach a simple game to global community of speakers may kindergarteners. One group was promised a be quite different from integration reward in the form of a movie ticket; the with native speakers. other group received no such Graham (1984) also claimed that promise. The results showed that the latter integrativeness was too broadly group did a better job of successfully defined and suggested that some teaching the game and reported greater integrative orientations may be satisfaction in doing so than the first group. simply a moderate desire to socialize Conclusion: The first group was with or find out about speakers of too focused on the reward, and the the target language, while deeper, (presumed) intrinsic motivation in the assimilative orientations may second group was a stronger motivator. describe a more profound need to identify almost exclusively with the Teaching Implications: We can probably target language culture, possibly never completely remove extrinsic motives, over a long-term period. and some extrinsic motives may be useful. Every Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in classroom context has its share of extrinsic Language Learning motives, and successful classrooms usually incorporate both. What kinds of approaches Intrinsic Motivation: Edward Deci do you think would help to promote intrinsic (1975) defines intrinsic motivation as motivation on the part of students In a intrinsically motivated activities are ones for foreign language class? How would you which there is no apparent reward except promote a balance between extrinsic and the activity itself. People seem to engage in intrinsic rewards? the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward. Jerome Bruner (1966), praising Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed the "autonomy of self-reward,"  claimed that one of the most businessma effective ways to help both children n to U.S. for and adults think and learn is to free language them from the control of rewards training) and punishments. One of the principal weaknesses of extrinsically Dornyei and Csizer (1998), for driven behavior is its addictive example, in a survey of Hungarian nature. teachers of English, proposed a Ramage (1990), for example, taxonomy of factors by which found that foreign language high teachers could motivate their school students who were interested learners. They cited factors such as in continuing their study beyond the developing a relationship with college entrance requirement were learners, building learners' positively and intrinsically motivated self-confidence and autonomy, to succeed. In contrast, those who personalizing the learning process, were in the classes only to fulfill and increasing learners' entrance requirements exhibited low goal-orientation. motivation and weaker performance. THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF AFFECT Kathleen Bailey (1986) illustrated the PERSONALITY TYPES AND LANGUAGE relationship between the two ACQUISITION dichotomies with the diagram as MEASURING AFFECTIVE FACTORS parental reinforcement or a teacher's Jaen, Zoie encouragement. THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF AFFECT Motivational Dichotomies The neurobiology of affect plays a crucial role in second language acquisition (SLA), Intrinsic Extrinsic with studies using tools like positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic Integrativ 12 learner Someone resonance imaging (MRI) to establish e wishes la else wishes connections between emotions, affectivity, integrate the 12 and language learning (Schumann, with the L2 learner to 1998). culture know (e.g., for the 12 for John Schumann (1999, 1998, 1997) immigration integrative Schumann et al (2004), identified the Or reasons Amygdala as a major player in the marriage) (e.g., relationship of affect to language learning. Japanese parents What is AMYGDALA? send kids to Japanese The amygdala, located in the temporal language lobes of the brain, is responsible for school) evaluating situations and stimulus. It helps assess whether a situation or a stimuli Instrumen L2 learner External is novel, pleasant, relevant to personal tal wishes to power goals, manageable ((you can potentially achieve wants 12 cope with it), and in line with your own goals learner to social norms and self-concept. utilizing learn 12 Example: 12 (e.g., for (e.g., A teacher in a foreign language class a career) corporation suddenly asks you to perform something, sends that is, let’s say too complex, your reaction Japanese of fear and anxiety means that the amygdala has sent neural signals to the rest of the brain indicating that the stimulus is PERSONALITY TYPES AND LANGUAGE too novel, unpleasant, unmanageable at the ACQUISITION moment, and a potential threat to self-esteem. Within the affective domain, personality traits and their relationship to success has Neurobiology and Motivation been studied. A popular tool in this area is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Schuman examined a number of foreign (MBTI), which categorizes personality language motivation scales in a based on four dichotomous styles: neurobiological lens and identified that motivation in language learning is tied to resulting in 16 possible personality profiles factors like: (Myers, 1962). Pleasantness: How much a learner 1. Introversion vs. Extroversion enjoys the process (e.g., “I enjoy 2. Sensing vs. Intuition learning English”). 3. Thinking vs. Feeling Goal relevance: How useful 4. Judging vs. Perceiving learning the language is for personal goals (e.g., “Studying French can These categories create 16 distinct help me achieve my career goals”). personality profiles. Understanding these Coping potential: Whether the profiles can help managers and teachers learner feels confident in their ability tailor their approaches to individuals. For to succeed (e.g., “I never feel sure instance, ISTJs may thrive in of myself when learning...”). behind-the-scenes roles, while ENFPs may Norm/self-compatibility: How excel in public interactions (Myers, 1962). learning the language aligns with the learner’s social identity or status What might all this have to do with the (e.g., “Speaking English will improve second language learner? my social status”). Ehrman and Oxford's (1990) study of 79 Schumann concluded that when learners foreign language learners at the Foreign have positive appraisals of the language Service Institute and Wakamoto's (2000) learning situation (e.g., they find it more recent study, have shown that their enjoyable and relevant to their goals), it subjects exhibited some differences in enhances their ability to learn. Conversely, strategy use, depending on their negative appraisals (e.g., feeling anxious Myers-Briggs type. or unsure) inhibit their progress. Extroverts tend to use social Sustained Deep Learning (SDL) strategies, while introverts prefer independent learning (Ehrman & Schumann and Wood (2004) introduced Oxford, 1990). Sustained Deep Learning (SDL). SDL Sensing learners focus on memory refers to long-term learning that takes time strategies and concrete details, to achieve, similar to intrinsic motivation. whereas intuitives rely on broader, This learning is rooted in the biological imaginative approaches (Ehrman & concept of value, which shapes our Oxford, 1990). preferences and decisions. Schumann and Thinkers favor metacognitive Wood identified two key types of value: strategies and analysis, while feelers are more socially driven and Homeostatic value: Focuses on rely on emotional connections survival and meeting basic needs. (Ehrman & Oxford, 1990). Sociostatic value: Drives social Judgers are organized and interaction and the desire for social systematic, while perceivers are connections and affiliation. flexible and adaptable (Ehrman & Oxford, 1990). These findings show that understanding the neurobiology of affect is essential to In another study, Ehrman (1989) outlined improving language learning outcomes. both the assets and the liabilities of each side of the Myers-Briggs continuum. It would appear that success in a second language depends on the "mobilization” of Although tests like the MBTI, FLCAS, and two things (a) the strategies associated AMTB are validated across different contexts with one's native learning style and cultures, they come with notable preferences (indicated by the four MBTI shortcomings. A primary concern is the letters) and (b) the strategies validity of self-reported data. Many tests associated with the less preferred rely on self-ratings, raising questions about functions that are the opposites of the the accuracy of self-perceptions. While four letters of a person's type" (Ehrman external assessments can provide a clearer & Oxford, 1990, p. 323). picture, they often come at a higher cost. However, studies, such as Gardner and In other words, successful learners know MacIntyre's (1993b), suggest that self-check their preferences, their strengths, and their tests can be valid when: weaknesses, and effectively utilize strengths and compensate for weaknesses regardless 1. The tests have been widely validated of their "natural" preferences. previously. 2. Multiple methods are used to MEASURING AFFECTIVE FACTORS measure affectivity. The measurement of affective factors, as Challenges of Self-Assessment highlighted by the discussion of the Myers-Briggs test, poses a complex Another issue in measuring affective factors challenge in language learning contexts. is the "self-flattery" syndrome (Oiler, While some affective factors can be reliably 1982), where test takers may attempt to assessed through indirect measures or choose answers that reflect positively on formal interviews, these methods can be themselves, skewing the results. costly and require trained experts. Additionally, tests can be culturally Consequently, the language teaching field biased, incorporating references that may often relies on "paper-and-pencil" tests, not be easily understood across different such as the Myers-Briggs, which utilize cultures. For example, items assessing self-ratings by learners. For instance, in the empathy may include statements about Keirsey & Bates (1984) adaptation of the government criticism, which could be Myers-Briggs, respondents might choose inappropriate in certain cultural contexts. between statements to determine their extroversion or introversion, such as All in all, while self-assessment tools have whether they tend to "stay late, with become essential for measuring affective increasing energy" at parties or "leave early, factors in language learning, their with decreased energy." limitations must be acknowledged. Validity concerns, self-perception biases, and Types of Self-Assessment Tools cultural differences can impact the effectiveness of these measures. Self-assessment tests have become a Understanding these challenges is vital for standard in applied linguistics research, improving language acquisition strategies. despite their inherent assessment challenges. Common tools include: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS): INTRINSIC MOTIVATIONS IN THE Developed by Horwitz, Horwitz, and CLASSROOMS Cope (1986), this scale measures CULTURE: DEFINITIONS AND language anxiety through THEORIES statements like "Speaking in class Tacdoro, Angela makes me feel uneasy." Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB): Gardner's (1985) INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE test evaluates learners on various CLASSROOM categories, including attitudes toward language groups and For a brief classroom-related set of motivation levels. comments for this chapter, one issue was presented: intrinsic motivation. Consider Validity of Self-Ratings a few applications of this construct in the 4. Do students have some choice in (a) language classroom. choosing some aspect of the activity and/or Cb) determining how they go about fulfilling First, think about the interplay in the the goals of the activity? classroom between intrinsic and extrinsic motives. Every educational institution brings 5. Does the activity encourage students to with it certain extrinsically driven factors; a discover for themselves certain principles or prescribed school curriculum, a teacher's rules (rather than simply being "told")? course goals and objectives, parental expectations (in the case of younger 6. Does it encourage students in some way learners), institutional assessment to develop or use effective strategies of requirements, and perhaps even messages learning and communication? from society at large that tell us to compete against others, and to avoid failure. In a 7. Does it contribute—at least ro some language course, extrinsic pressures are extent—to students' ultimate autonomy and most often manifested in foreign language independence (from you)? requirements set by the institution and in established standardized test scores that 8. Does it foster cooperative negotiation must be achieved. with other students in the class? Is it truly an interactive activity? How are you, as a teacher, to handle these extrinsic motives that are we 9. Does the activity present a "reasonable established in most students? One attitude challenge"? that would be useful is to recognize that such extrinsic drives are not 10. Do students receive sufficient feedback necessarily "bad" or harmful, and your on their performance (from each other or job may be to capitalize on such from you)? factors through your own innovations. A third and final suggestion is to If school policy mandates a certain "boring*' consider the "10 commandments" for teacher-centered textbook, for example, motivating learners that Dornyei and Csizer perhaps your own creative efforts can add (1998, p. 215) offered, following a survey of interesting learner-centered group and pair Hungarian foreign language teachers: activities that give students choices in topics and approaches. If institutional tests are a 1. Set a personal example with your own bit distasteful in their multiple-choice, behavior. impersonal format, your innovative action could add some peer evaluation, 2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in self-assessment, and/or portfolio the classroom. compilation that would build intrinsic interest in achieving goals. 3. Present the tasks properly. A second way to apply issues of 4. Develop a good relationship with the intrinsic motivation is to consider how your learners. own design of classroom techniques can have an added dimension of intrinsic 5. Increase the learners' linguistic motivation. Consider the following self-confidence. suggestions for creating intrinsically motivating classroom activities: 6. Make the language classes interesting. 1. Does the activity appeal to the genuine 7. Promote learner autonomy. interests of your students? Is it relevant to their lives? 8. Personalize the learning process. 2. Do you present the activity in a positive, 9. Increase the learners' goal-orientedness. enthusiastic manner? 10. Familiarize learners with the target 3. Are students clearly aware of the purpose language culture, of the activity? SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS 17). Although the opportunities for world travel in the last several decades have CHAPTER 7 increased markedly, there is still a tendency for us to believe that our reality is the CULTURE: DEFINITIONS AND "correct" perception. THEORIES Perception, though, is always Culture is a way of life. It is the subjective. Perception involves the filtering context within which we exist, think, feel, of information even before it is stored in and relate to others. It is the "glue" that memory, resulting in a selective form of binds a group of people together. Several consciousness, What appears to you to be centuries ago, John Donne (1624) had this an accurate and objective perception of an to say about culture: "No man is an island, individual, a custom, an idea, might be entire of itself; every man is a piece of the "jaded" or "stilted" in the view of someone continent, a part of the man;... any man's from another culture. Misunderstandings are death diminishes me because I am involved therefore likely to occur between members in mankind; and therefore never send to of different cultures. People from other know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for cultures may appear, in your eyes, to be thee." "loud" or "quiet," "conservative" or "liberal" in reference to your own point of view. Culture is our continent, our collective identity. Larson and Smalley It is apparent that culture, as an (1972, p. 39) described culture as a ingrained set of behaviors and modes of "blueprint" that "guides the behavior of perception, becomes highly important in the people in a community and is incubated in learning of a second language. A language family Id'e. It governs our behavior in is a part of a culture, and a culture is a groups, makes us sensitive to matters of part of a language: the two are intricately status, and helps us know what others interwoven so that one cannot separate the expect of us and what will happen if we do two without losing the significance of either not live up to their expectations. language or culture. The acquisition of a second language, except for specialized, Culture might also be defined as the instrumental acquisition is also the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools acquisition of a second culture. Both that characterize a given group of linguists and anthropologists bear ample people in a given period of time. But testimony to this observation (Uber-Grosse, culture is more than the sum of its parts. 2004; Schecter & Bayley, 2002; Littlewood, According to Matsumoto (2000. p. 24): 200I; DIaska. 2000; Hinenoya & Gatbonton, Culture is a dynamic system of rules, explicit 2000; Matsumoto, 2000; Kubota, 1999; and implicit, established by groups in order Robinson-Stuart & Nocon, 1996; Scollon & to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, Scollon, 1995). values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors, shared by a group but harbored differently Some of those same researchers by each specific unit within the group, disagree on theoretical conceptualizations of communicated across generations, relatively the construct of culture (see Atkinson, stable but with the potential to change 1999; Siegal, 2000; Sparrow, 2000; across time. Atkinson, 2000; for an interesting debate). One of the hot spots in the debate centers Culture establishes for each person on what Atkinson (1999) would like to call a context of cognitive and affective an "ecumenical" approach to culture—that behavior, a template for personal and is, viewing cultures not as oppositional social existence. But we tend to perceive or mutually exclusive, but rather reality within the context of our own somewhat as hues and colors covering culture, a reality that we have "created," a wide spectrum. At first blush, and therefore not necessarily a reality that ecumenism appears to be an appropriate is empirically defined. "The meaningful metaphor to serve as a foundation for a universe in which each human being exists theory of culture. However, Atkinson's critics is not a universal reality, but a category of (Siegaf 2000; Sparrow, 2000) prefer to see reality' consisting of selectively organized culture framed more in constructivist terms, features considered significant by the widen would place greater emphasis on society in which he lives" (Condon, 1973, p. learners' socially constructed identities Overall, the piece reflects on the nature of within learning communities and native cultural stereotypes and their impact on cultural milieu. "The prospect of looking at culture as ecumenical' is a contradiction in perceptions. terms," according to Sparrow (2000, p. 750), who goes on to say, "We should How do stereotypes form? neither teach received views of culture nor place our profession in the quicksands of Stereotypes form through our cultural moral relativity," Atkinson's (2000) response puts the arguments into balance by noting, perspectives, which influence how we among other tilings, that adds principles of perceive others' worldviews. This often culture outlined in the original article (Atkinson, 1999) were heavily imbued with leads to oversimplified and generalized notions of identity, community, and social assumptions about individuals based on interaction, with a hearty endorsement of their cultural background. While a qualitative, ethnographic approaches to cultural research for their "ability to capture stereotype may accurately describe typical some of the complex uniqueness traits of a culture, it fails to account for characterizing every cultural scene" (p. 647). individual uniqueness, resulting in prejudgment and misjudgment. Such oversimplifications can devalue individuals and create misunderstandings, like STEREOTYPES, GENERALIZATION, Americans misinterpreting Japanese AND ATTITUDES politeness as unfriendliness. Additionally, Garalda, Doreen Mae Asian students are often stereotyped in U.S. education, with assumptions about obedience and critical thinking skills that STEREOTYPES OR GENERALIZATIONS? overlook the complexity of cultural Mark Twain humorously critiqued foreign identities. A shift toward critical awareness languages and cultures in works like The of cultural nuances is necessary to Innocents Abroad and A Tramp Abroad, overcome these stereotypes. presenting exaggerated stereotypes of While stereotyping should be avoided, French and German. He highlighted how cross-cultural research reveals distinct cultural biases lead us to oversimplify and characteristics that differentiate cultures. generalize traits of entire groups. For instance, Condon found that American, For example, he depicted Americans as French, and Hispanic worldviews vary informal and materialistic, Italians as significantly in their perceptions of time and passionate, Germans as methodical, and the space. Americans have a dynamic, flexible British as polite. Similarly, Francois Lierres view, while the French adopt a more static offered tongue-in-cheek advice for French and centralized perspective. In contrast, people on interacting with Americans, Hispanic culture is characterized by a emphasizing the importance of demeanor, passive and relational orientation. confidence, and avoiding negative Additionally, cultures can differ in aspects impressions, while also recognizing the such as collectivism, power distance, charm of French accents. uncertainty avoidance, and gender roles. Both second language learners and teachers although results varied regarding the must recognize and understand cultural benefits of integrative versus instrumental differences, acknowledging that people are motivations. Notably, some students not all the same. Language classrooms can achieved proficiency without intending to celebrate these differences and critically stay permanently in the U.S. analyze stereotypes. Educators should strive to understand learners' identities through Second language learners thrive on positive their sociocultural backgrounds. By being attitudes, while negative attitudes can sensitive to cultural identity, we can reduce motivation and hinder proficiency transform perception into appreciation. due to less input and interaction. Teachers should recognize that students have both Attitudes positive and negative attitudes, which can often be changed through real encounters Stereotyping often reflects negative with individuals from other cultures. attitudes toward a culture or language, as Negative attitudes typically stem from illustrated by a 1940 passage from the New unreliable sources like the media. Educators Standard Encyclopedia that criticized can help dispel cultural myths and foster a Chinese literature. It claimed the Chinese respectful understanding of different language's monosyllabic nature prevents cultures. This process allows learners to the creation of elegant and varied literary progress through stages of affectivity, from works, reflecting a biased and ethnocentric awareness to appreciation of foreign viewpoint. Fortunately, such perspectives cultures. are less likely to appear in modern encyclopedias, as they stem from a lack of SOCIAL DISTANCE understanding and informed stereotypes. Tajapal, Paul Christian Social Distance in Second Language Gardner and Lambert (1972) studied how Learning attitudes influence language learning, defining motivation as a construct shaped Social distance refers to the cognitive and affective proximity between two cultures by specific attitudes, particularly those interacting within an individual. It reflects the towards the cultural group associated with metaphorical "distance" or dissimilarity the language being learned. For example, a between cultures. positive attitude from an English-speaking Smaller social distance leads to better Canadian towards French-Canadians fosters language acquisition; larger social an integrative motivation to learn French,