Geography Exam Review PDF

Geography Exam Study Guide Key Terms and Definitions Structure of the Earth ​ Mantle: The mostly solid bulk of Earth's interior. ​ Inner Core: The center of the Earth. ​ Outer Core: The third layer of Earth. ​ Lithosphere: The solid outer part of the Earth. Plate Tectonics...

Geography Exam Study Guide Key Terms and Definitions Structure of the Earth ​ Mantle: The mostly solid bulk of Earth's interior. ​ Inner Core: The center of the Earth. ​ Outer Core: The third layer of Earth. ​ Lithosphere: The solid outer part of the Earth. Plate Tectonics ​ Convection Currents: circular movements of fluid caused by the rising of warmer, less dense material and the sinking of cooler, denser material, driven by heat transfer. ​ Continental Drift: The gradual movement of continents over the Earth's surface. ​ Pangaea: A supercontinent that existed millions of years ago. ​ Transform Boundary: Plates slide past each other. ​ Divergent Boundary: Plates move apart. ​ Convergent Boundary: Plates move towards each other. ​ Folding: The bending of rock layers due to stress. ​ Faulting: The breaking and displacement of Earth's crust. ​ Subduction: One plate sinking beneath another. Glaciation ​ Alpine Glaciation: Glaciation in mountainous regions. ​ Continental Glaciation: Glaciation covering large landmasses. Erosion and Deposition ​ Drumlins: Elongated hills formed by glacial action. ​ Moraines: Accumulations of dirt and rocks left by glaciers. ​ Cirques: Bowl-shaped depressions formed by glaciers. ​ Till Plains: Flat land formed by glacial deposits. ​ Erratics: Large rocks transported by glaciers. ​ Kettle Lakes: Depressions left by melting ice. ​ Eskers: Long ridges of sand and gravel. ​ Outwash Plains: Areas of sorted glacial deposits. ​ Striations: Scratches on bedrock caused by moving glaciers. Types of Rocks ​ Igneous: Formed from cooled magma or lava. ​ Metamorphic: Formed under heat and pressure. ​ Sedimentary: Formed from compressed sediments. Landform Regions of Canada: Study Guide 1.​ Interior Plains ○​ Flatlands with fertile soil; major agriculture and oil production area. ○​ Found in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. 2.​ Western Cordillera ○​ Mountain ranges (Rockies, Coast Mountains); forestry, mining, and tourism. ○​ Located in British Columbia and western Alberta. 3.​ Canadian Shield ○​ Oldest rock formations, rich in minerals; forests and thousands of lakes. ○​ Covers most of Quebec, Ontario, and northern provinces. 4.​ Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands ○​ Smallest region, fertile soils, and most populous. ○​ Home to major cities like Toronto and Montreal. 5.​ Hudson Bay Lowlands ○​ Flat, swampy lowlands with sparse vegetation. ○​ Located around Hudson Bay in Ontario and Manitoba. 6.​ Appalachians ○​ Rolling hills, valleys, and old mountains; rich in coal. ○​ Found in Atlantic provinces (Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia). 7.​ Arctic ○​ Barren tundra, glaciers, and permafrost; rich in oil and gas reserves. ○​ Covers northern territories (Nunavut, Northwest Territories, Yukon). Climate Calculations ​ Growing Season: Days above 5.5°C. ​ Snowing Temperature: Below 0°C. ​ Total Yearly Precipitation: Sum of monthly precipitation values. ​ Average Annual Temperature: Average of monthly temperatures. ​ Temperature Range: Difference between the highest and lowest monthly temperatures. ​ Snowfall Equivalent: Multiply snowfall (cm) by 10 to convert to mm of water. ​ Seasonal Distribution of Climate: Compare summer and winter precipitation. Factors Influencing Climate ​ Latitude ​ Ocean Currents ​ Winds and Air Masses ​ Elevation ​ Relief ​ Near Water Climate Types ​ Maritime Climate: Influenced by nearby water, mild temperatures, and high precipitation. ​ Continental Climate: Cold winters, hot summers, and lower precipitation. Types of Precipitation ​ Frontal/Cyclonic ​ Relief ​ Convectional Ocean Currents ​ Gulf Stream ​ Labrador Current ​ North Pacific Current Sustainable Resource Management Farming ​ Intensive Farming: Small land, high yield. ​ Extensive Farming: Large land, low yield. ​ Sustainable Agriculture: ○​ Crop rotation ○​ Organic farming ○​ Vertical farming ​ GMO: Genetically modified organisms. Forestry ​ Logging Methods: ○​ Clear Cutting ○​ Shelterwood Logging ○​ Selective Cutting ​ FSC Wood: Certified sustainable wood ensures that wood, paper, and other forest products come from responsibly managed forests Mining ​ Types of Mining: ○​ Underground Mining ○​ Strip Mining ○​ Open Pit Mining ​ Challenges: Overburden, tailing ponds. ​ Alberta Oil Sands: Extracting bitumen. Fishing  ​ Threats: Overfishing, bycatch, shark finning. ​ Sustainable Development: Aquaculture, ​ MSC-certified fish: for seafood products sourced from fisheries that meet sustainable fishing standards. Energy ​ Types: ○​ Fossil Fuels ○​ Wind Energy ○​ Solar Energy ○​ Hydro Energy ○​ Nuclear Energy ​ Renewable Resources vs. Non-Renewable Resources Water Sustainability ​ Aquifer: Underground water source. ​ Groundwater ​ Surface Water Ecological Footprint ​ Planned Obsolescence: Products designed to break. ​ Perceived Obsolescence: Products seen as outdated. ​ Zero Waste Lifestyle ​ Reduce/Reuse/Recycle Climate Change ​ Mitigation vs. Adaptation: ○​ Mitigation: Reducing causes (e.g., renewable energy). ○​ Adaptation: Adjusting to impacts (e.g., flood defenses). ​ Carbon Sinks vs. Carbon Sources Human and Global Connections Population ​ Demographic Transition Model: The demographic transition model is a tool developed by demographers to determine which stage a nation's population is currently in Stages 1 B-High D-High N-Low Stage 2 B-High D-Low N-High Stage 3 B-Low D-Low N-Low  Stage 4 B-Low D-High N-Negative ​ Population Calculations: ○​ Natural increase = Birth rate - Death rate ○​ Net Migration = Immigration rate - Emigration Rate ○​ Total Population Growth Rate = Natural Increase plus Net Migration RR(replacement rate)- it's the number of children a woman needs to have to keep the population steady. The RR is usually considered to be 2.1 children per woman. TFR(total fertility rate)- the average amount of children born to a woman in her timeline Urban Growth and Sprawl ​ Urban Growth: Development of urban areas. ​ Urban Sprawl: Expansion into rural areas. ​ Solutions: Smart growth, mixed zoning, greenbelts. ​ Livability and Sustainability: Walkability, affordability, accessibility. Global Challenges ​ Global Problems: Climate change, resource scarcity, inequality. Economic Connections and Resources Notes Types of Industries 1.​ Primary Industry: ○​ Involves extraction of raw materials from the earth (e.g., farming, fishing, mining, forestry). ○​ Foundation for other industries. 2.​ Secondary Industry: ○​ Focuses on manufacturing and processing raw materials into finished goods. ○​ Examples: factories producing cars, clothes, or construction materials. 3.​ Tertiary Industry: ○​ Involves services rather than goods. ○​ Examples: healthcare, education, retail, entertainment. 4.​ Quaternary Industry: ○​ Focused on knowledge-based services and innovation. ○​ Examples: IT, research and development, consulting, financial planning. Basic vs Non-Basic Industries  1.​ Basic Industries: ○​ Produce goods and services for export outside the local economy. ○​ Bring new money into the economy. ○​ Example: car manufacturing plants. 2.​ Non-Basic Industries: ○​ Provide goods and services for the local population. ○​ Circulate existing money within the economy. ○​ Example: local grocery stores, hair salons. Multiplier Effect ​ When an economic activity stimulates additional economic activity. ​ Example: A new factory increases demand for local suppliers and services, creating more jobs. Locational Factors of Manufacturing 1.​ Proximity to raw materials: Reduces transport costs for bulky or heavy inputs. 2.​ Market access: Being close to consumers minimizes shipping costs and delivery time. 3.​ Labor supply: Availability of skilled or affordable labor. 4.​ Transportation: Access to ports, highways, or rail networks for efficient distribution. 5.​ Energy sources: Reliable and cost-effective power supply. 6.​ Government policies: Tax incentives, subsidies, or regulations. Outsourcing ​ Practice of hiring external firms or relocating production to cut costs. ​ Commonly done in countries with cheaper labor or less stringent regulations. Dutch Disease ​ Economic phenomenon where a resource boom (e.g., oil discovery) strengthens a country's currency, making other industries less competitive internationally. ​ Example: Manufacturing or agriculture may suffer as imports become cheaper and exports more expensive. Free Trade vs. Protectionism 1.​ Free Trade: ○​ Removal of trade barriers (e.g., tariffs, quotas). 2.​ Protectionism: ○​ Imposes trade barriers to protect local industries. ○​ Methods: Tariffs, quotas, subsidies. Tariff ​ A tax imposed on imported goods to make them more expensive compared to domestic products. Climate region Pacific Maritime Precipitation: more than 1000 mm/year January Temperature: above 0°C Atlantic Maritime Precipitation: above 1000 mm/year January Temperature: below 0°C Southeastern Precipitation: 500-1000 mm/year January Temperature: above -10°C Boreal Precipitation: 500-1000 mm/year January Temperature: below -10°C Prairie Precipitation: 250-500 mm/year January Temperature: above -20°C Taiga Precipitation: 250-500 mm/year January Temperature: below -20°C Arctic Precipitation: below 250 mm/year Cordilleran: No specific temperature or precipitation. Continental Climate: Temperature not affected by water (unlike maritime climates). Dependency Load- (population 0-14)+(population 65+) —------------------------------------------ x 100 Total population