GR10 Shortened Exam Review PDF

Note: all information on the shortened guide were from the SNC 2D1 Exam Review + A little extra that may be useful Chemistry Physical Vs. Chemical Properties Physical Chemical characteristic of a substance...

Note: all information on the shortened guide were from the SNC 2D1 Exam Review + A little extra that may be useful Chemistry Physical Vs. Chemical Properties Physical Chemical characteristic of a substance that can be chemical properties describe how a observed or measured without changing substance interacts with other substances the identity of the substance Examples: Examples: ​ Color ​ Reactivity with acids or bases ​ Density ​ Flammability ​ Melting point ​ Oxidation (rusting) ​ Boiling point ​ Corrosiveness ​ Hardness ​ Ability to undergo polymerization or ​ Solubility decomposition Physical vs. Chemical Changes Physical Chemical the material involved in the change is A chemical change occurs when the structurally the same before and after the composition of a substance is changed change Examples: Examples: ​ Change in State (boiling, melting, ​ Burning of wood freezing, condensing, etc.) ​ Formation of Precipitate Elements, Compounds, mictues, and solutions WHAT IS IT Element Something found on a periodic table (Na) Compound Made up or consisting of two or more existing parts or elements. (H2O) Mixture When every part of a mixture can be distinguished easily (Pizza) (Heterogenous) Solution When all parts of a mixture are constant (Milk, Apple Juice, Air) (Homogenous) Protons, neutrons, and electrons symbol Mass (atomic weight) Location electrons e- 0 outside the nucleus Protons p+ 1 inside the nucleus Neutrons n0 1 inside the nucleus Element fill in the blank Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Protons Neutrons Electrons Number Mass Hydrogen H 1 1 1 0 1 Carbon C 6 12 6 6 6 Iron Fe 26 56 26 30 26 Gold Au 79 197 79 118 79 Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8 Neon Ne 10 20 10 10 10 Groups and periods ​ The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. ○​ There are 7 periods in total ​ The vertical columns are called groups ○​ There are 18 groups in the periodic table. Metal vs. Non-Metal Property Metals Non-Metals Location on Periodic Table Left side and center (e.g., Right side (e.g., Oxygen, Iron, Copper) Nitrogen) Appearance Typically shiny, metallic Dull, not shiny luster State at Room Mostly solid (except for Mostly gases or solids Temperature mercury, which is liquid) (Bromine is liquid) Electrical Conductivity Good conductors of Poor conductors (insulators) electricity and heat How are metals are separated on the periodic table Metals are of the left side of the staircase on the periodic table Periodic table fully labeled What do elements in the same chemical family have in common ​ Valence Electrons ​ Reactivity What is an ion An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons Stable ions When there is a full ring of valence electrons Transfer of electrons ​ Metals (such as Sodium, Magnesium) typically lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). ​ Non-metals (such as Chlorine, Oxygen) gain electrons to form negative ions (anions). Noble gas that is isoelectronic Isoelectronic means having the same number of electrons and, consequently, the same electron configuration. Types of Ions ​ Cations: Positive ions formed when an atom loses electrons. ​ Anions: Negative ions formed when an atom gains electrons. Why atoms form compounds Atoms form compounds in order to achieve a more stable electron configuration Ionic & Covalent Bonds IONIC COVALENT Transferred Shared -​ If a compound is made from a metal and a nonmetal, its bonding will be ionic. -​ If a compound is made from two non-metals, its bonding will be covalent. Ionic Bond Diagrams Covalent Bond Diagrams Chemical Formulas NaCl - Sodium Chloride HCl - hydrochloric Acid H2SO4 - Sulfuric acid Naming chemical formulas 01.​Ionic compounds always end in “ide” 02.​For transition metals, the oxidation state is indicated in parentheses (e.g., CuCl₂ is Copper (II) chloride). 03.​Covalent Compounds: Use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms. ○​ Example: CO₂ → Carbon dioxide (1 carbon, 2 oxygens). ○​ Note: When there is only one at the beginning there will be no “mono” prefix. ○​ Mono ○​ Di ○​ Tri ○​ Tetra ○​ Penta ○​ Hexa ○​ Hepta ○​ Octa ○​ Nona ○​ Deca Polyatomic ions An ion composed of more than one atom Examples: CH4 | NH3 | SO4 Law of conservation of mass Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction Balancing equations Single Displacement Reaction Types of Reactions Synthesis Reaction: Two or more substances combine to form one product. Example: A + B → AB Decomposition Reaction: One substance breaks down into two or more products. Example: AB → A + B Single Displacement: One element replaces another in a compound. Example: A + BC → AC + B Double Displacement: Two compounds exchange ions to form new compounds. Example: AB + CD → AD + CB Combustion: A substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light. Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O Acid and Bases Acids: Substances that release H⁺ ions (protons) in water. ​ Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid). Bases: Substances that release OH⁻ ions (hydroxide ions) in water. ​ Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide). pH Scale The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution, ranging from 0 to 14: ​ pH < 7: Acidic (higher concentration of H⁺ ions). ​ pH = 7: Neutral (pure water). ​ pH > 7: Basic (higher concentration of OH⁻ ions). Alkaline meaning Alkaline refers to substances that are basic or have a pH above 7 Bohr-rutherford Diagram Examples & Rules RULES: Inner / First Ring - can only have 2 electrons​ Second Ring - can only have 8 electrons Third Ring - Can only have 8 electrons Forth Ring - as many as needed Be sure to include protons & neutrons in the nucleus (should show protons and neutrons as p+ and n0 respectively) Lewis Dot Diagram Examples & rules Rules: Use the symbol of the element and the valence electrons Valence electron: the quantity of electrons on the outermost ring Atomic Notation Rules: -​ Symbol is large and in the center -​ Atomic weight is above the symbol -​ Atomic number is below the symbol  Optics - Physics What is light Light is a wave ​ Travels in straight lines Electromagnetic spectrum The longer the wavelengh the less energy - The shorter the wavelengh the more energy Incandescent lights Light that is emitted (given off) from a material due to heat. EX. wire glowing due to heat caused by electricity Electric discharge Electric discharge is when electricity flows suddenly from one place to another EX. Shock, Lightning Luminescence Light that is emitted from a material that has not been heated. There are 5 different categories of luminance Phosphorescence Light that is emitted when a material is exposed to UV Light Continue to emit light even after the UV Light is taken Away Fluorescence Light that is emitted when a material is exposed to UV Light ​ Contains mercury Vapor ​ Electric current through the mercury creates UV Light Chemiluminescence Light that is released when a chemical reaction occurs Bioluminescence Light produced by a biological chemical reaction within a living organism Triboluminescence Light that is generated when material is pulled apart, ripped, scratched, crushed, or rubbed – Caused by the breaking of chemical bonds Law of reflection The angle of incidence and reflection will be the same on a plane mirror Plane Mirrors Plane / Flat mirror, angle of incidence and angle of reflection are the same. Images formed in these mirrors are always vitual​ Concave mirrors When the mirror caves in / converges EX. ) Convex mirrors When the mirror diverges EX. ( LOST Location: Closer/Further/Behind Orientation: up/down Size: Bigger/Smaller/Same Type: Real/Virtual Reflection vs. Refraction Reflection - the act of light reflecting back when it hits a medium Refraction - process by which light shifts its path as it travels through a material Speed of Light 3*10^8 m/s Index of Refraction How much light bends / refracts when entering a material N = C/V Examples N = Index of refraction​ C = 3*10^8 m/s (speed of light in a vacuum / always the same) V = Speed of light in the material ​ Speed of light in diamond: v = 1.24 × 108 8 3*10 𝑛= 8 ​≈1. 33 1.24*10 Total internal reflection Definition + Examples When the refracted angle surpasses 90o Critical Angle When the angle of refraction is 90o Apparent depth The bending of light Ex. Less to more bend towards Lenses Thin Lens + magnification Equation M = -di/do OR hi/ho How Lenses are used in real world applications ​ Eye glasses ​ Cameras ​ Contact lenses ​ Endoscope ​ Microscope  Cells, Tissues, and Organs - Biology Cell Theory 1.​ All living organisms are made of one or more cells 2.​ The Cell is the basic organizational unit of life 3.​ All cells come from pre-existing Cell Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic: Has no True Nucleus - Single Celled Organism (Bacteria) Eukaryotic: Has a True Nucleus - multi-Celled Organisms (Plants & Animals) Differences between plant and animal cells Plants Animals ​ Contains A Cell Wall ​ Contain Lysosomes ​ One Large Vacuole ​ Several smaller vacuoles ​ Contain Chloroplasts and often have a green color due to chlorophyll Organelles and Their Functions Organelle Function / Information Nucleus ​ The largest organelle in a cell ​ Controls the cell’s activities ​ Site of DNA Duplication ​ Surrounded by the nuclear envelope ​ Nuclear pores are holes in the nuclear envelope Nucleolus ​ A region within the nucleus ​ Makes Ribosomes ​ Looks like a round ball in the center of the nucleus Cell Membrane ​ Controls what enters and leaves the cell ○​ Separates the inside of the cell from the external environment ○​ Allows materials to flow into and out of the cell ​ Semi permeable Cytoplasm ​ Region between nucleus and cell membrane ​ “Jelly-like” liquid that fills the inside of the cell  ​ Holds all the organelles ​ Contains water, salts, and other organic material Mitochondria ​ Supplies cell with ATP ENERGY ​ Known as the “powerhouse of the cell” ​ Looks like a bean with a maze inside Ribosomes ​ Makes proteins ​ Some float in the cytoplasm, others are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum ​ Looks like small circular dots Endoplasmic Reticulum ​ Connected to the nucleus ​ Transports materials made in the cell ​ Two types ○​ Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ​ Packages Fats ​ No Ribosomes attached ○​ Rough endoplasmic reticulum ​ Packages proteins ​ Has Ribosomes attached Vesicles ​ “Transport Trucks” ○​ Transports and stores materials inside the cell Golgi Body ​ “Modifies Packages” ​ Sorts and packages proteins and other molecules for transport out of the cell ​ Transported by means of vesicles ​ Looks like a stack of pancakes Cytoskeleton ​ Provides a framework for the cell, helping it maintain shape and structure ​ Is involved in cell and organelle movement Lysosomes ​ “Housekeepers” ​ Engulf dead organelles or foreign debris and digest them ​ Contain enzymes ​ Only Found in Animal Cells Centrioles ​ Makes spindle fibers for division ​ Only Found in Animal Cells ​ Looks like two barrels ​ Found in centrosomes Vacuoles ​ “Storage” ​ Contain water and other materials ​ Used to store or transport small molecules ○​ Plant Cells: one large vacuole  ○​ Animal Cells: several smaller vacuoles Cell Wall ​ Only Found in Plant Cells ​ Support the cell ​ Located just outside the cell membrane Chloroplasts ​ Site of photosynthesis ​ Only found in plant cells ​ Contains green pigment chlorophyll ​ Trap energy from the sun to produce sugar through photosynthesis Flagellum Whiplike extension used for propeller-like movement Osmosis vs. Diffusion Osmosis Diffusion ​ movement of particles from a high ​ Osmosis is the diffusion of water to lower concentration across a membrane Why cell size is limited As the volume of a cell increases, it becomes harder to efficiently transport materials in and out of the cell 3 reasons for cell division ​ Growth ​ Repair ​ asexual reproduction The Cell Cycle Mitosis? Phase What is it Onion Cell Example ❌ Interphase -​ The stage in the life cycle of a cell where the cell grows and DNA is replicated -​ Longest Stage in the cell cycle ✅ Prophase -​ the first phase of mitosis -​ the nuclear membrane breaks down and chromatin condenses -​ Longest stage of Mitosis ✅ Metaphase -​ chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell ✅ Anaphase -​ Each pair of chromosomes is split into two identical, independent chromosomes. -​ The chromosomes are separated by a structure called the spindle fibres ✅ Telophase & a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to separate the Cytokinesis nuclear DNA from the cytoplasm Cytokinesis Differences between plant and animal cells Plants: A cell plate begins to form at telophase Animals: animals a cleavage furrow is initiated at that stage. Labeling the Stages of Mitosis What is cancer a disease in which some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably Benign and malignant tumors ​ Benign Tumour ○​ A clump of cells that grows and grown but cannon spread ​ Malignant (Cancerous) tumor ○​ A clump of cells that grown uncontrollable ○​ Expands to neighboring tissues, and when a clump breaks off can spread to a distant art of the body Metastasis The spread of cancer cells from the place where they first formed to another part of the body Carcinogens a substance, organism or agent capable of causing cancer​ Eg. UV Radiation, X-rays, genetics Methods of Treating Cancer ​ Biopsy ​ Radiation ​ Chemotherapy ​ Surgery Cellular Differentiation the process by which a cell undergoes changes to become a specialized cell type Stem Cells Stem cells are a special type of cells - They serve as a repair system for the body Benefits of Stem Cell Research ​ Increase understanding of how diseases occur. ​ Generate healthy cells to replace cells affected by disease (regenerative medicine). ​ Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness. 4 Basic Levels of biological organization cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems Tissue a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit 4 types of tissue & Their Functions 4 Types of Tissue Tissue Type Image(s) Epithelial Connective Nervous Muscle Organ a collection of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized to perform a particular function Organ system a biological system consisting of a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions ​ Digestive system ​ Circulatory system ​ Respiratory system Digestive system function Breaks down food both mechanically and chemically ​ Release nutrient molecules that the body’s cells can absorb and use ​ Removes solid waste from the body Mechanical & Chemical Digestion Mechanical - Physical breakdown of food (Ex. Teeth) Chemical - Addition of special substances to breakdown food (Ex. Stomach acid) Mouth Beginning of the digestive process - breaks down food into smaller pieces using teeth (Mechanical) and saliva (chemical) Pharynx Connects the mouth to the esophagus (Helps in swallowing) Esophagus A muscular tube that moves food to the stomach using peristalsis (wave like muscle contractions) Stomach A muscular sac where food is mixed with acid and enzymes for chemical digestion. Small Intestine A long, coiled tube where most nutrients are absorbed into the blood. Villi and Microvilli Small finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase surface area for nutrient absorption. Large Intestine Absorbs water from undigested food and forms solid waste (feces). Rectum Stores feces before elimination. Anus The opening through which feces are eliminated from the body. Accessory Organs Support digestion but are not part of the digestive tract. Salivary Glands Produce saliva to moisten food and start chemical digestion. Pancreas Produces digestive enzymes and insulin to regulate blood sugar. Liver Produces bile to help digest fats and processes nutrients. Gallbladder Stores and releases bile into the small intestine. Goblet Cells Secrete mucus to protect and lubricate the digestive tract. Mucus A slimy substance that helps food move smoothly and shields the digestive tract lining. Herbivore vs. Carnivore Digestive Tract Herbivores have longer, more complex tracts for digesting plants, while carnivores have shorter tracts for digesting meat. Circulatory System Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste throughout the body using blood. Red Blood Cells Carry oxygen using hemoglobin. White Blood Cells Fight infections and provide immunity. Platelets and Plasma Platelets help blood clot, and plasma carries nutrients, hormones, and waste. Where is Blood Oxygenated In the lungs. Where is Blood Deoxygenated In the body tissues, after oxygen is used. Box Heart Diagram A diagram with four chambers: left/right atria and ventricles, showing oxygenated and deoxygenated blood flow. Artery Carries oxygen-rich blood away from the heart. Vein Carries oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. Capillary Tiny blood vessels where gas exchange occurs between blood and tissues. Respiratory System Responsible for bringing in oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. Gas Exchange vs. Breathing Breathing moves air in and out of the lungs, while gas exchange transfers oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out. Nasal Cavity Warms, filters, and moistens incoming air. Larynx Voice box that helps produce sound. Trachea Windpipe that carries air to the lungs. Bronchi Two tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs. Bronchioles Smaller branches of the bronchi within the lungs. Alveoli Tiny air sacs in the lungs where oxygen enters the blood, and carbon dioxide is removed. Diaphragm (Inhalation vs. Exhalation) ​ Inhalation: Contracts and moves down, pulling air in. ​ Exhalation: Relaxes and moves up, pushing air out. Tissues Found in Plants ​ Dermal: Protective outer layer. ​ Vascular: Transports water and nutrients. ​ Ground: Stores nutrients and performs photosynthesis. ​ Meristematic: Responsible for growth. Meristematic Cells Undifferentiated cells in plants that divide and contribute to growth. Organs of Plants Roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. Two Systems of Plants ​ Root System: Anchors and absorbs water/nutrients. ​ Shoot System: Supports the plant, transports materials, and performs photosynthesis. Xylem vs. Phloem ​ Xylem: Transports water and minerals upward. ​ Phloem: Transports sugars and nutrients throughout the plant. 2 Main Types of Roots ​ Taproots: One large, central root (e.g., carrot). ​ Fibrous Roots: Many thin roots spreading out (e.g., grass). Leaf Diagram Includes parts like the cuticle, epidermis, mesophyll, veins, stomata, and guard cells. What Controls Water Loss in Plants Stomata, regulated by guard cells. Photosynthesis Plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen. Where Does a Majority of Photosynthesis Take Place in the Leaf In the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells. How is Water Transported Throughout the Plant Through the xylem, using capillary action and transpiration pull. How are Nutrients Transported Throughout the Plant Through the phloem as sap. Terminal vs. Lateral Bud ​ Terminal Bud: Found at the tip, promotes vertical growth. ​ Lateral Bud: Found on the sides, promotes branching. Auxin A plant hormone that controls growth and helps plants bend toward light. Greenhouse Gasses - Global Warming Weather vs. Climate ​ Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions (e.g., daily temperature, rain). ​ Climate: Long-term average of weather patterns over decades or more. Why Earth Doesn’t Continue Warming Despite the Sun Always Shining Earth loses heat back into space through infrared radiation, maintaining an energy balance. CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) Human-made chemicals once used in aerosols and refrigerants that destroy ozone in the atmosphere. Greenhouse Effect A natural process where gases in the atmosphere trap heat, keeping Earth warm enough to support life. Carbon Dioxide A major greenhouse gas released by burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. Methane A potent greenhouse gas released by agriculture (e.g., livestock), landfills, and melting permafrost. Ozone A gas that forms a protective layer in the stratosphere to block harmful UV radiation. In the lower atmosphere, it contributes to smog. Nitrous Oxide A greenhouse gas produced by agricultural activities and burning fossil fuels. Water Vapor The most abundant greenhouse gas, naturally present and amplifies warming through feedback loops. Carbon Sinks Natural systems like forests and oceans that absorb more carbon dioxide than they release. Albedo Effect The measure of how much sunlight is reflected by Earth’s surface. Ice and snow have high albedo, reflecting sunlight, while dark surfaces absorb heat. Feedback Loops ​ Positive Feedback Loop: Amplifies change (e.g., melting ice reduces albedo, leading to more warming). ​ Negative Feedback Loop: Reduces change (e.g., increased plant growth absorbing more CO₂). Thermohaline Circulation Global ocean currents driven by temperature and salinity differences, distributing heat and regulating climate. Long-Term Changes of Earth's Climate Caused by factors like volcanic activity, tectonic shifts, and natural greenhouse gas fluctuations. Continental Drift & Effect on Climate Movement of continents affects ocean currents, wind patterns, and climate over millions of years. Interglacial Periods Warmer periods between ice ages where glaciers retreat. Milankovitch Cycles Natural changes in Earth’s orbit, tilt, and wobble that affect climate over tens of thousands of years. Short-Term Variations in Climate Temporary changes caused by natural events like volcanic eruptions or ocean-atmosphere interactions. El Niño A warming of the Pacific Ocean that disrupts weather patterns, leading to droughts, floods, and other climate effects. La Niña A climate pattern with cooler-than-average Pacific Ocean temperatures. Effects: ​ Rainfall: More in regions like Australia and Southeast Asia. ​ Drought: Drier in South America and parts of the U.S. ​ Hurricanes: Can increase Atlantic hurricane activity. Ways to Determine Climate of the Past ​ Ice cores (air bubbles with ancient gases). ​ Tree rings (indicate growth conditions). ​ Sediment layers (pollen and particles). ​ Fossil records. How Do We Know Our Climate Is Rising ​ Increased global temperatures. ​ Melting glaciers and ice caps. ​ Rising sea levels. ​ More frequent and intense weather events. Why Sea Levels Are Rising ​ Melting glaciers and ice sheets. ​ Thermal expansion (water expands as it warms). Why Released Methane From Melting Ice Is a Concern Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, and its release from permafrost accelerates global warming. Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse gases produced by human activities, such as CO₂ from fossil fuels, methane from agriculture, and nitrous oxide from fertilizers. Canadian Arctic Effects Due to Climate Change ​ Melting ice and permafrost. ​ Habitat loss for polar bears and other species. ​ Rising sea levels affecting coastal communities. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) An international body of scientists that provides assessments and recommendations on climate change based on research. How Can We Slow Climate Change ​ Reduce fossil fuel use. ​ Transition to renewable energy. ​ Increase energy efficiency. ​ Protect and expand forests (carbon sinks). ​ Reduce waste and promote recycling. ​ Support policies for climate action.