Greek Art and Roman Art PDF

Greek Art and Roman Art GREEK ART A shared language, religion, and culture Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of Achilles ( a hero in the ancient epic poem by Homer, The Illiad), about the Trojan War and Odysseus (the hero in Homer\'s The Odyssey), to the treatises of A...

Greek Art and Roman Art GREEK ART A shared language, religion, and culture Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of Achilles ( a hero in the ancient epic poem by Homer, The Illiad), about the Trojan War and Odysseus (the hero in Homer\'s The Odyssey), to the treatises of Aristotle, from the exacting measurements of the Parthenon (above) to the rhythmic chaos of the Laocoön (below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Thanks largely to notable archaeological sites, well-known literary sources, and the impact of Hollywood (Clash of the Titans, for example), this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness---prompting visions of epic battles, erudite philosophers, gleaming white temples, and limbless nudes (we now know the sculptures---even the ones that decorated temples like the Parthenon---were brightly painted, and, of course, the fact that the figures are often missing limbs is the result of the ravages of time). Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and his Sons, early first century C.E., marble, 7'10-1/2″ high (Vatican Museums) Dispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called poleis or city-states, the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture. Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called "Panhellenic" sanctuaries and festivals that embraced "all Greeks" and encouraged interaction, competition, and exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek civilization was vast and did not develop overnight. The Dark Ages (c. 1100 -- c. 800 B.C.E.) to the Orientalizing Period (c. 700 -- 600 B.C.E.) Following the collapse of the Mycenaean citadels of the late Bronze Age, the Greek mainland was traditionally thought to enter a "Dark Age" that lasted from c. 1100 until c. 800 B.C.E. Not only did the complex socio-cultural system of the Mycenaeans disappear, but also its numerous achievements (i.e., metalworking, large-scale construction, writing). The discovery and continuous excavation of a site known as Lefkandi, however, drastically alters this impression. Located just north of Athens, Lefkandi has yielded an immense apsidal structure (almost fifty meters long), a massive network of graves, and two heroic burials replete with gold objects and valuable horse sacrifices. One of the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine (see photos below). At fourteen inches high, the terracotta creature is composed of a equine (horse) torso made on a potter's wheel and hand-formed human limbs and features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the cultural richness of this period. Centaur, c. 900 B.C.E. (Proto-Geometric period), terracotta, 14 inches high, the head was found in tomb 1 and the body was found in tomb 3 in the cemetery of Toumba, Lefkandi, Greece (detail of head photo: Dan Diffendale CC BY-NC-SA 2) Similar in its adoption of narrative elements is a vase-painting likely from Thebes dating to c. 730 B.C.E. (see image below). Fully ensconced in the Geometric Period (c. 800-700 B.C.E.), the imagery on the vase reflects other eighth-century artifacts, such as the Dipylon Amphora, with its geometric patterning and silhouetted human forms. Though simplistic, the overall scene on this vase seems to record a story. A man and woman stand beside a ship outfitted with tiers of rowers. Grasping at the stern and lifting one leg into the hull, the man turns back towards the female and takes her by the wrist. Is the couple Theseus and Ariadne (In Greek mythology, the hero Theseus slew the Minotaur---a creature with the head of a bull and the body of a man---with aid from Ariadne, then sailed with her to the island of Naxos)? Is this an abduction? Perhaps Paris and Helen (Paris was the son of the king of Troy---he abducted Helen, wife of King Menelaus, sparking the Trojan War)? Or, is the man bidding farewell to the woman and embarking on a journey as had Odysseus and Penelope (Odysseus left his wife Penelope for twenty years to fight in the Trojan War)? The answer is unattainable. Late Geometric Attic spouted krater (vessel for mixing water and wine), possibly from Thebes, c. 730 B.C.E., 30.5 cm high (The British Museum, London), photo: Egisto Sani CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 In the Orientalizing Period (700-600 B.C.E.), alongside Near Eastern motifs and animal processions, craftsmen produced more nuanced figural forms and intelligible illustrations. For example, terracotta painted plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon (c. 625 B.C.E.) are some of the earliest evidence for architectural decoration in Iron Age Greece. Once ornamenting the surface of this Doric temple (most likely as metopes), the extant panels have preserved various imagery (watch this video to learn about the Doric order). On one plaque (see image below), a male youth strides towards the right and carries a significant attribute under his right arm---the severed head of the Gorgon Medusa (her face is visible between the right hand and right hip of the striding figure, in Greek mythology a Gorgon is a monstrous feminine creature whose appearance would turn anyone who laid eyes upon it to stone).. Not only is the painter successful here in relaying a particular story, but also the figure of Perseus shows great advancement from the previous century. The limbs are fleshy, the facial features are recognizable, and the hat and winged boots appropriately equip the hero for fast travel. Fragment showing Perseus with the head of Medusa likely from a metope from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon, c. 630 B.C.E., painted terracotta, 87.8 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens) The Archaic Period (c. 600-480/479 B.C.E.) While Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures throughout the Archaic Period, the city of Athens witnessed the rise and fall of tyrants and the introduction of democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E. Visually, the period is known for large-scale marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures (see below). Showing the influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture (like this example of the Pharaoh Menkaure and his wife in the MFA, Boston), the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently employed as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed unabashed nudity, highlighting their complicated hairstyles and abstracted musculature (below left). The kore, on the other hand, was never nude. Not only was her form draped in layers of fabric, but she was also ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. Though some have been discovered in funerary contexts, like Phrasiklea (below right), a vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens (more on the Acropolis korai). Ritualistically buried following desecration of this sanctuary by the Persians in 480 and 479 B.C.E., dozens of korai were unearthed alongside other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities of these figures have been hotly debated in recent times, most agree that they were originally intended as votive offerings to the goddess Athena. Left: Anavysos (Kroisos) Kouros, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, 6′ 4″ (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo: Steven Zucker Right: Aristion of Paros, Phrasikleia Kore, c. 550 -- 540 B.C.E. Parian marble with traces of pigment, 211 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens) (photo: Asaf Braverman, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0) The Classical Period (480/479-323 B.C.E.) Though experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, it was not until the Classical Period that two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The "Early Classical Period" (480/479 -- 450 B.C.E.) was a period of transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers alongside the so-called "Severe Style." As can be seen in the Kritios Boy, c. 480 B.C.E., the "Severe Style" features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids. For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the Niobid Painter's vase in the Louvre (image below). Niobid Painter, Niobid Krater, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460-50 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Musée du Louvre, Paris) During the "High Classical Period" (450-400 B.C.E.), there was great artistic success: from the innovative structures on the Acropolis to Polykleitos' visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the Doryphoros or "Canon" (image below). Concurrently, however, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 B.C.E. Despite continued military activity throughout the "Late Classical Period" (400-323 B.C.E.), artistic production and development continued apace. In addition to a new figural aesthetic in the fourth century known for its longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads (for example, the Apoxyomenos), the first female nude was produced. Known as the Aphrodite of Knidos, c. 350 B.C.E., the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-Curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a pudica (or modest Venus) pose (see a Roman copy in the Capitoline Museum in Rome here). Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, the Aphrodite of Knidos became one of the most celebrated sculptures in all of antiquity. Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) or The Canon, c. 450-40 B.C.E., ancient Roman marble copy found in Pompeii of the lost bronze original, 211 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) The Hellenistic Period and Beyond (323 B.C.E. -- 31 B.C.E.) Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.E. (one of the most successful conquerers in history---his empire stretched from Greece and Egypt to the Indus valley and Afghanistan)., the Greeks and their influence stretched as far east as modern India. While some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style of the previous period such as Eutychides' Tyche of Antioche (Louvre), other artists were more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon (below) expressions of agony and a confused mass of limbs convey a newfound interest in drama. Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), The Pergamon Altar, c. 200-150 B.C.E. (Hellenistic Period), 35.64 x 33.4 meters, marble (Pergamon Museum, Berlin) Architecturally, the scale of structures vastly increased, as can be seen with the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, and some complexes even terraced their surrounding landscape in order to create spectacular vistas as can be seem at the Sanctuary of Asklepios on Kos. Upon the defeat of Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E., the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt and, simultaneously, the Hellenistic Period came to a close. With the Roman admiration of and predilection for Greek art and culture, however, Classical aesthetics and teachings continued to endure from antiquity to the modern era.   ROMAN ART Origins Although Rome was founded as far back as 750 BCE, it led a precarious existence for several centuries. Initially, it was ruled by Etruscan kings who commissioned a variety of Etruscan art (murals, sculptures and metalwork) for their tombs as well as their palaces, and to celebrate their military victories. After the founding of the Roman Republic in 500 BCE, Etruscan influence waned and, from 300 BCE, as the Romans started coming into contact with the flourishing Greek cities of southern Italy and the eastern Mediterranean, they fell under the influence of [Greek art - a process known as Hellenization.] Soon many Greek works of art were being taken to Rome as booty, and many Greek artists followed to pursue their careers under Roman patronage.   However, the arts were still not a priority for Roman leaders who were more concerned about survival and military affairs. It wasn\'t until about 200 BCE after it won the first Punic War against Hannibal and the Carthaginians, that Rome felt secure enough to develop its culture. Even then, the absence of an independent cultural tradition of its own meant that most ancient art of Rome imitated Greek works. Rome was unique among the powers of the ancient world in developing only a limited artistic language of its own. Cultural Inferiority Complex Roman architecture and engineering was never less than bold, but its painting and sculpture was based on Greek traditions and also on art forms developed in its vassal states like Egypt and Ancient Persia. To put it another way, despite their spectacular military triumphs, the Romans had an inferiority complex in the face of Greek artistic achievement. Their ultra-pragmatic response was to recycle Greek sculpture at every opportunity. Greek poses, reworked with Roman clothes and accessories, were pressed into service to reinforce Roman power. Heroic Greek statues were even supplied headless, to enable the buyer to fit his own portrait head. An example is the equestrian bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (c.175 CE), whose stance is reworked from the Greek statue \"Doryphorus\" (440 BCE). See: Greek Sculpture Made Simple. The reason for Rome\'s cultural inferiority complex remains unclear. Some Classical scholars have pointed to the pragmatic Roman temperament; others, to the overriding Roman need for territorial security against the waves of marauding tribes from eastern and central Europe and the consequent low priority accorded to art and culture. To which we might add that - judging by the narrowness of Celtic art (c.500 BCE - 100 CE) - Roman artists weren\'t doing too badly. Moreover, we should note that cities in Ancient Rome were less provincial and far more powerful than Greek city-states, so that its art invariably played a more functional role - not least because Roman culture was actually a melange of different beliefs and customs, all of which had to be accomodated. Thus, for example, art quickly became something of a status symbol: something to enhance the buyer\'s home and social position. And since most Romans recognized the intrinsic value of Greek artistry, buyers wanted Greek-style works. Realist Propaganda Like the Romans themselves, early Roman art (c.510 BCE to 27 BCE) tended to be realistic and direct. Portraits, both two-dimensional and three-dimensional, were typically detailed and unidealized, although later during the age of Hellenistic-Roman art (c.27 BCE - 200 CE), the Romans became aware of the propaganda value of busts and statuary, and sought to convey political messages through poses and accessories. The same PR value was accorded to relief sculpture (see, for instance, the Column of Marcus Aurelius), and to history painting (see, Triumphal Paintings, below). Thus when commemorating a battle, for example, the artwork used would be executed in a realistic - almost \"documentary\" style. This realistic down-to-earth Roman style is in vivid contrast to Hellenistic art which illustrated military achievements with mythological imagery. Paradoxically, one reason for the ultimate fall of Rome was because it became too attached to the propagandist value of its art, and squandered huge resources on grandiose building projects purely to impress the people. Construction of the Baths of Diocletian (298-306), for instance, monopolised the entire brick industry of Rome, for several years. Types of Roman Art Architecture Rome\'s greatest contribution to the history of art is undoubtedly to be found in the field of [architectural design]. Roman architecture during the age of the Republic (knowledge of which derives largely from the 1st-century Roman architect Vitruvius) discovered the round temple and the curved arch but, after the turn of the Millennium, Roman architects and engineers developed techniques for urban building on a massive scale. The erection of monumental structures like the Pantheon and the Colosseum, would have been impossible without Rome\'s development of the arch and the dome, as well as its mastery of strong and low-cost materials like concrete and bricks. For a comparison with building design in Ancient Egypt, please see: Egyptian Architecture (c.3000 BCE - 160 CE). In particular, please see: Late Egyptian Architecture (1069 BCE - 200 CE). The Romans didn\'t invent the arch - it was known but not much used in Greek architecture - but they were the first to master the use of [multiple arches, or vaults]. From this, they invented the Roman groin vault - two barrel vaults set at right-angles - which represented a revolutionary improvement on the old Greek post-and-lintel method, as it enabled architects to support far heavier loads and to span much wider openings. The Romans also made frequent use of the semicircular arch, typically without resorting to mortar: relying instead on the precision of their stonework. Arches and vaults [played a critical role in the erection of buildings like the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the Basilica of Maxentius and the Colosseum]. The arch was also an essential component in the building of bridges, exemplified by the Pont du Gard and the bridge at Merida, and aqueducts, exemplified by the one at Segovia, and also the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus in Rome itself. A further architectural development was the dome (vaulted ceiling), which made possible the construction and roofing of large open areas inside buildings, like Hadrian\'s Pantheon, the Basilica of Constantine, as well as numerous other temples and basilicas, since far fewer columns were needed to support the weight of the domed roof. The use of domes went hand in hand with the extensive use of concrete - a combination sometimes referred to as the \"Roman Architectural Revolution\". But flagship buildings with domes were far from being the only architectural masterpieces built by Ancient Rome. Just as important was the five-storey apartment building known as an insula, which accomodated thousands of citizens. It was during the age of Emperor Trajan (98-117 CE) and Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE) that Rome reached the zenith of its architectural glory, attained through numerous building programs of monuments, baths, aqueducts, palaces, temples and mausoleums. Many of the buildings from this era and later, served as models for architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) designer of the iconic dome of the cathedral in Florence, and both Donato Bramante (1444-1514) and Michelangelo (1475-1564), designers of St Peter\'s Basilica. The time of Constantine (306-337 CE) witnessed the last great building programs in the city of Rome, including the completion of the Baths of Diocletian and the erection of the Basilica of Maxentius and the Arch of Constantine. Famous Roman Buildings **Circus Maximus (6th century BCE - 4th century CE)** C:\\Users\\Mira\\AppData\\Local\\Microsoft\\Windows\\INetCache\\Content.MSO\\C3E6A6FC.tmp Dating back to Etruscan times, and located in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, this was the main **Roman chariot racing venue in Rome, Italy**. Measuring roughly 2,000 feet in length (610 metres) and 400 feet in width (120 metres), it was rebuilt in the age of Julius Caesar to seat an estimated 150,000 spectators, and again during the reign of Constantine to seat about 250,000. It is now a park. **Colosseum (72-80 CE)**  C:\\Users\\Mira\\AppData\\Local\\Microsoft\\Windows\\INetCache\\Content.MSO\\A608C608.tmp **Built in the centre of Rome by Vespasian to appease the masses, this elliptical amphitheatre** was named after a colossal statue of Nero that stood nearby. Built to seat some 50,000 spectators, its intricate design, along with its model system of tiered seating and spacious passageways, makes it one of the greatest works of Roman architecture. The Colosseum was one of the key sights on the Grand Tour of the 18th century. The Arch of Titus (c.81 CE)  The oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch, it was built after the young Emperor\'s death to celebrate his suppression of the Jewish uprising in Judea, in 70 CE. Standing on the Via Sacra, south-east of the Roman Forum, **the Arch of Titus was the model for Napoleon\'s Arc de Triomphe in Paris (1806-36).** **Baths of Trajan (104-9 CE)** A huge bathing and leisure complex on the south side of the Oppian Hill, **designed by Apollodorus of Damascus**, it continued to be used up until the early fifth century, or possibly later, until the destruction of the Roman aqueducts compelled its abandonment. **Pantheon (c.125 CE)**  Built by **Marcus Agrippa** [as a temple dedicated to the seven gods of Ancient Rome], and **rebuilt by Hadrian in 126 CE,** the Pantheon is a daring early instance of concrete construction. The interior space is based on a perfect sphere, and its coffered ceiling remains the largest non-reinforced concrete dome in the world. In the middle of its dome an oculus lets in a beam of light. **Baths of Caracalla (212-16 CE)** Capable of holding up to 16,000 people, the building was roofed by a series of **groin vaults** and included shops, *[two gymnasiums (palaestras) and two public libraries]*. The baths proper consisted of a central 185 x 80 feet cold room (frigidarium) a room of medium temperature (tepidarium) with two pools, and a 115-foot diameter hot room (caldarium), as well as two palaestras. The entire structure was built on a 20-foot high base containing storage areas and furnaces. The baths were supplied with water from the Marcian Aqueduct.   **Baths of Diocletian (298-306)**  These baths (thermae) were probably **the *[most grandiose of all Rome\'s public baths]*.** Standing on high ground on the northeast part of the Viminal, the smallest of the Seven hills of Rome, the baths occupied an area well in excess of 1 million square feet and was supposedly capable of holding up to 3,000 people at one time. The complex used water supplied by the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Antoniniana aqueducts. **Basilica of Maxentius (308-12 CE)** C:\\Users\\Mira\\AppData\\Local\\Microsoft\\Windows\\INetCache\\Content.MSO\\A31FADD3.tmp **The largest building in the Roman Forum**, it featured a full complement of arches and barrel vaults and a folded roof. It had a central nave overlooked by three groin vaults suspended 120 feet above the floor on four piers. There was a massive open space in the central nave, but unlike other basilicas it didn\'t need the usual complement of columns to support the ceiling, because the entire building was supported on arches. Moreover, its folded roof reduced the total weight of the structure thus minimizing the horizontal force on the outer arches. Sculpture: Types and Characteristics ***Roman sculpture*** may be divided into ***four main categories***: **historical reliefs; portrait busts and statues, including equestrian statues; funerary reliefs, sarcophagi or tomb sculpture; and copies of ancient Greek works.** Like architecture, a good deal of Roman sculpture was created to serve a purpose: namely, to impress the public - be they Roman citizens or \'barbarians\' - and communicate the power and majesty of Rome. In its important works, at least, there was a constant expression of seriousness, with none of the Greek conceptualism or introspection. The mood, pose and facial features of the Roman statue of an Emperor, for instance, was typically solemn and unsmiling. As Rome grew more confident from the reign of Augustus (31 BCE - 14 CE), its leaders might appear in more magnanimous poses, but gravitas and an underlying sense of Roman greatness was never far from the surface. Another important characteristic of Rome\'s plastic art was its realism. The highly detailed reliefs on Trajan\'s Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius, for instance, are perfect illustrations of this focus on accurate representation, and have been important sources of information for scholars on many aspects of the Roman Legion, its equipment and battle tactics. Nonetheless, as we have seen, Roman sculptors borrowed heavily from the sculpture of Ancient Greece, and - aside from the sheer numbers of portrait busts, and the quality of its historical reliefs - Roman sculpture was dominated by High Classical Greek sculpture as well as by Hellenistic Greek sculpture. What\'s more, with the expansion of Rome\'s empire and the huge rise in demand for statuary, sculptors churned out endless copies of Greek statues. For the effect of Roman sculpture on later styles of plastic art, please see: Neoclassical Sculpture (1750-1850). **Historical Reliefs** Rome didn\'t invent relief sculpture [- ***Stone Age man did***]***.*** Nor was there any particular genius in the skill of its carvers and stone masons: both the reliefs of the Parthenon (447-422 BCE) and the frieze of the Pergamon Altar of Zeus (c.166-154 BCE) outshone anything created in Italy. See also: Pergamene School of Hellenistic Sculpture (241-133 BCE). What Rome did was to inject the genre with a new set of aesthetics, a new purpose: namely, to make history. After all, if an event or campaign is \"carved in stone\", it must be true, right? The Greeks adopted the more \"cultured\" approach of recording their history more obliquely, using scenes from mythology. The Romans were far more down to earth: they sculpted their history as it happened, warts and all.   **Trajan\'s Column (106-113 CE)**  C:\\Users\\Mira\\AppData\\Local\\Microsoft\\Windows\\INetCache\\Content.MSO\\5520A6CF.tmp The greatest relief sculpture of Ancient Rome, Trajan\'s Column is a 125-foot Doric-style monument, designed by the architect **Apollodorus of Damascus.** It has a spiral frieze that winds 23 times around its shaft, commemorating the Dacian triumphs of Emperor Trajan (98-117 CE). Sculpted in the cool, balanced style of the 2nd century, its composition and extraordinarily meticulous detail makes it one of the finest reliefs in the history of sculpture. A full-size cast of Trajan\'s Column is on show at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and the National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest. **Marcus Aurelius\' Column (c.180-193 CE)**  Second only to Trajan\'s monument, this 100-foot Doric column in the Piazza Colonna also features a winding ribbon of marble sculpture carved in low relief, which illustrates the story of the Emperor\'s Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him during the period 166-180 CE. It includes the controversial \"rain miracle\", in which a colossal thunderstorm saves the Roman army from death at the hands of the barbarian Quadi tribes. The sculptural style of the column differs significantly from that of Trajan\'s Column, as it introduces the more expressive style of the 3rd century, seen also in the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus (199-203 CE) by the foot of the Capitoline Hill. The heads of the Marcus Aurelius figures are larger than normal, to show off their facial expressions. A higher relief is used, permitting greater contrast between light and shadow. Overall, much more dramatic - a style which clearly reflected the uncertain state of the Roman Empire.   Other famous relief works of stone sculpture carved by Roman artists include: the processional marble frieze on the Ara Pacis Augustae (13-9 BCE) in the Campus Martius, and the architectural relief sculpture on the Arch of Titus (c.85-90 CE) and the Arch of Constantine (312-15 CE). **Portrait Busts and Statues** These works of marble and (occasionally) bronze sculpture were another important Roman contribution to the art of Antiquity. Effigies of Roman leaders had been displayed in public places for centuries, but with the onset of Empire in the late 1st-century BCE, marble portrait busts and statues of the Emperor - which were copied en masse and sent to all parts of the Roman world - served an important function in reminding people of Rome\'s reach. They also served an important unifying force. Roman administrators had them placed or erected in squares or public buildings throughout the empire, and affluent citizens bought them for their reception rooms and gardens to demonstrate loyalty. The traditional head-and-shoulders bust was probably borrowed from Etruscan art, since Greek busts were usually made without shoulders. Roman statues and portrait busts are in many of the best art museums around the world, notably the Louvre (Paris), the Vatican Museums (Rome), the British Museum (London), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) the Getty Museum (Los Angeles). Famous Portraits of Roman Emperors Famous busts and statues of Roman leaders include: \- Statue of Augustus (Ruled 27-14 CE) (Livia\'s Villa, Prima Porta) \- Statue of Tiberius in Old Age (14-37) (Capitoline Museum) \- Bust of Caligula (37-41) (Louvre) \- Statue of Claudius as the God Jupiter (41-54) (Vatican Museum) \- Head of Nero (54-68) (British Museum) \- Bust of Galba (68-69) (Capitoline Museum) \- Statue of Titus (79-81) (Vatican Museum) \- Bust of Trajan (98-117) (British Museum) \- Bronze Statue of Hadrian (117-138) (Israel Museum) \- Bronze Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (180) (Piazza del Campidoglio) \- Statue of Commodus as Hercules (180-192) (Capitoline Museum) \- Bust of Gordian II (238) (Capitoline Museum) \- Bust of Pupienus (238) (Capitoline Museum) \- Bust of Balbinus (238) (Capitoline Museum) \- Bust of Maxentius (306-312) (Museo Torlonia) \- Colossal Head of Constantine (307-337) (Basilica Nova) **Religious and Funerary Sculpture** Religious art was also a popular if less unique form of Roman sculpture. An important feature of a Roman temple was the statue of the deity to whom it was dedicated. Such statues were also erected in public parks and private gardens. Small devotional statuettes of varying quality were also popular for personal and family shrines. These smaller works, when commissioned for the wealthier upper classes, might involve ivory carving and chyselephantine works, wood-carving, and terracotta sculpture, sometimes glazed for colour. As Rome turned from cremation to burial at the end of the 1st century CE, stone ***coffins, known as sarcophagi***, were much in demand: the three most common types being Metropolitan Roman (made in Rome), Attic-style (made in Athens) and Asiatic (made in Dokimeion, Phrygia). All were carved and usually decorated with sculpture - in this case reliefs. The most expensive sarcophagi were carved from marble, though other stone was also used, as was wood and even lead. In addition to a range of different depictions of the deceased - such as Etruscan-style full-length sculptural portraits of the person reclining on a sofa - popular motifs used by sculptors included episodes from Roman (or Greek) mythology, as well as genre and hunting scenes, and garlands of fruit and leaves. Towards the end of the Roman Empire, sarcophagi became an important medium for Christian-Roman Art (313 onwards). **Copies of Ancient Greek Sculpture** Although the wholesale replication of Greek statues indicated a hesitancy and lack of creativity on the part of Roman artists, the history of art could not be more grateful to them, for their efforts. Indeed, it is fair to say that one of the greatest contributions of Rome to the history of art, lies in its replication of original Greek statues, 99 percent of which have disappeared. Without Roman copies of the originals, Greek art would never have received the appreciation it deserves, and Renaissance art (and thus Western Art in general) might have taken a very different course. **Painting** The greatest innovation of Roman painters was the development of **landscape painting**, a genre in which the Greeks showed little interest. Also noteworthy was their development of a very crude form of linear perspective. In their effort to satisfy the huge demand for paintings throughout the empire, from officials, senior army officers, householders and the general public, Roman artists produced panel paintings (in encaustic and tempera), large and small-scale murals (in fresco), and mastered all the painting genres, including their own brand of \"triumphal\" history painting. Most surviving ***Roman paintings are from Pompeii and Herculanum,*** as the erruption of Vesuvius in 79 helped to preserve them. Most of them are decorative murals, featuring seascapes and landscapes, and were painted by skilled \'interior decorators\' rather than virtuoso artists - a clue to the function of art in Roman society. **Panel Paintings** In Rome, as in Greece, the highest form of painting was panel painting. Executed using the encaustic or tempera methods, panel paintings were mass-produced in their thousands for display in offices and public buildings throughout the empire. Unfortunately, almost all painted panels have been lost. The best surviving example from the art of Classical Antiquity is probably the \"Severan Tondo\" (c.200 CE, Antikensammlung Berlin), a portrait of Roman Emperor Septimus Severus with his family, painted in tempera on a circular wood panel. The best example from the Roman Empire is the astonishing series of Fayum Mummy portraits painted in Egypt during the period 50 BCE to 250 CE. C:\\Users\\Mira\\AppData\\Local\\Microsoft\\Windows\\INetCache\\Content.MSO\\9375118B.tmp **Triumphal Paintings** Roman artists were also frequently commissioned to ***produce pictures highlighting military successes - a form known as Triumphal Painting.*** This type of history painting - usually executed as a mural painting in fresco - would depict the battle or campaign in meticulous detail, and might incorporate mixed-media adornments and map designs to inform and impress the public. Since they were quick to produce, many of these triumphal works would have influenced the composition of historical reliefs like the Column of Marcus Aurelius.  **Murals** Roman murals - executed either \"al fresco\" with paint being applied to wet plaster, or \"al secco\" using paint on dry walls - are usually classified into four periods, as set out by the German archaeologist August Mau following his excavations at Pompeii. - Also known as incrustation or masonry style, it derived from Hellenistic palaces in the Middle East. Useing vivid colours it simulates the appearance of [marble.] - This aimed to create the illusion of extra space by painting pictures with significant depth, such as views overlooking a garden or other landscape. In time, the style developed to cover the entire wall, creating the impression that one was looking out of a room onto a real scene. C:\\Users\\Mira\\AppData\\Local\\Microsoft\\Windows\\INetCache\\Content.MSO\\1C712A07.tmp     - [This was more ornamental with less illusion of depth.] The wall was divided into precise zones, using pictures of columns or foliage. Scenes painted in the zones were typically either exotic representations of real or imaginery animals, or merely monochromatic linear drawings. - [This was a mixture of the previous two styles.] Depth returned to the mural but it was executed more decoratively, with greater use of ornamentation. For example, the artist might paint several windows which, instead of looking out onto a landscape or cityscape, showed scenes from Greek myths or other fantasy scenes, including still lifes. Art Styles From the Roman Empire The Roman Empire incorporated a host of different nationalities, religious groups and associated styles of art. Chief among them, in addition to earlier Etruscan art of the Italian mainland, were forms of Celtic culture - namely the Iron Age La Tene style (c.450-50 BCE) - which was accomodated within the Empire in an idiom known as Roman-Celtic art, and the hieratic style of Egyptian art, which was absorbed into the Hellenistic-Roman idiom. Late Roman Art (c.350-500) During the Christian epoch, the division of the Roman Empire into a weak Western Roman Empire (based in Ravenna and Rome) and a strong Eastern Roman Empire (based in Constantinople), led to changes in Late Roman art. While wall painting, mosaic art, and funerary sculpture thrived, life-size statues and panel painting dwindled. In Constantinople, Roman art absorbed Eastern influences to produce the Byzantine art of the late empire, and well before Rome was overrun by Visigoths under Alaric (410) and sacked by Vandals under Gaiseric, Roman artists, master-craftsmen and artisans moved to the Eastern capital to continue their trade. (See Christian-Byzantine Art.) The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, for instance, one of the most famous examples of Roman dome architecture, provided employment for some 10,000 of these specialists and other workmen. Commissioned by Emperor Justinian (527-565), the Hagia Sophia, together with the shimmering mosaics of Ravenna, represented the final gasp of Roman art.