Child Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles PDF

**Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1** 1. Define physical development and its importance. 2. Determine the role of prenatal development to physical development 3. Identify key components of physical development assessment. 4. Explain the role...

**Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1** 1. Define physical development and its importance. 2. Determine the role of prenatal development to physical development 3. Identify key components of physical development assessment. 4. Explain the role of developmental milestones and key stages of prenatal development. 5. Recognize common issues in physical development, challenges during prenatal development and solutions. 6. Explained the role of early intervention and prenatal care. 1 +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **Norm-referenced** - tests | | | follow a set of standard | | | procedures. They measure a | | | child\'s performance in | | | relation to other children of | | | the same age or grade. These | | | tests must be administered | | | precisely to ensure | | | reliability and validity. | | | | | | - **Criterion-referenced** - | | | tests place emphasis on | | | mastery of specific skills. | | | They measure a child\'s | | | performance in relation to | | | his/her past performances | | | rather than comparing it to | | | average group performance. | | | | | | **Primary (movement) senses** | | | | | | 1. The** vestibular | | | (balance)** **system** deals | | | with the sensation of gravity | | | and movement. | | | | | | 2. The [**proprioceptive** **sys | | | tem**](https://www.earlymovers.or | | | g.uk/glossary#item-149) processes | | | information from muscles and | | | joints and enables us to know | | | where the different parts of | | | our body are, how they are | | | moving, and how much strength | | | our muscles need to use. It | | | makes you aware of | | | your [posture](https://www.ea | | | rlymovers.org.uk/glossary#item-15 | | | 9), | | | movement and body position. | | | | | | 3. The **tactile (touch) | | | system** - discriminates | | | sensations to the skin | | | including pressure, | | | temperature and pain. | | | | | | **Secondary senses** | | | | | | 1. The **visual system** - | | | processes information taken | | | in by the eyes and includes | | | control of eye movement to | | | fix on, and track, objects. | | | | | | 2. The **auditory system** - | | | locates and processes sound | | | information to the ears. | | | | | | 3. The **olfactory system** - | | | processes our sense of smell. | | | | | | 4. The **gustatory system** - | | | processes our sense of taste. | | | | | | --------------------------- | | | **PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT** | | | --------------------------- | | | | | | **[Three Primary Stages of | | | Prenatal | | | Development]** | | | | | | **Germinal stage** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 2 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --- **Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1** 3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **Weeks 7--8 (End of | | | Embryonic Stage): The | | | embryo's head becomes more | | | erect, and the trunk | | | straightens. Facial features | | | like eyes, ears, and jaws | | | become more defined, while | | | limbs develop jointed digits. | | | By the end of eight weeks, | | | most internal organs are | | | well-formed, and the embryo | | | measures about 25 mm (1 inch) | | | long.** | | | | | | - **Weeks 9--12 (Third Month): | | | The fetus is approximately 8 | | | cm (3.2 in) long. The head | | | makes up about half of the | | | body's size, and facial | | | features such as the eyes, | | | neck, and eyelids are | | | well-formed. The fetus can | | | make a fist, red blood cells | | | begin forming in the liver, | | | and teeth begin to develop. | | | External genitalia become | | | recognizable, and | | | ossification centers (future | | | bones) appears.** | | | | | | - **Weeks 9--12 (Third Month): | | | The fetus is approximately 8 | | | cm (3.2 in) long. The head | | | makes up about half of the | | | body's size, and facial | | | features such as the eyes, | | | neck, and eyelids are | | | well-formed. The fetus can | | | make a fist, red blood cells | | | begin forming in the liver, | | | and teeth begin to develop. | | | External genitalia become | | | recognizable, and | | | ossification centers (future | | | bones) appears.** | | | | | | - **Weeks 13-15 (Fourth Month): | | | The fetus grows to about 15 | | | cm (6 in). Fine hair (lanugo) | | | starts to cover the head, and | | | structures like the lungs, | | | muscles, and bones continue | | | to develop. The fetus can | | | swallow and make sucking | | | motions. The umbilical cord | | | attaches higher on the | | | abdominal wall, and facial | | | features become more | | | distinct.** | | | | | | - **Weeks 16-20 (Fifth Month): | | | The fetus reaches around 20 | | | cm (8 in). Lanugo begins | | | covering the entire skin | | | surface, and fat deposits | | | start forming under the skin. | | | Eyebrows, eyelashes, and | | | nails** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 4 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **Weeks 21-24(Sixth Month):** | | | The fetus measures about 28.5 | | | cm (11.2 in) and weighs | | | around 0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.). | | | Hair grows longer on the head | | | and eyebrows and eyelashes | | | finish forming. The lungs | | | develop air sacs (alveoli), | | | and the fetus can startle in | | | response to sound. Eyebrows | | | and eyelashes are visible, | | | and the skin becomes less | | | transparent, though the body | | | remains lean. | | | | | | - **Weeks 25-28(Seventh Month): | | | The fetus reaches | | | approximately 38 cm (15 in) | | | in length and weights around | | | 1.2 kg (2 lb. 11 oz.). Rapid | | | brain development occurs, and | | | the fetus gains control over | | | movements, including opening | | | and closing the eyelids. The | | | lungs continue developing, | | | and fetus is capable of | | | breathing air if born | | | prematurely.** | | | | | | - **Weeks 29-32(Eight Month):** | | | The fetus grows about 38-43 | | | cm (15-17 in) and weighs | | | around 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.). | | | Fat deposits increase under | | | the skin, and the bones, | | | though developed, are not yet | | | fully hardened. The lungs | | | remain immature but breathing | | | movements begin. The testes | | | begin descending into the | | | scrotum in males. | | | | | | - **Weeks 33-36 (Ninth Month): | | | The fetus measures 41-48 cm | | | (16-19 in) and weighs 2.6 | | | -3.0 kg (5 lb. 12 oz. to 6 | | | lb. 12 oz.) Lanugo starts to | | | disappear, body fat | | | increases, and fingernails | | | fully grow. The fetus gains | | | control over body function, | | | and the skin becomes less | | | wrinkled as fat | | | accumulates.** | | | | | | - **Weeks 36-38 (Full Term): | | | The fetus measures around | | | 48-53 cm (19-21 in) and is | | | considered full-term. Most | | | lanugo is gone, replaced by | | | thicker hair on the head. | | | Fingernails extend past the | | | fingertips, and all organ | | | systems are fully | | | functioning, preparing the | | | fetus for birth.** | | | | | |  | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 5 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **21 weeks or less: 0 percent | | | survival rate** | | | | | | - **22 weeks: 0--10 percent | | | survival rate** | | | | | | - **23 weeks: 10--35 percent | | | survival rate** | | | | | | - **24 weeks: 40--70 percent | | | survival rate** | | | | | | - **25 weeks: 50--80 percent | | | survival rate** | | | | | | - **26 weeks: 80--90 percent | | | survival rate** | | | | | | - **27 weeks: greater than 90 | | | percent survival rate** | | | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | **BRAIN DEVELOPMENT** | | | | +------------------------------+ | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 6 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ |  | | | | | | **[Neurons and Synapses form the | | | Wiring of the | | | Brain]** | | | | | | **Communication Between Neurons | | | FIGURE 2** | | | | | | **Source: Adapted by Bill Day | | | from | | | [www.educarer.org,](http://educar | | | er.org/) | | | 2006** | | | | | | **.** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 7 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Communication Between Neurons | | | FIGURE 2** | | | | | | **Source: Adapted by Bill Day | | | from www.educarer.org, 2006** | | | | | | **The Organization of a Child's | | | Brain is Affected by Early | | | Experiences** | | | | | | **[From Conception to Age Three: | | | An Outline of Early Brain | | | Development]** | | | | | | **FIRST TRIMESTER** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 8 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The | | | | Child and Adolescent | | | | Learners and Learning | | | | Principles Report No. | | | | 1** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **SECOND TRIMESTER** | | | | | | | | **THIRD TRIMESTER** | | | | | | | | **YEAR ONE** | | | | | | | | **YEAR TWO** | | | | | | | | **YEAR THREE** | | | | | | | | **[The Earliest | | | | Messages that the | | | | Brain Receives have | | | | an Enormous | | | | Impact]** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **[Perceptual | | | | Development]{.underli | | | | ne}** | | | | | | | | **Perceptual | | | | development refers to | | | | the process by which | | | | infants and young | | | | children gain | | | | awareness and | | | | understanding of | | | | sensory stimuli from | | | | their environment. | | | | This development is | | | | essential as it | | | | involves the | | | | maturation of sensory | | | | systems and the | | | | ability to interpret | | | | sensory information, | | | | which is essential | | | | for interacting with | | | | the world. Infants | | | | are born with | | | | functional sensory | | | | systems, but they | | | | lack perceptual | | | | knowledge, which they | | | | acquire through | | | | experience. As their | | | | senses mature, they | | | | begin to coordinate | | | | information from | | | | different sensory | | | | modalities, a process | | | | known as intermodal | | | | perception, which | | | | improves throughout | | | | infancy. Perceptual | | | | development is | | | | closely linked to | | | | physical development. | | | | For instance, as | | | | infants grow, their | | | | ability to explore | | | | their environment | | | | physically, such as | | | | reaching, grasping, | | | | and moving, enhances | | | | their perceptual | | | | learning.** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | 9 | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The | | | | Child and Adolescent | | | | Learners and Learning | | | | Principles Report No. | | | | 1** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **6--9 Months: At | | | | this stage, children | | | | actively explore | | | | their surroundings | | | | using their senses.** | | | | | | | | - **Examining an | | | | object by looking | | | | at it and | | | | mouthing it.** | | | | | | | | - **Turning their | | | | heads in response | | | | to sounds, like a | | | | caregiver's | | | | footsteps.** | | | | | | | | - **Showing | | | | excitement when | | | | recognizing | | | | familiar colors | | | | or foods.** | | | | | | | | **12--18 Months: | | | | Children begin to | | | | adjust their | | | | interactions based on | | | | sensory | | | | information:** | | | | | | | | - **Walking slowly | | | | on uneven | | | | surfaces and | | | | faster on smooth | | | | ones.** | | | | | | | | - **Choosing to | | | | slide down a | | | | steep hill | | | | instead of | | | | walking down.** | | | | | | | | - **Swaying to the | | | | rhythm of | | | | music.** | | | | | | | | **30--36 Months: By | | | | this age, children | | | | combine sensory | | | | information to inform | | | | their actions:** | | | | | | | | - **Identifying | | | | familiar objects | | | | by touch, like a | | | | blanket or a | | | | buried truck.** | | | | | | | | - **Watching their | | | | own drawing | | | | movements and | | | | trying to | | | | replicate them.** | | | | | | | | - **Climbing more | | | | carefully as they | | | | reach the top of | | | | a ladder.** | | | | | | | | **Foundational | | | | Behaviors (4 to 7 | | | | Months): During this | | | | period, infants | | | | may:** | | | | | | | | - **Have a range of | | | | vision of several | | | | feet and | | | | recognize | | | | familiar | | | | objects.** | | | | | | | | - **Startle at loud | | | | noises and | | | | explore textures, | | | | like crumpling | | | | paper.** | | | | | | | | **Exploratory | | | | Behaviors (9 to 17 | | | | Months): Infants | | | | may:** | | | | | | | | - **Nuzzle into | | | | familiar fabrics | | | | to smell them.** | | | | | | | | - **Recognize | | | | sounds associated | | | | with daily | | | | activities, like | | | | running water.** | | | | | | | | - **Engage in messy | | | | play, exploring | | | | materials like | | | | play dough.** | | | | | | | | **Sensory Interaction | | | | (19 to 35 Months): | | | | Children enjoy | | | | various tactile | | | | experiences:** | | | | | | | | - **Playing with | | | | sand and water.** | | | | | | | | - **Handling | | | | fragile items | | | | carefully.** | | | | | | | | - **Enjoying | | | | tactile books | | | | with different | | | | textures.** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **[Motor Skills | | | | Development]{.underli | | | | ne}** | | | | | | | | Motor skills refer to | | | | the ability to | | | | execute movements | | | | using muscles in a | | | | coordinated and | | | | controlled manner. | | | | The term **motor | | | | behavior** describes | | | | all movements of the | | | | body, including | | | | movements of the eyes | | | | (as in the gaze), and | | | | the infant's | | | | developing control of | | | | the head. They are | | | | generally divided | | | | into two categories: | | | | | | | | **Gross Motor | | | | Skills** | | | | | | | | These include | | | | activities such a | | | | walking, running, and | | | | jumping, which in | | | | their performance | | | | need the coordination | | | | of large muscle | | | | groups (Boyd & Bee, | | | | 2019). Gross motor | | | | development serves as | | | | the foundation for | | | | the suggested | | | | physical activity | | | | required to maintain | | | | a healthy weight | | | | (ChildObesity 180\'s | | | | Active Schools | | | | Acceleration Project, | | | | 2012; Centers for | | | | Disease Control and | | | | Prevention \[CDC\], | | | | 2011; Berk, 2012). | | | | Furthermore, gross | | | | motor activity has | | | | been shown to improve | | | | a child\'s academic | | | | performance (CDC, | | | | 2010, 2011; Franke, | | | | 2005; Fredericks, | | | | Kokot, & Krog, 2006). | | | | | | | | Gross motor skills | | | | require the | | | | coordination of | | | | muscles of the body | | | | and the neurological | | | | system of the brain. | | | | These skills start | | | | developing at | | | | infancy, between 0-6 | | | | months, and continue | | | | throughout childhood. | | | | *The developing | | | | ability to move the | | | | large muscles:* | | | | | | | | **6--9 Months:** | | | | | | | | Children at this age | | | | show emerging posture | | | | and movement | | | | abilities: | | | | | | | | - Sit on the floor | | | | with bent legs, | | | | positioning one | | | | leg closer to the | | | | body. | | | | | | | | - Use forearms to | | | | pull themselves | | | | while on their | | | | tummy. | | | | | | | | - Move from sitting | | | | to hands and | | | | knees | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | 10 | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No. 1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **12--18 Months:** | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | **Foundational Behaviors (4 to 7 | | | Months):** | | | | | | - Roll from back to stomach and | | | vice versa. | | | | | | - Sit without support and turn | | | to reach objects. | | | | | | - Balance on one side and rock | | | on hands and knees. | | | | | | **Exploratory Behaviors (9 to 17 | | | Months):** | | | | | | - Creep on hands and knees or | | | feet. | | | | | | - Pull to a stand using | | | furniture for support. | | | | | | - Walk without assistance and | | | throw balls. | | | | | | **Advanced Motor Skills (19 to 35 | | | Months):** | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | | | | | | | - **Bayley Scales of Infant | | | Development (BSID**) - The | | | BSID evaluates children aged | | | newborn to 3 ½ years through | | | measuring body control | | | proficiency, large muscle | | | coordination, purposeful | | | movement, and posture. | | | | | | - **Peabody Developmental Motor | | | Scales (PDMS)** - The PDMS | | | evaluates children less than | | | 6 years of age, and measures | | | reflexes; balance; | | | locomotion, such as crawling, | | | walking, and jumping; and | | | object manipulation, such as | | | catching and throwing. | | | | | | - **Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of | | | Motor Proficiency (BOTMP)** - | | | The BOTMP, which evaluates | | | children aged 4 ½ to 14 ½ | | | years, measures strength, | | | speed and agility, and | | | bilateral coordination. | | | | | | | | | | | | - **TGMD** - The TGMD, or test | | | for Motor Development, is | | | administered to children aged | | | three to ten years. The TGMD | | | is a criterion-based | | | assessment, with scores | | | reflecting the existence or | | | absence of a skill. The test | | | contains the following: | | | | | | | | | | | | - Locomotion - includes | | | running, galloping, hopping, | | | and sliding. | | | | | | - Object control - two-hand | | | hitting a ball, including | | | dribbling, catching, and | | | kicking skills | | | | | | | | | | | | - **TGMD-2 -** The acronym | | | TGMD-2 stands for Test for | | | Gross Motor Development 2. It | | | contains all TGMD testing but | | | is limited to children aged 3 | | | to 10 years and 11 months. | | | The TGMD-2 test the | | | following: | | | | | | - Locomotion - running, | | | galloping, hopping, | | | sliding | | | | | | - Object control - two-hand | | | hitting a ball, | | | dribbling, catching, | | | kicking | | | | | | - Fundamental movement - | | | sports-specific skills | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 11 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No. 1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Grasping objects using one | | | hand. | | | | | | - Sweeping toys closer with a | | | raking motion. | | | | | | - Holding and banging blocks | | | together. | | | | | | | | | | | | - Holding a crayon and | | | scribbling. | | | | | | - Placing pegs into a pegboard. | | | | | | - Pointing to pictures in a | | | book and stacking rings. | | | | | | | | | | | | - Using child-safe scissors to | | | cut paper. | | | | | | - Stringing beads and building | | | towers with blocks. | | | | | | - Turning pages of a book and | | | drawing with a crayon. | | | | | | | | | | | | - Early grasping and | | | transferring of objects, | | | reaching for toys, and making | | | basic movements with hands. | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | **Tools used to assess the motor | | | development of children with | | | known disabilities or | | | impairment:** | | | | | | - **Gross Motor Function | | | Measure (GMFM)** - The GMFM | | | measures the continuing motor | | | development of children with | | | cerebral palsy. It evaluates | | | children\'s functional | | | abilities to sit, crawl, | | | stand, walk, and jump (among | | | other skills). | | | | | | - **Lighthouse Test --** it | | | measures visual acuity in | | | preschool children with | | | disabilities.  | | | | | | - **Transdisciplinary | | | Play-Based Assessment | | | (TPBA)** - TPBA measures | | | gross and fine motor | | | development in children using | | | observation of unstructured | | | play. | | | | | | | | | | | | - **Height and Weight | | | Measurements** - These are | | | the most basic indicators of | | | growth. Healthcare providers | | | can establish whether a kid | | | is growing normally for their | | | age and | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 12 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **Body Mass Index (BMI) -** | | | BMI is a commonly used method | | | for determining if an | | | individual\'s body weight is | | | appropriate for their height. | | | BMI is especially useful in | | | detecting conditions like | | | obesity or malnutrition, both | | | of which can have long-term | | | consequences for physical | | | development. | | | | | | | | | | | | - **Growth Charts -** enable | | | comparison of children\'s | | | growth against | | | age-appropriate and | | | gender-specific averages. | | | | | | | | | | | | - **Miller Assessment for | | | Preschoolers (MAP) -** | | | evaluates balance and | | | posture, touch, pressure, | | | temperature, and pain | | | perception, and awareness of | | | the body\'s position. | | | | | | **Visual and Auditory | | | Assessments** | | | | | | - **Test of Sensory Functioning | | | in Infants (TSFI)** - The | | | TSFI evaluates how eyes see | | | and how they process what | | | they see. | | | | | | - **Snellen E Charts** - | | | Snellen E Charts evaluate the | | | degree or sharpness of vision | | | using 11 rows of letters that | | | increase in number and | | | decrease in size at each | | | level. | | | | | | - **Teller Acuity Cards** - | | | Teller Acuity Cards also | | | evaluate the degree or | | | sharpness of vision but are | | | for nonverbal children. They | | | use a series of cards | | | containing stripes of | | | different widths. | | | | | | - **Visual reinforcement | | | audiometry** - involves | | | presenting a series of sounds | | | through headphones and | | | providing visual | | | reinforcements when correct | | | responses are made.  | | | | | | - **Pure-tone audiometry -** | | | also involves presenting a | | | series of sounds through | | | headphones, but responses are | | | made through selecting a | | | button. | | | | | | - **The Auditory Brain Stem | | | Evoked Response** **Test** - | | | it uses high frequencies to | | | assess how sound is processed | | | by the brain stem. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - - - | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 13 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---- **Prof Educ 102 The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Report No.1** 14 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prof Educ 102 The Child and | | | Adolescent Learners and Learning | | | Principles Report No.1** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Boyd, D., & Bee, H. (2019). | | | *Lifespan Development*. | | | Pearson. | | | | | | | | | | | | - Centers for Disease Control | | | and Prevention (CDC). (2021). | | | BMI for Children and Teens. | | | Retrieved from | | | | | | | | | - Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., | | | & Bar-Or O. (2004). *Growth, | | | Maturation, and Physical | | | Activity*. Human Kinetics. | | | | | | - Lackaff, J., Hoisington, C., | | | Lackaff, J., & NCS Pearson, | | | Inc. (2019). Work Sampling | | | System: Scientific | | | Thinking--- Background and | | | Criteria. In W H I T E P a P | | | E R. | | | | | | | | | - What is physical development? | | | (n.d.). Early Movers. | | | | | | | | | - **Berk, L. E. (2012).** | | | *Child Development (9th | | | ed.)*. Pearson. | | | | | | - **Franke, T. M. (2005).** | | | *Physical Activity and Early | | | Childhood Development*. | | | | | | - Sapunar, D., Arey, Leslie B. | | | and Rogers, Kara (2022, | | | October 30). *prenatal | | | development*. *Encyclopedia | | | Britannica*. | | |. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | 15 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+