Grade 11 Biology: Topics 1 and 2 PDF

Grade 11 Biology: Topics 1 and 2 ================================ 1. Diversity of Living Things ----------------------------- \#\#\#\# Classification Systems\ - \*\*Hierarchy of Life\*\*:\ - Levels: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.\ - \*\*Domain\*\*: The highest taxon...

Grade 11 Biology: Topics 1 and 2 ================================ 1. Diversity of Living Things ----------------------------- \#\#\#\# Classification Systems\ - \*\*Hierarchy of Life\*\*:\ - Levels: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.\ - \*\*Domain\*\*: The highest taxonomic rank; includes Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.\ - Organisms are grouped based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships.\ - \*\*Binomial Nomenclature\*\*:\ - Developed by Carl Linnaeus.\ - Two-part Latin name (Genus species). Example: \*Homo sapiens\* (humans), \*Canis lupus\* (gray wolf).\ - Ensures consistent naming across languages and regions.\ - \*\*Phylogenetic Trees and Cladograms\*\*:\ - Tools to show evolutionary relationships.\ - \*\*Phylogenetic Trees\*\*:\ - Branching diagrams representing evolutionary history based on genetic and morphological data.\ - Example: Phylogenetic tree showing common ancestry of birds and reptiles.\ - \*\*Cladograms\*\*:\ - Focus on shared derived traits (e.g., presence of feathers in birds).\ - Example: Mammals are grouped together based on traits like milk production and hair.\ - Constructed using data from fossils, anatomy, and molecular biology. 2. Cell Biology --------------- \#\#\#\# Cell Theory\ - All living things are composed of cells.\ - Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.\ - All cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.\ - Modern extensions:\ - Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) passed during cell division.\ - Energy flow (metabolism) occurs within cells.\ \ \#\#\#\# Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells\ - \*\*Prokaryotic\*\*:\ - No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.\ - Circular DNA in the nucleoid region.\ - Example: Bacteria (e.g., \*E. coli\*).\ - \*\*Eukaryotic\*\*:\ - Nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts).\ - Linear DNA within the nucleus.\ - Example: Plant and animal cells.\ \ \#\#\#\# Organelles and Their Functions\ - \*\*Nucleus\*\*: Controls cell activities; houses genetic material (DNA).\ - \*\*Mitochondria\*\*: Powerhouse of the cell; site of ATP production via cellular respiration.\ - \*\*Chloroplasts\*\*: Found in plant cells; site of photosynthesis.\ - \*\*Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)\*\*:\ - Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.\ - Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids; detoxifies drugs and poisons.\ - \*\*Golgi Apparatus\*\*: Modifies, packages, and transports proteins and lipids.\ - \*\*Lysosomes\*\*: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste and cellular debris.\ - \*\*Cell Membrane\*\*: Semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that regulates the entry and exit of substances.\ \ \#\#\#\# Cellular Processes\ - \*\*Diffusion and Osmosis\*\*: Movement of particles and water across membranes without energy input.\ - \*\*Active Transport\*\*: Movement of substances against the concentration gradient using ATP (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).\ - \*\*Mitosis\*\*:\ - A process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells.\ - Phases:\ - Prophase: Chromosomes condense; spindle fibers form.\ - Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell equator.\ - Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles.\ - Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform; cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm.