Eighteenth-Century Political Formations PDF

8 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS I f you look at Maps 1 and 2 closely, you will see something significant happening in the subcon...

8 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY POLITICAL FORMATIONS I f you look at Maps 1 and 2 closely, you will see something significant happening in the subcontinent during the first half of the eighteenth century. Notice how the boundaries of the Mughal Empire were reshaped by the emergence of a number of independent Map 1 State formations in the eighteenth century. our pasts – ii 94 Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 94 8/25/2022 12:22:13 PM  kingdoms. By 1765, notice how another power, the British, had successfully grabbed major chunks of territory in eastern India. What these maps tell us is that political conditions in eighteenth-century India changed quite dramatically and within a relatively short span of time. In this chapter, we will read about the emergence of new political groups in the subcontinent during the first half of the eighteenth century – roughly from 1707, when Aurangzeb died, till the third battle of Panipat in 1761. Map 2 British territories in the mid-eighteenth The Crisis of the Empire and century. the Later Mughals In Chapter 4, you saw how the Mughal Empire reached the height of its success and started facing a variety of crises towards the closing years of the seventeenth ? century. These were caused by a number of factors. See Chapter 4, Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and Table 1. Which financial resources of his empire by fighting a long group of people war in the Deccan. challenged Mughal authority for the Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial longest time in administration broke down. It became increasingly Aurangzeb’s reign? difficult for the later Mughal emperors to keep a check on their powerful mansabdars. Nobles appointed as governors (subadars) often controlled the offices eighteenth-century 95 political formations Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 95 17-05-2022 12:40:39  of revenue and military administration (diwani and faujdari) as well. This gave them extraordinary political, economic and military powers over vast regions of the Mughal Empire. As the governors consolidated their control over the provinces, the periodic remission of revenue to the capital declined. Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India added to these problems. These revolts were sometimes caused by the pressures of mounting taxes. At other times they were attempts by powerful chieftains to consolidate their own positions. Mughal authority had been challenged by rebellious groups in the past as well. But these groups were now able to seize the economic resources of the region to consolidate their positions. The Mughal emperors after Aurangzeb were unable to arrest the gradual shifting of political and economic authority into the hands of provincial governors, local chieftains and other groups. Rich harvests and empty coffers The following is a contemporary writer’s account of the financial bankruptcy of the empire: The great lords are helpless and impoverished. Their peasants raise two crops a year, but their lords see nothing of either, and their agents on the spot are virtual prisoners in the peasants’ hands, like a peasant kept in his creditor’s house until he can pay his debt. So complete is the collapse of all order and administration that though the peasant reaps a harvest of gold, his lord does not see so much as a wisp of straw. How then can the lord keep the armed force he should? How can he pay the soldiers who should go before him when he goes out, or the horsemen who should ride behind him? our pasts – ii 96 Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 96 17-05-2022 12:40:40  In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth. This invasion was followed by a series of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761. Nadir Shah attacks Delhi The devastation of Delhi after Nadir Shah’s invasion was described by contemporary observers. One described the wealth looted from the Mughal treasury as follows: sixty lakhs of rupees and some thousand gold coins, nearly one crore worth of gold-ware, nearly fifty crores worth of jewels, most of them unrivalled in the world, and the above included the Peacock throne. Another account described the invasion’s impact upon Delhi: (those) … who had been masters were now in dire straits; and those who had been revered couldn’t even (get water Fig. 1 A 1779 portrait of Nadir to) quench their thirst. The recluses were pulled out of their Shah. corners. The wealthy were turned into beggars. Those who once set the style in clothes now went naked; and those who owned property were now homeless … The New City (Shahjahanabad) was turned into rubble. (Nadir Shah) then attacked the Old quarters of the city and destroyed a whole world that existed there … Already under severe pressure from all sides, the empire was further weakened by competition amongst different groups of nobles. They were divided into two major groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis (nobles of Turkish descent). For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the hands of either eighteenth-century 97 political formations Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 97 17-05-2022 12:40:40  one or the other of these two powerful groups. The worst possible humiliation came when two Mughal emperors, Farrukh Siyar (1713 –1719) and Alamgir II (1754 –1759) were assassinated, and two others, Ahmad Shah (1748 –1754) and Shah Alam II (1759 –1816) were blinded by their nobles. With the decline in the authority of the Mughal emperors, the governors of large provinces, subadars, and the great zamindars consolidated their authority in different parts of the subcontinent, such as Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Fig. 2 Farrukh Siyar receiving The Rajputs a noble in court. Many Rajput kings, particularly those belonging to Amber and Jodhpur, had served under the Mughals Many Rajput with distinction. In exchange, they were permitted to rulers had enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs. In accepted the the eighteenth century, these rulers now attempted to suzerainty of extend their control over adjacent regions. Ajit Singh, the Mughals but the ruler of Jodhpur, was also involved in the factional Mewar was the politics at the Mughal court. only Rajput state which defied These influential Rajput families claimed the Mughal authority. subadari of the rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa. Rana Pratap Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of ascended the Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was the throne at Mewar governor of Malwa. These offices were renewed by in 1572, with Emperor Jahandar Shah in 1713. They also tried to Udaipur and large extend their territories by seizing portions of imperial part of Mewar under his control. territories neighbouring their watans. Nagaur was A series of envoys conquered and annexed to the house of Jodhpur, were sent to the while Amber seized large portions of Bundi. Sawai Rana to persuade Raja Jai Singh founded his new capital at Jaipur him to accept and was given the subadari of Agra in 1722. Maratha Mughal suzerainty, campaigns into Rajasthan from the 1740s put severe but he stood his pressure on these principalities and checked their ground. further expansion. our pasts – ii 98 Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 98 17-05-2022 12:40:41  Many Rajput chieftains built a number of forts on hill tops which became the centres of power. With extensive fortifications, t h e s e m a j e s t i c s t r u c t u re s housed urban centres, palaces, temples, trading centres, water Fig. 3 harvesting structures and other Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan buildings. The Chittorgarh fort contained many water bodies varying from talabs (ponds) Fig. 4 Jantar Mantar in to kundis (wells), baolis (stepwells), etc. Jaipur Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur A description of Raja Jai Singh in a Persian account of 1732: Raja Jai Singh was at the height of his power. He was the governor of Agra for 12 years and of Malwa for 5 or 6 years. He possessed a large army, artillery and great wealth. His sway extended from Delhi to the banks of the Narmada. Sawai Jai Singh, the ruler of Amber constructed five astronomical observatories, one each in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi. Commonly known as Jantar Mantar, these observatories had various instruments to study heavenly bodies. Fig. 5 Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur eighteenth-century 99 political formations Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 99 17-05-2022 12:40:43  Seizing Independence ? The Sikhs The organisation of the Sikhs into a political community What is the Khalsa? Do you recall during the seventeenth century (see Chapter 6) helped reading about in regional state-building in the Punjab. Several battles it in Chapter 6? were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers, both before and after the institution of the Khalsa in 1699. After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur’s leadership, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their own administration between the Sutlej and the Jamuna. Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716. Fig. 6 Sword of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. our pasts – ii 100 Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 100 17-05-2022 12:40:44  century, the Sikhs organised themselves into a number of bands called jathas, and later on misls. Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal khalsa). The entire body used to meet at Amritsar at the time of Baisakhi and Diwali to take collective decisions known as “resolutions of the Guru (gurmatas)”. A system called rakhi was introduced, offering protection to cultivators on the Fig. 7 payment of a tax of 20 per cent of the produce. Portrait of Shivaji Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa with Towards the end of the the belief that their destiny was to rule (raj karega 17th century, khalsa). Their well-knit organisation enabled them a powerful state started emerging in to put up a successful resistance to the Mughal the Deccan under the governors first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who leadership of Shivaji had seized the rich province of the Punjab and the which finally led to the Sarkar of Sirhind from the Mughals. The Khalsa establishment of the declared their sovereign rule by striking their own Maratha state. Shivaji coin again in 1765. Significantly, this coin bore the was born to Shahji and Jija Bai at Shivneri same inscription as the one on the orders issued by in 1630. Under the the Khalsa in the time of Banda Bahadur. guidance of his mother and his guardian The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth century Dada Konddev, Shivaji extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they embarked on a career were divided under different rulers. One of them, of conquest at a young Maharaja Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and age. The occupation of Javli made him the established his capital at Lahore in 1799. undisputed leader of the Mavala highlands The Marathas which paved the way for further expansion. The Maratha kingdom was established by Chhatrapati His exploits against Shivaji Maharaj (1630). The Maratha kingdom was the forces of Bijapur another powerful regional kingdom to arise out and the Mughals of a sustained opposition to Mughal rule. Shivaji made him a legendary figure. He often (1630–1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the resorted to guerrilla support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs). warfare against Groups of highly mobile, peasant-pastoralists his opponents. By (kunbis) provided the backbone of the Maratha introducing an efficient administrative system army. Shivaji used these forces to challenge the supported by a revenue Mughals in the peninsula. After Shivaji’s death, collection method effective power in the Maratha state was wielded by a based on chauth and family of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji’s sardeshmukhi, he laid the foundations of a successors as Peshwa (or principal minister). Poona strong Maratha state. became the capital of the Maratha kingdom. eighteenth-century 101 political formations Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 101 15-03-2024 11:40:48  Chhatrapati Shivaji Under the Peshwas, the Marathas developed a very Maharaj (1630- successful military organisation. Their success lay 1680) in bypassing the fortified areas of the Mughals, by Chhatrapati raiding cities and by engaging Mughal armies in areas Sambhaji (1681- where their supply lines and reinforcements could be 1689) easily disturbed. Chhatrapati Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire Rajaram (1689- expanded. It gradually chipped away at the authority 1700) of the Mughal Empire. Malwa and Gujarat were seized Maharani Tarabai from the Mughals by the 1720s. By the 1730s, the (1700-1761) Maratha king was recognised as the overlord of the Shahu Maharaj entire Deccan peninsula. He possessed the right to (Son of Sambhaji) levy chauth and sardeshmukhi in the entire region. (1682-1749) Source: After raiding Delhi in 1737, the frontiers of Maratha R. C. Majumdar, domination expanded rapidly: into Rajasthan and the 2007. The Mughal Punjab in the north; into Bengal and Orissa in the Empire, Mumbai. east; and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu countries in the South (see Map 1). These were not formally included in the Maratha empire, but were Baji Rao I, also made to pay tribute as a way of accepting Maratha known as Baji sovereignty. Expansion brought enormous resources, Rao Ballal was but it came at a price. These military campaigns also the son of Peshwa made other rulers hostile towards the Marathas. As a Balaji Vishwanath. result, they were not inclined to support the Marathas He was a great Maratha general during the third battle of Panipat in 1761. who is credited to have expanded Alongside endless military campaigns, the Marathas the Maratha developed an effective administrative system as well. kingdom beyond Once conquest had been completed and Maratha rule the Vindhyas and was secure, revenue demands were gradually introduced is known for his taking local conditions into account. Agriculture was military campaigns against Malwa, encouraged and trade revived. This allowed Maratha Bundelkhand, chiefs (sardars) like Sindhia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Gujarat and the Baroda and Bhonsle of Nagpur the resources to raise Portugese. powerful armies. Maratha campaigns into Malwa in the 1720s did not challenge the growth and prosperity Chauth of the cities in the region. Ujjain expanded under 25 per cent of Sindhia’s patronage and Indore under Holkar’s. By the land revenue claimed by all accounts, these cities were large and prosperous zamindars. In the and functioned as important commercial and cultural Deccan, this was centres. New trade routes emerged within the areas collected by the controlled by the Marathas. The silk produced in the Marathas. Chanderi region now found a new outlet in Poona, the Maratha capital. Burhanpur which had earlier our pasts – ii 102 Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 102 28-03-2024 15:51:47  participated in the trade between Agra and Surat now expanded its hinterland to include Poona and Nagpur Sardeshmukhi in the South and Lucknow and Allahabad in the East. 9 –10 per cent of the land revenue The Jats paid to the head revenue collector Like the other states, the Jats consolidated their power in the Deccan. during the late seventeenth and eighteenth-centuries. Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control The power of the Jats reached over territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi, its zenith under and by the 1680s, they had begun dominating the Suraj Mal who region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and consolidated the Jat Agra. For a while, they became the virtual custodians state at Bharatpur of the city of Agra. (in present day Rajasthan) during The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns 1756 –1763. The like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important areas under the trading centres in the areas dominated by them. Under political control of Suraj Mal the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a Suraj Mal broadly strong state. When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739, included parts of many of the city’s notables took refuge there. His son modern eastern Jawahir Shah had 30,000 troops of his own and hired Rajasthan, southern another 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops to Haryana, western fight the Mughals. Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. Suraj Mal While the Bharatpur fort was built in a fairly built a number of traditional style, at Dig the Jats built an elaborate forts and palaces garden palace combining styles seen at Amber and Agra. and the famous Lohagarh fort Its buildings were modelled on architectural forms first in Bharatpur is associated with royalty under Shah Jahan. regarded as one of the strongest forts built in this region. Fig. 8 Eighteenth-century palace complex at Dig. Note the “Bangla dome” on the assembly hall on the roof of the building. eighteenth-century 103 political formations Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 103 15-03-2024 11:47:51  Imagine You are a ruler of an eighteenth-century kingdom. Tell us about the steps you would take to make your position strong in your province, and what opposition or problems you might face while doing so. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: Keywords (a) Nadir Shah invaded Bengal.  (b) Sawai Raja Jai Singh was the ruler of Indore. subadari (c) Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth Guru of the Sikhs. dal khalsa (d) Poona became the capital of the Marathas in misl the eighteenth century. faujdari Let’s discuss ijaradari 2. How were the Sikhs organised in the eighteenth century? chauth 3. Why did the Marathas want to expand beyond the sardeshmukhi Deccan?  4. Do you think merchants and bankers today have the kind of influence they had in the eighteenth century? 5. Did any of the kingdoms mentioned in this chapter develop in your state? If so, in what ways do you think life in the state would have been different in the eighteenth century from what it is in the twenty- first century? Let’s do 6. Collect popular tales about-rulers from any one of the following groups of people: the Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs or Marathas. our pasts – ii 104 Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 104 17-05-2022 12:40:46  Notes Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 105 17-05-2022 12:40:46  Notes Reprint 2024-25 Unit 8.indd 106 17-05-2022 12:40:46