Grade 12 Geography Past Paper PDF

Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems In addition, the environment stands as highly potent in providing solutions for accelerated socio-economic transformation to solve leading challenges of food insecurity, poverty, unemployment, food waste, migration and implementation of global commi...

Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems In addition, the environment stands as highly potent in providing solutions for accelerated socio-economic transformation to solve leading challenges of food insecurity, poverty, unemployment, food waste, migration and implementation of global commitments. to solve leading challenges of food insecurity, poverty, unemployment, food waste, migration and implementation of global commitments. For effective implementation of global commitments and solutions to environmental challenges, there is a need to re-focus our development pathways. If the existing approach continues, countries will not be able to respond to the environmental challenges, thereby undermining the effective implementation of SDGs and other related global commitments. This unit tries to discusses about environmental problems, sustainability challenges, environmental education, environmental movement, and some of environment friendly indigenous knowledge. 6.1. Environmental Problems At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ explain the major environmental problems; and „ identify the major implication of environmental problems. KEY TERMS: footprints, Ozone Depletion, Biodiversity Loss, pollution Brainstorming Activity 6.1 1. What are the most serious environmental is- sues you have noticed in your locality? 2. How do they affect the global environment? Currently, environmental problems have become globalized in terms of their existence and impacts as well as the socioeconomic factors that generate them. This subsection discusses the nature of environmental problems and their global reach. Yet, while the problems are clearly global and affect human societies worldwide, it is obvious that some societies (and people) have contributed a hugely disproportionate share to our current problems and demands on the global ecosystem. Environmental analysts emphasize that the ecological footprints of poorer nations, and particularly the individual footprints of their citizens, are vastly lower than those of wealthy nations and their citizens. In both the academic and practical senses, interest in global environmental concerns has grown significantly in the aftermath of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. 153  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE This might be due to the rising strain caused by unsolved issues. More significantly, it might be linked to the realization that even the strongest national environmental policy cannot tackle all of these challenges on its own. The long-term character of the consequences, as well as the possibility of irreversible ecological harm, are to be sought in the diversity of political players, their competing interests, and so on. Global or universally occurring environmental problems can be approached in entirely different ways. The globally interlinked environmental conditions essentially evaluated as a function of population, consumption and technology and the relationship of this factors often shown by the equation called "environment formula". I = f (P,A,T) Where I is global environmental impacts, P is caused by world population growth, A is increasing affluence /consumption of goods and services, and T is environmentally unsound technology This formula, in fact, had little effect on the formulation of practical policy, even though it does take into account the demographic, economic, and technological forces driving the degradation and destruction of the global environment (such as the ozone layer, climate, biodiversity, soils, water, and oceans). What has happened instead is that a medial structure of international environmental policy has emerged which more or less markedly integrates these driving forces or the intermedial link. Some of the major Global Environmental Problems discussed in this section include climate change, ozone depletion, biodiversity loss, air and water pollution, and land degradation. 6.1.1. Climate Change The environmental problem most discussed at the moment is climate change (see also unit 2 for details). Climate change already has observable ecological and social effects, and its projected impacts could potentially result in profound changes in global mean surface temperature, sea level, ocean circulation, precipitation patterns, climatic zones, species distributions and ecosystem function. The climatically active Green House Gases are disrupting the earth’s thermal balance by partially blocking thermal radiation into outer space thus, intensified greenhouse effect. As you learned in Unit 2, governments all around the globe have proposed various mitigation and adaptation measures that have to be practiced by industries and each citizen of them to prevent the devastating impacts of climate change. 154  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Figure 6.1Climate change, environmental degradation, and human misery 6.1.2. Ozone Layer Depletion The ozone (O3) layer forms a barrier in the stratospheric layer (approximately 15 to 30 kilometers above the Earth's surface) thereby protecting humanity from the sun's damaging UltraViolet (UV) rays. It became clear that the ozone layer is being depleted by ozone layer depletion substances such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). When an ozone layer is depleted, harmful ultra violet rays reach the Earth’s surface, causing health hazards such as skin cancer or cataracts. Ozone layer is being depleted globally except over tropical areas and the rate of depletion is higher in the highest latitude regions (Please take three and a half minutes to watch the accompanying video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aU6pxSNDPhs). Therefore, by reducing emissions of ozone-depleting substances, the Montreal Protocol has protected both the ozone layer and the climate at the same time. The approach used to reduce ozone depletion substances (ODS) is to replace them with fluorinated gases known as F-gases, which include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCS), perfluorocarbons (PFCS), and sulfur-hexafluoride (SF6). Despite the fact that they are not ODS, these gases have been recognized as greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. In reality, F-gases are considerably smaller than CO2 and are rising in the atmosphere on a regular basis. 155  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE 6.1.3. Biodiversity Loss The "United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity" was adopted by 154 states during the UN conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and came into effect in December 1993. This conveys the global community's recognition that environmental protection requires a far-reaching paradigm shift. The concept of biological diversity or biodiversity embraces all animal and plant species, including microorganisms, the genetic variability within the species, and the earth's ecosystems in which these species live together. Despite several international agreements on the conservation and wise use of biodiversity, natural ecosystem degradation and the loss of species linked with it continue rapidly. The main reason no doubt is that the approaches to international protection of nature and species previously adopted do not go far enough; and the situation is exacerbated by the lack of political will and of financial commitments needed to address it. The Biodiversity Convention raises the claim to change this situation. Table 6.1 Numbers of threatened species by major groups of organisms Estimated Number of Number of species evaluated by Number of threatened species2 in described species 1 2018 (IUCN Red List version 2018 (IUCN Red List version 2018-1) 2018-1) VERTEBRATES Mammals 5,677 5,677 1,210 Birds 11,122 11,122 1,469 Reptiles 10,711 6,669 1,236 Amphibians 7,866 6,682 2,100 Fishes 33,900 16,406 2,385 INVERTEBRATES Insects 1,000,000 7,908 1,478 Molluscs 85,000 8,442 2,195 Crustaceans 47,000 3,180 730 Corals 2,175 864 237 Arachnids 102,248 250 171 Velvet Worms 165 11 9 Horseshoe Crabs 4 4 1 Others 68,658 839 146 PLANTS Mosses 16,236 102 76 Ferns and Allies 12,000 479 246 Gymnosperms 1,052 1,012 401 Flowering Plants 268,000 23,788 12,049 Green Algae 6,050 13 0 Red Algae 7,104 58 9 6.1.4. Air and Water Pollution Air Pollution Air pollution is defined as the intrusion of chemicals, particles, or biological elements into the atmosphere that cause discomfort, sickness, or death in people, harm other living creatures such as food crops, or harm the natural or built environment. 156  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Pollutants are divided into two types: primary and secondary. The following are some of the significant air pollutions identified in the given category: Figure 6.2 Air pollution caused by different actors Primary pollutant: Pollutants that are formed and emitted directly from particular sources. Sulphur dioxides (SO2) is a chemical compound produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain Sulphur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. The interaction of sulfur with oxygen produces acid rain, which can cause significant environmental harm. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor, and it is one of the prominent pollutants. Carbon monoxide (CO) - is a colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a produced by incomplete combustion of fuel such as charcoal, natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. For example, have you heard of individuals dying or suffering from significant cardiovascular problems as a result of incomplete burning of charcoal in a confined room? This is an important tangible example of the consequences of CO pollution. Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are important outdoor air pollutants. They are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhance global warming. 157  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the perfume compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected chemicals and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulates can be man-made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer. Secondary Pollutant: Pollutants that are formed in the lower atmosphere by chemical reactions. Particulates are created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a combination of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and Sulphur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. Ground level ozone (O3) is formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere, it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel). It is a pollutant and a constituent of smog. Water Pollution and Ocean Exhaustion Water pollution occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean aquifer or other water bodies that damage the quality and 158  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems rendering it toxic to humans or other environment. Basically, water is able to dissolve more substances than any other liquid, this is the main reason why it is easily polluted. Toxic material emitted from farmyards, urban areas and industries simply mix with it thereby causing water pollution. When the contaminant is originated from a single source, we call the pollution point source pollution. When the pollutant comes from diffused sources, we call it nonpoint source pollution. Chemicals and heavy materials from industrial and municipal wastewater contaminate water ways as well. These contaminants are toxic to aquatic life most often reducing an organism’s life span and the ability to reproduce. Figure 6.3: Examples of water pollution Damage and depletion of the marine environment, which covers roughly 70% of the earth’s surface and more than 95% of the water system, has a substantial impact on the overall environmental balance. Pollutants from the land along the edge and interior portion of the continent have severely harmed the world's oceans and seas. Though chemicals, fertilizers, and heavy metals are the most common contaminants, plastic debris carried by rivers and winds is also a significant pollutant. Ocean "dead zones” regions of the sea where oxygen is severely or entirely depleted and most forms of life cannot survive are becoming more numerous, and scientists warn that they will continue to increase unless we curb the factors driving global climate change, which is fueling this alarming shift in ocean chemistry. Even outside these near-lifeless ocean regions, rising global temperatures and invasions of nutrient pollution are regulating oxygen levels in the open ocean and in coastal areas, threatening communities of sea life around the world. Over the past 50 years, the ocean suffered from a loss of about 85 billion tons of oxygen, affecting an accumulated area approximately the size of the European Union. Globally, the amount of zero-oxygen ocean water has quadrupled, while the area occupied by low-oxygen zones has increased by 10 times. In coastal areas and seas that are semi-enclosed, once low- oxygen conditions are established, they can persist for thousands of years, according to some studies. 159  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Figure 6.4: Oxygen Zones In Figure 6.4, the red dots mark coastal locations where oxygen has plummeted to 2 milli- grams per liter or less, and the blue areas mark zones with the same low-oxygen levels in the open ocean. Reflective Activity 6.1 1. Consider the scope or magnitude of en- vironmental problems confronting human beings then, describe its severity and sug- gest what is expected from each of us to curb the problem. 6.1.5. Land Degradation and Soil Contamination Land degradation is defined as a negative trend in land condition, caused by direct or indirect human-induced processes including anthropogenic climate change, expressed as long-term reduction or loss of at least one of the following: biological productivity, ecological integrity, or value to humans. Land deterioration has been associated with mankind since the widespread introduction of agriculture during the Neolithic period, around 10,000 to 7,500 years ago. Land degradation has multiple and complex impacts on the global environment through a range of direct and indirect processes affecting a wide array of ecosystem functions and services. Land degradation is one of the world’s most pressing environmental problems and it will worsen without rapid remedial action. When land is degraded, soil carbon and nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere, making land degradation one of the most important contributors to climate change. Scientists recently warned that 24 billion tons of fertile soil was being lost per year, largely due to unsustainable agriculture practices. 160  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems If this trend continues, 95 percent of the Earth’s land areas could become degraded by 2050. Globally, 3.2 billion people are affected by land degradation, especially rural communities, smallholder poor farmers. The world population is projected to increase by about 35 percent to 9.7 billion in 2050, with rising demands for agricultural products including food, fiber, and fuel. As a result, pressure on the global land resource is increasing due to other factors as well, such as agricultural production systems made less resilient, and natural factors such as climate variability and extreme weather events. Figure 6.5: Views of Degraded land Soil pollution, on the other hand, is defined as the presence of harmful substances (pollutants or contaminants) at such amounts in a soil to endanger human health and/or the ecosystem. Soil contamination happens as a result of direct infection, such as raw material leaks owing to improper treatment, or indirectly through water pollution or air pollution induced by commercial operations. Once soil is contaminated, hazardous substances are deposited, causing a long-term contamination. In the case of contaminants which occur naturally in soil, even when their levels are not high enough to pose a risk, soil pollution is still said to occur if the levels of the contaminants in soil exceed the levels that should naturally be present. Soil pollution affects plants, animals and humans alike. Anyone is susceptible to soil pollution or soil pollution effects: however, the susceptibility may vary based on age, general health status and other factors, such as the type of pollutant or contaminant inhaled or ingested. Children, for instance, are usually more susceptible to exposure to contaminants, because they come in close contact with the soil by playing on the ground; combined with lower thresholds for disease, this triggers higher risks than for adults. Figure 6.6: demonstrates the most common contaminant of soil are dry cell batteries disposed in our locality, in addition to several others 161  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Figure 6.6: Soil contamination by dry cell batteries The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is an initiative focused at addressing this type of issue. The GEF is well-placed to help countries implement convention decisions and facilitate coordinated investments in sustainable land management practices. The three GEF Impact Programs form a major component of the GEF delivery towards combating land degradation and deforestation are: The Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration (FOLUR) Impact Program provides the opportunity for an integrated approach to implementing sustainable land management to increase the prospects for food security for smallholders and communities that are dependent on farming for their livelihoods. The Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Impact Program seeks to avoid further degradation, desertification, and deforestation of land and ecosystems in drylands through the sustainable management of the landscapes. The sustainable cities impact program will create opportunities for countries to integrate voluntary Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) target in to urban planning. Reflective Activity 6.2 Discuss in small groups, some of the major environmental con- cerns you’ve seen in your community. 1. Take a field trip and look at a specific example of a human activity that has an impact on the environment and make a case study on the problem. 2. You can choose an industry, agricultural activity, or forestry if one exists. Write a report that demonstrates the activity’s process and how that process contributes to the environmental problem. 162  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems 6.2. Sustainability Challenge At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ identify the major environmental and sustainability challenges; and „ explain the solutions for environmental sustainability problems. KEY TERMS: Challenges of sustainability, Urbanization, Solar chimney, Green buildings Brainstorming Activity 6.2 1. What are the main challenges of sustainability? 2. Can you give a specific example in your locality? You have well been informed about the essence of sustainability in the first subsection of unit three. Sustainability is making decisions that do not have negative consequences for either current or future generations. Under this broad definition, sustainability impacts on a wide range of ecological and human issues, from the preservation of natural resources to a commitment to human and societal wellbeing. The continuation of current development practices will not be enough to achieve sustainable development, as demonstrated by the following issues: a. The impact of climate change threatens to escalate in the absence of adequate safeguards. There is also a need for promoting the integrated and sustainable management of natural resources and ecosystems and take mitigation and adaptation action in keeping with the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities; b. Hunger and malnourishment, while decreasing in many developing countries, remain persistent in other countries, and food and nutrition security continues to be an elusive goal for too many; c. Income inequality within and among many countries has been rising and has reached an extremely high level, invoking the spectre of heightened tension and social conflict; d. Rapid urbanization, especially in developing countries, calls for major changes in the way in which urban development is designed and managed, as well as substantial increases of public and private investments in urban infrastructure and services; 163  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE e) Energy needs are likely to remain unmet for hundreds of millions of house- holds, unless significant progress in ensuring access to modern energy services is achieved; and f.) Recurrence of financial crises needs to be prevented and the financial system has to be redirected towards promoting access to long-term financing for investments required to achieve sustainable development. 6.2.1. The Challenges of Sustainable Development The concept of sustainability, as well as its approach, connects social science, environmental science, and future technology. As a result, the issue of sustainability includes a wide variety of explanations and arguments. The sustainability approaches are also severely challenged by a wide range of elements found in various parts of the world. Population expansion, urbanization, energy usage and global warming, water shortages, and waste management are the most serious challenges to the planet's sustainable development. Let us now go through these threats in greater detail. Population Growth The world population in 2019 was about 7.7 billion with an annual growth rate of about 1.1 percent. To put the recent growth in perspective, the world population in the year 1900 was only 1.6 billion and in 1960 it was 3.0 billion. According to UN, in 2030 the world population will be about 8.5 billion and in 2050 it will be about 9.7 billion. Currently, 80 million people are being added every year in less developed countries, compared with about 1.6 million in more developed countries. Thus, populations are growing more rapidly in places where such growth cannot be afforded in many aspects. The amount of bio-productive land and sea available to supply human needs is limited. As a consequence of three-quarters of the land area being covered by seas, half of the terrestrial land being desert, and more than a quarter being high mountain ranges, relatively few locations are available for comfortable human settlement. It is believed that just one-eighth of the Earth’s surface is suitable for human habitation. Currently, the approximately 11.2 billion hectares of productive earth, divided by the 6.3 billion people who depend on it for their wellbeing, results in an average of approximately 1.8 hectares per person. Collectively, we are currently using approximately 2.2 hectares per person or over 20% more than is produced annually, which means that the population has already exceeded the sustainable limit. 164  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Figure 6.7: Over-population to manage Urbanization In 1950, New York was the only city in the world with a population of more than 10 million. The number of cities with more than 10 million people increased to 5 in 1975 and 17 in 2001, and 21 cities in 2015. The world’s urban population reached 2.9 billion in 2000 and is expected to increase by 2.1 billion by 2030. This will make up roughly 60 percent of the world’s population. Population growth coupled with urbanization results in significant impacts on the environment and other problems, which include: Þ increased ambient temperature, Þ decreased air quality, Þ increased water run-off, Þ decreased quality of run-off water, Þ altered weather patterns, Þ loss of natural beauty, Þ reduction in farmlands and subsequent food shortage, and Þ deforestation. Energy use and global warming There is a broad relation between wealth and energy consumption. Figure 6.8 shows the contribution of various sources to this worldwide power consumption. The energy consumption in India rose threefold, from 4.16 to 12.8 quadrillion but between 1980 and 2001, putting India next only to the US, Germany, Japan and China in total energy consumption. 165  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE According to the international energy outlook projections for 2030 of the US department of energy, China and India account for nearly one-half of the total increase in residential energy use in non-OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. The OECD brings together 38 Member countries and a range of partners that collaborate on key global issues at national, regional and local levels. Figure 6.8: Global energy consumption per head (2021) Though greenhouse effect occurs naturally atmospheric concentrations of some of the gases that produce the greenhouse effect are increasing due to human activity causing global warming. Over one-third of human-induced greenhouse gases come from the burning of fossil fuel to generate electricity. All fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and they release carbon dioxide when burned Water scarcity According to the United Nations, one out of every six people do not have access to safe drinking water, and more than double that number do not have access to adequate sanitation. Only approximately 2.5 percent of the Earth’s water is fresh water, and three-quarters of it is locked up in glaciers and permanent snow cover. Only 0.3 percent of water is surface water found in rivers and lakes, and therefore easily accessible. Throughout the world, both the ground and surface water is being used at a faster rate than it is being replenished. A country is considered water-scarce when its annual supply of renewable freshwater is less than 1,000 m3 cube per capita. 166  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Waste management Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, aesthetics or as an amenity. Waste management is also carried out to reduce the effect of the material(s) on the environment and to recover resources from them. Waste management can involve solid, liquid or gaseous substances, with different methods and processes for each of them. Various methods are used for waste man- agement which include disposal (landfill and incineration), recycling (physical and biological processing), energy recovery, and avoidance and reduction. Every year, the globe generates 2.01 billion tons of municipal solid garbage, with at least 33% of that waste not being managed in an ecologically sustainable manner. The amount of garbage created per person every day in the world averages 0.75 kilograms but ranges from 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms. Despite accounting for only 16% of the worldwide population, high- income nations create 34% or 683 million tons of global garbage. The trend also reveals that global waste is predicted to rise to 3.4 billion tons by 2050. 6.2.2. Sustainable solutions The aforementioned environmental concerns and sustainability challenges sparked arguments regarding the remedial actions that must be implemented to prevent future deterioration of the environment. Despite the fact that scientists and environmentalists have documented the extent and severity of these environmental problems for decades, little progress has been made in meeting the objectives. Aside from that, sustainable solutions to environmental challenges are frequently neglected in favor of technical processes. A number of solutions have been suggested and some have been successfully implemented in the past in several countries to produce clean energy and to maintain sustainability. Some of these solutions are described below. Combating climate change Reduction in change of climate and impacts of global warming is urgently required for present as well as the future. Various types of measures are taken for combating climate change and global warming, and microbes have great potential to do the task. 167  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Though there are various mechanisms to control the greenhouse gases, new developments have been observed in biological and more environmental friendly mechanism. For example, oceans are known as the largest carbon reservoir on the earth and consume about one-third of all human carbon emissions. It is reported that about half of the carbon dioxide on the earth is fixed by cyanobacteria and other ocean microbes’ mainly through photosynthesis and can be converted into carbon-rich lipids which can be used for biofuel production. Apart from many governmental and non-governmental groups' attempts at GHG (Greenhouse as Reduction) through institutional reasoning, multiple awareness campaigns and local green moments are also significant. Global warming can also be mitigated by preserving ecologically significant regions, developing environmentally friendly energy and waste management systems, and employing biofuels. Role in sustainable agriculture The fertility of soil is a parameter not only confined to availability of nutrients but also the microbial flora flourishing in the soil. Soil microorganisms maintain the fertility of agro- ecosystems, and sustain the crop productivity by maintaining the ecological balance. But the problem is that due to heavy input of chemicals in agro-ecosystems, several of these beneficial microbes are getting depleted or extinct from the soil. Aside from the drawbacks of using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, there is a need to introduce beneficial soil microorganisms into both damaged and unaffected agro-ecosystems in order to increase yields in an environmentally acceptable manner. Renewable Energy Though a number of alternative proposals have been given for meeting the growing energy demands of the world, the renewable energy power plant more appealing one is solar. One of these examples is solar chimney. The solar chimney consists of three essential elements - glass roof collector, chimney and wind turbine. Air is heated in a very large circular structure similar to a greenhouse, and the resulting convection causes the air to rise and escape through a tall tower. The moving air drives turbines, which produce electricity. This type of power plant provides enormous amount of energy with no ecological breakdown at minimal cost (most poor countries cannot afford environmental protection), and without safety hazards (unlike nuclear power plants).Above all, there is no depletion of natural resources at the expense of future generations. Many countries are excessively provided with solar radiation in their deserts. There are also numerous technologies and schemes that have been created using such renewable energy sources or in an environmentally friendly manner, such as solar, wind farm, hydropower, and geothermal, as well as the waste recycling energy process. 168  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Green buildings A green/ sustainable building design is one that achieves high performance over the full life cycle, in the following areas: Minimizing natural resource consumption through more efficient utilization of nonrenewable natural resources Minimizing emissions that negatively impact the indoor and outdoor environment Minimizing discharge of solid waste and liquid Minimal negative impact on site ecosystem. Figure 6.9: Examples of green buildings Reflective Activity 6.3 In a small group, 1. discuss some of the key problems of sus- tainability, and attempt to provide evi- dence with local instances. 2. Identify one of the sustainability issues that you have seen in your community, and provide a solution to the issue that you have highlighted. 3. Make a brief report about it. 169  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE 6.3. Environmental Education At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ explain the essence and trend of environmental education; „ identify the implication of environmental education; and „ participate actively in the school environmental education protection clubs. KEY TERMS: formal education, informal education, tacit knowledge, Lifelong Learning, Interdisciplinary Brainstorming Activity 6.3 Students, try to relate Environmental Education to the problems you studied and attempt the question stated below individually and tell to your teacher. 1. What is the very essence of environmental education? 2. What are the main implications of improving environmental education? The primary goals of environmental education are to develop an ecologically educated population that is self-assured and motivated to take action on critical environmental challenges ranging from climate change to habitat protection and from endangered species to water shortages. Environmental education is about engaging students, community members, policy makers, the young and the old. It is about empowerment, skills development, and providing opportunities for action. At its best, environmental education represents hope and change. It is a strategy by which people can make proactive, informed decisions that honor ecological, economic, and social integrity as the foundations of sustainability. With its emphasis on instilling these values to guide our individual and communal actions, environmental education allows everyone to work toward a better quality of life. 6.3.1. The Essence of Environmental Education Most simply, environmental education is education in, about, and for the environment. Environmental education, which researchers have described broadly as an “approach, a philosophy, a tool, and a profession,” is built on the following three goals: To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas; 170  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment; To create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups, and society as a whole toward the environment. Environmental education has a range of audiences from youth to the elderly, and from families to policy makers and takes place in a range of settings from schools and courthouses to museums to boardrooms. Environmental education is said to be formal or informal (or non- formal), sometimes it could be tacit knowledge where “formal” refers to education that occurs in a traditional school setting and “informal” refers to education in broader public settings such as zoos, aquariums, or community centers and through media outlets such as the Internet or television documentaries. Tacit knowledge refers to learning from the actions of others, or it is a type of information that we may obtain implicitly by living together, contacts or socializing without any teaching. Environmental education also uses a range of strategies and teaching techniques, which can be used separately but ideally built one upon the other. Education researchers basically describe this continuum as including: „ Information activities, which aim to increase awareness and understanding and are defined as “informal” education. „ Communication activities, delivered in both formal and informal settings, which aim to establish a dialogue between audiences and environmental organizations or agencies for the mutual sharing of experiences, priorities, and planning. „ Education activities, also delivered in both formal and informal settings, which aim to promote knowledge, understanding, an attitude of concern, and the motivation and capacity to work with others in achieving goals. „ Capacity building activities, delivered primarily in informal settings, which aim to increase the capacity of civil society to support and work for environmental preservation. In practice, environmental education is intended to exemplify sound education principles based on sound pedagogy and sound science. It is hands-on, contextualized, and interdisciplinary, linking natural and social sciences, the arts, and mathematics, among other subjects, to address complex and multifaceted environmental issues. 171  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE 6.3.2. Fundamental Characteristics of Environmental Education Basically, Environmental Education encompasses the following main characteristics: Environmental education is lifelong learning: Environmental education is a life-long strategy that involves everyone, encouraging them to connect with the natural environment and, when necessary, to take action to safeguard it. While youth undoubtedly represent a critical audience for environmental education, it is equally important to nurture and support environmental literacy among adults whose daily consumer behaviors and political actions can have impressive impacts on the environment and conservation. In recognition of this fact, environmental education involving employees, policy makers, clergy, community activists, parents and grandparents, and members of the media, among others, is on the rise. These groups play important roles in decision-making about environmental conservation both today and in the future. So, in addition to schools, informal settings such as zoos, aquariums, museums, community centers, and parks, as well as media outlets including the Internet, radio, magazines, and newspapers all are important avenues for environmental education. Environmental education is interdisciplinary: The science, notably geography, ecology, and others, give vital foundations for understanding environmental concerns, but environmental education is, by definition, social in nature. Environmental education is about human behavior, focusing on human interactions with the world around us, and encouraging people to engage in productive dialogue and decision-making with an emphasis on positive environmental behavior, critical thinking, and citizen participation. In other words, Environmental education is more about altering people's thinking setups, and they learn more by imitating the activities and performances of certain idol individuals around them. Within a formal, or school setting, environmental education comprises a variety of subjects. Here, social studies, government studies, and history are as important as geography, biology, chemistry, and physics in addressing today’s complex environmental problems. The origins of environmental education may be traced back to the 18th century, when Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasized the necessity of an environment-focused education. As a result of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl in the 1920s and 1930s, conservation education emerged as a new kind of environmental education. 172  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Environmental education is a proven strategy: Most environmental issues characterize complexity and uncertainty. Thus, the policy tools of regulation and market incentives proves insufficient to the task of coping with significant environmental management problems. Managers and policy makers must turn ever more frequently to other policy options, including education, information provision, and voluntary measures. Although increased education does not equate with behavior change, a strong link between the two can often be found, as education plays an important role in increasing knowledge, honing critical thinking skills, and enhancing the capacity and motivation to take action. Thus, supporting environmental education represents an investment in the future. Well-designed environmental education initiatives are built around a theory of change, the idea that a logical series of events may be used to demonstrate how activities in the present may lead to the achievement of goals and objectives in the future. Although it may be easier in the short run to see the direct impact of legislation passed or an acre of trees planted, an environmental-education initiative can make a much longer-term impact on environmental attitudes, knowledge, skills, and action by preparing people to support those policies or become involved in the replanting efforts. Environmental education is about critical thinking and citizen participation: Good environmental education is about teaching people how to think, not what to think. Rather than advocating for specific positions, environmental education contextualizes environmental issues within a complex ecological, social, and economic framework. Environmental education encourages people to take an active role in environmental problem-solving by helping to develop citizen-action skills, then providing opportunities for taking action. But, because education around hot-button issues such as the environment can be controversial, developing high quality standards for both teaching materials and professional training is essential to maintaining the integrity of the field. Reflective Activity 6.4 1. Discuss the function and impact of envi- ronmental education in a small group. 2. Write down some of the sources that have helped you build your knowledge on en- vironment issues, as well as compare these sources based on the dependability of their information. 173  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE 6.4. Environmental movements At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ describe the historical development of environmental movements; and „ participate in or initiate environmental movement aimed at addressing environ- mental threats caused by human activities at local or national level. 6.4.1. The Concept of Environmental Movement Environmental movement is a type of social movement that involves an array of individuals, groups and coalitions that perceive a common interest in environmental protection and act to bring about changes in environmental policies and practices. The environmental movements are conceived as broad networks of people and organizations engaged in collective action in the pursuit of environmental benefits. Environmental movements are understood to be very diverse and complex, their organizational forms ranging from the highly organized and formally institutionalized to the radically informal; the spatial scope of their activities ranging from the local to the almost global, and the nature of their concerns ranging from single issue to the full panoply of global environmental concerns. Such an inclusive conception is consistent with the usage of the term amongst environmental activists themselves and enables us to consider the linkages between the several levels and forms of what activists call ‘the environmental movement. The movement may also be initiated by any group or individuals from anywhere. For example, Greta Thunberg is a significant young climate change campaigner whose voice has the potential to impact many worldwide decision-making bodies, both governmental and non-governmental (take some about four minutes to watch her emotional and influential speech in one of the international climate action summits https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u9KxE4Kv9A8 ). 6.4.2. Types of Environmental Movements 1. Free market environmentalism 2. Preservation and conservation 3. Popular environmentalism 4. Dark Greens, Light Greens and Bright Greens Free market environmentalism The idea of free market environmentalism contends that the free market, property rights, and tort law are the greatest tools for preserving the health and sustainability of the environment. 174  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems This is in sharp contrast to the most prevalent modern strategy, which is to rely on legislative government action to avoid environmental devastation. Environmental care is regarded as natural, as is the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors by individual and class action. Preservation and conservation Environmental preservation is viewed as the strict setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing. It differs from conservation in that conservation allows for some degree of industrial growth while keeping it within sustainable bounds. Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources. Elsewhere in the world the terms preservation and conservation may be less contested and are often used interchangeably. Popular Environmentalism Environmentalist action has recently led to the development of a new subculture. It is mainly composed of the educated middle and upper-class. This subculture often exhibits sustainable consumption patterns, choosing local and organic product over the more conventionally imported products that have been manufactured using chemicals such as pesticides and preservatives. Criticism of this 'green consumerism' comes from some environmentalists who complain of elitism, suggesting that this is nothing more than shopping under the banner of environmentalism without espousing any of its true ideals. Because organic and sustainable items are sometimes more expensive, purchasing them may be perceived as a sign of affluence. It is suggested that this new tendency has diverted attention away from the fundamental issues that 'serious' environmentalists want to tackle. Consumer items offer a deceptively easy, feel- good way to both save the world and one's reputation simultaneously. Others, however, argue that practicing green consumerism does not always imply that these consumers are just trying to save money. Simultaneously, many people believe that the cost of environmentally friendly products should be reduced. Light Greens, Dark Greens and Bright Greens Contemporary environmentalists are often described as being split into three groups, ‘Light’, ‘Dark’ and ‘Bright’ Greens. Light Greens see protecting the environment first and foremost as a personal responsibility. They fall in on the reformist end of the spectrum introduced above, but light Greens do not emphasize environmentalism as a distinct political ideology, or even seek fundamental political reform. Instead they often focus on environmentalism as a lifestyle choice. The motto “Green is the new black.” sums up this way of thinking, for many. In contrast, dark greens believe that environmental problems are an inherent part of industrialized capitalism, and seek radical political change. 175  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Dark greens think that prevailing political ideas (also known as industrialism) are corrupt and will ultimately lead to consumerism, alienation from nature, and resource depletion. Dark Greens claim that this is caused by the emphasis on growth that exists within all existing ideologies, a tendency referred to as ‘growth mania’. More recently, a third group may be said to have emerged in the form of Bright Green. This group believes that radical changes are needed in the economic and political operation of society in order to make it sustainable, but that better designs, new technologies and more widely distributed social innovations are the means to make those changes and that we can neither shop nor protest our way to sustainability. Bright green environmentalism is less about the problems and limitations we need to overcome than the “tools, models, and ideas” that already exist for overcoming them. 6.4.3. Environmental Movements in Ethiopia Environmental activism or movements are rarely seen in Ethiopia in a well-organized way. In many sociopolitical problems, different trends have been noticed in both contemporary and pre-existing social media and networking that can have significant social and political consequences. Though several initiatives have been undertaken in various organizations to include environmental problems into the mainstreaming process (such as governmental ministries, religious and other civic organizations), some organizations are particularly concerned with the environment and associated issues only. Lem Ethiopia is an example of a well-known organization in this field. Lem, the Environment and Development Society of Ethiopia (LEM Ethiopia), was founded in 1992 by 29 prominent Ethiopian professionals working in the fields of environment and development. The Society aims to promote sustainable development, and therefore is involved in areas such as natural resource management and appropriate technology promotion, urban waste management and livelihood security in collaboration with donors, government institutions, local and international NGOs and communities. It engages in capacity building, with special attention given to environmental education and awareness interventions that target school children, teachers, farmers, urban dwellers, men, women and development practitioners to impact climate change and advocate for environmental protection policies. Some individual based attempts were seen with an ad hoc, and discontinuous patterns. One of such an attempt is the municipal solid waste controlling task of artist Sileshi Demise (Gash Abera Molla) which had great impact in the Addis Ababa community and 176  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems it might also be taken as the precursor of the current riparian buffer projects of Addis Ababa. The late Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, as a movement leader, was officially assigned by African countries to represent the Continent in global climate change negotiations, and Ethiopia appears to be leading the ‘green economy’ movement in Africa, both in ideological and practical terms. Another important individual action that influences majorities of the public concern is the current Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed’s Green Legacy and the development of big ecotourism projects in different parts of the country. Over four billion seedlings were claimed to have been planted in the First Green Legacy Campaign, which was conducted in 2019 during the Ethiopian rainy season, and this number was raised to five billion seedlings in 2020, which was a significant accomplishment of his effort. Such an individual’s attempt can also trigger a broad based environmental and climate change movement particularly among young population group. Ethiopian youth are increasingly impacted by environmental and climate related issues, yet their perspectives are largely absent from policy arenas. This lack of the voices of youth, who as citizens of tomorrow will inherit the environment created by adults today, highlights the pressing moral need to include their vital perspectives in the environmental and climate change debates. change debates. Furthermore, there is a political need to include the voices of amateur people in such debates as these voices inform and contribute to the global activism which in turn forces influential political decision. Figure 6.10 personalities and the green movement, PM Dr. Abiy Ahmed and LPM. Meles Zenawi and Sileshi Demisse (artist) from left to right. Reflective Activity 6.5 1. Discuss the function of the environmental clubs that have been established at your school in a group set- ting, and demonstrate your level of involvement, as well as the advantages of being engaged in a club. 2. Take a case of one of your role models who is involved in environmental activities in your community, region, or country at large and write a report about him or her. 177  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE 6.5. Environmentally friendly indigenous practices At the end of this section, you will be able to: „ identify some environmentally beneficial traditional activities in Ethiopia, as well as their locality; and „ support indigenous practices proven to be effective in mitigating environmental problems. KEY TERMS: indigenous knowledge, folk medicinal knowledge and skills, Terracing, Brainstorming Activity 6.4 1. How does indigenous knowledge contribute in combating environmental problems? 6.5.1. Indigenous Knowledge for environmental issues Indigenous Knowledge can be conceptualized as the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area. Indigenous Knowledge as holistic, dynamic and changing community-based knowledge is generated by a process of trial and error through social prac- tice. Some of the most extensive and convincing qualities of indigenous knowledge are listed below. „ Indigenous knowledge is local. It is rooted to a particular place and set of experiences, and generated by people living in those places. „ Indigenous knowledge is orally-transmitted, or transmitted through imitation and demonstration. „ Indigenous knowledge is the consequence of practical engagement in everyday life, and is constantly reinforced by experience and trial and error. „ Repetition is an essential characteristic of tradition, even when new knowledge is added. „ Tradition could be considered as ‘a fluid and transforming agent with no real end’. When applied to knowledge it’s central concept is negotiation. „ Indigenous knowledge is characteristically shared to a much greater degree than other forms of knowledge. As a result, it is frequently referred to as "people's science". 178  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems „ Although indigenous knowledge may be focused on particular individuals and may achieve a degree of coherence in rituals and other symbolic constructs, its distribution is always fragmentary. „ Despite claims for the existence of culture-wide (indeed universal) abstract classifications of knowledge based on non-functional criteria; where indigenous knowledge is at its densest and directly applicable, its organization is essentially functional. „ Indigenous knowledge is characteristically situated within broader cultural traditions; separating the technical from the nontechnical, the rational from the non-rational is problematic. There is a global concern to safeguard the increasingly dilapidating environment. Environmental degradation needs to be combated to minimize or eradicate its threats to lessen the limit of the earth to meet social and environmental destinations, and needs. This issues require interdisciplinary and multidimensional approaches, which include the use of cultural construct, herein referred to as indigenous knowledge system. The application of indigenous knowledge in areas such as: „ Ecosystem and landscape management, „ Water management, „ Soil conservation, „ Biological control of pests and diseases, „ Ecological agriculture and livestock practices, and „ Plant and animal breeding often enhances food security and prevents or alleviates poverty. 6.5.2. Practices of Environmental Friendly Indigenous Knowledge in Ethiopia Ethiopia is a country with over 80 ethnic groups and a wide range of languages. Ethiopian society has diverse knowledge that helps to cope up with the natural and human built environment. It is possible to draw examples from a wide range of indigenous knowledge. The following are some of the examples. Practices in wet highland landscape of the West: The practice of indigenous knowledge has been used as an alternative way of protecting natural environment among the Illuababora, Maccaa Oromo.The scope of their indigenous knowledge comprises attitude towards the universe and natural resources around. They practice this knowledge system in the way of promoting and preserving ecosystem. 179  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Specially, their knowledge regarding their folk healing practices to protect the health of their livestock and families is worth mentioning. They have wisdom on identification and classification of medicine and its resources, mode of preparation, mechanism of dose control and spiritual and philosophical aspects of folk medicine. Folk healers and local elders have knowledge on how to protect folk medicinal plants and other sources of remedies from further wiping out and extinction. Folk medicinal practice thus has the great role in keeping natural environment. This includes different conservation measures to cultivating and duplicating folk medicinal animals, plants and other mineral based medicines. The knowledge of community members in general and folk healers in particular is logical and fruitful on conservation of folk medicine in their natural environment. These days, folk medicine and folk medicinal plants are protected in natural habitats based on their nature. In addition, there is indigenous mechanism to protect the capitals of folk medicine from further damage by planting and growing in their garden in secret. In this sense, local community have original knowledge on protecting folk medicine in their farm land, pilgrimage (ritual sites), scared grooves, around river and home garden. Furthermore, indigenous beliefs system on folk Medicine shared and exploited grounded on their world view. Culturally, cutting trees and killing animals intentionally will be seen as broken norms and values of the society. Besides, these people can get these medicines so long as they protect their environment. Practices of dry high land landscape in the south, Terracing: The Konso Cultural Landscape is characterized by extensive dry stone terraces which witnesses hundreds of years of persistent human struggle to harness the hard, dry and rocky environment, which has resulted in the beautifully outlined rows of dry stone terrace. The terraces retain the soil from erosion, collect maximum water and discharge the excess, and create terrace saddles that are used for agriculture. The terraces are the main features of the Konso landscape and the hills are contoured by the dry stone terraces that could reach at some places up to 5 meters high. The dry stone walled towns (Paleta) of the Konso are located on high hills selected for their strategic and defensive advantage. These towns are circled by, between one and six rounds of dry stone defensive walls, built using locally available rock. The Gedeo people are founded on long-standing regulations (seera) of standards, respect to elders, and oral declarations passed down from generation to generation. Particularly, respect is an important social value among the Gedeo community. 180  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems Though this regard is usually limited to old men and humans in general, it is critical to understand the essence of this reverence since the value of respect is targeted at all species, including domestic animals and the surrounding ecosystem. Respect is frequently exhibited in the form of reverence for parts of environmental resources because it is linked with traditions and relationship to humans. For instance, songo sacred trees are often seen as ritualistic trees which are maintained and protected by prohibition systems (taboos) and traditional rules of “seera”. In the mores of Gedeo, respect is translated into attitudes such as respecting elder person in villages, not cutting songo sacred trees (Dhadacha), not injuring sacred forests, not felling young and immature plants from farms, not cutting grave trees for house uses, killing birds murdering of human-being, defecation in sacred natural sites, degrading the reputation of cultural elders and mass-cutting of trees (degradation) from indigenous cultural landscapes (agroforestry) have been considered as disrespectful deeds and perjuring of ancestral rules of “seera”. Practices of western lowland dry lands, The Gumuz have special relationships with their lands and the environment. They possess knowledge about their natural resources and environment based on observation and experience. Indigenous knowledge is important to the Gumuz systems of natural resource management and it can be best understood along with their traditional belief systems. The Gumuz hold the belief that vital natural/land resources are sacred. They believe that natural resources are the ingenuous gift, blessing and creation of Yamba (the supreme deity), which is the source of life and livelihoods to the past, present and future generations. Yamba provided the Gumuz with knowledge of proper use, management and a responsibility of passing the natural resources to the next generation. The different resources have their respective Missa (poly-spirits) that ensure their proper use and management; violations result in severe punishments and revenge from the respective Missa. Moreover, the Gumuz perceive their natural resources as an ancestral heritage. Ownership of natural resources is vested upon the whole community. The present generation runs a responsibility of trusteeship over the resources. Since natural resources do not belong to only one generation, they cannot be privately possessed or controlled by any single members of the community, only its fruits. Shifting cultivation is an indigenous agro-ecological knowledge used to maintain the complex agro-ecosystem. The fields are shifted to use the nutrients of the natural vegetation-soil complex. Thus, by skillfully maintaining the natural forest and vegetation ecosystem, the other equally important natural resource components such as soil, water and wild animals are managed in a sustainable way. 181 UNIT UNIT SIX ONE Figure 6.11: Ecofriendly landscapes of Gedeo, Illubabor and Konso, from left to right Reflective Activity 6.6 1. Identify some of the most prevalent indigenous practices for environmental conservation in your area and discuss them in class as a group. 2. Choose one of these ecologically beneficial in- digenous practices from your community and describe it briefly. 182  Solutions to Enviromental and Sustanable Problems UNIT SUMMARY Environmental problems arise as a result of human activity’s harmful impact on the biophysical environment. Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on the individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and humans. The problem of environmental sustainability has proven to be difficult to overcome. The shift to a more sustainable way of life is being hampered by human actions that continue to harm the environment. The modern environmental movement has attempted to solve the problem in a large variety of ways. Environmental education refers to organized efforts to teach how natural environments function, and particularly, how human beings can manage behavior and ecosystems to live sustainably. It is a multi-disciplinary field integrating disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, ecology, earth science, atmospheric science, mathematics, and geography. Environmental movement, addresses environmental issues via lobbying, education, and activism. It is a broad philosophical, social, and political movement for solving environmental challenges that includes conservation and green politics. Environmentalists fight for just and sustainable resource management and environmental stewardship through public policy and individual behavior changes. Environmentally friendly indigenous practices describes indigenous and other traditional knowledge about local resources. It is concerned with the interactions between living beings (including humans) and their traditional groups as well as their surroundings. It is important to note that indigenous knowledge is not a universal concept among various societies, but it refers to a set of knowledge traditions or practices that are highly influenced by “location.” Such knowledge is employed in natural resource management as a supplement to scientific methods of ecological management or as a substitute for baseline environmental data in circumstances where there is little recorded scientific data. 183  UNIT UNIT SIX ONE REVIEW QUESTIONS Multiple Choices: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives for the following state- ments and questions. 1. Which one of the following is not taken as the world’s major environmental problem? A. ozone depletion B. the quality of fresh water C. environmental movement D. waste management 2. Which of the following is true about nitrogen dioxide? A. It is colorless B. it is odorless C. Formed by thunderstorms D. it is an example of particulates 3. All are the primary air pollution agents except:____ A. Ground level ozone B. Volatile organic compounds C. Carbon monoxide D. Sulphur dioxides 4. Ocean “dead zones” refers to ________ A. a water body containing large amount of oxygen B. the ocean part polluted by dead plants and animals C. the ocean part where oxygen is severely or entirely depleted D. all oceanic body having high concentration of salt 5.Which one is not a sustainability challenge? A. population growth B. environmental education C. Urbanization D. Water scarcity 184