GEOG 2335-001 Notes on Cities in the Modern World PDF

GEOG 2335-001: Cities in the Modern World The origins, growth, and evolution of cities What are the key factors that determined the origins/locations of early cities mentioned in the video? Location, location, location! Creation of world’s first cities intimately linked to farming/agriculture. - Movement from hunting and gathering to farming - Then rearing of animals Availability of water supply. - People attracted from surrounding settlements for irrigation and daily needs. - Then water supply and sewage systems were developed to cope with population. Theories of urban origins Agricultural surplus. Hydrological factors. Population pressures. Trading requirements. Defense needs. Religious causes. - “No one theory provides a full account, however each provides insights into the role of different factors in the evolution of early cities.” (Knox and McCarthy, 2012) Agricultural surplus Early farmers produced more food than needed to feed their families. Excess was used to support/feed others (non-farmers). An emergent need to administer agricultural surplus - more centralized structures of social organization. New stratified social structures and institutions emerged to assign rights over properties, property ownership, administer exchange of goods, etc. Elite groups stimulated city development by using wealth to build palaces, arenas, and monuments to display power and status. Building construction industry led to other occupational specializations, eg. craft making, engineering, administration. Hydrological factors Many early cities emerged in areas of agriculture which depended on irrigation and control of regular spring floods. Elaborate irrigation projects necessitated divisions of labor, large scale cooperation and intensification of cultivation. This stimulated city growth by promoting occupational specialization, centralized social organization and population growth based on the production of an agricultural surplus. Population pressures Original settlers were hunter/gatherers. Increasing population densities and/or growing scarcity of wild food sources from hunting and gathering led to the need for alternative sources. Therefore brought about the transition from hunting and gathering to agricultural food production and then cities/urban life. Trading requirements Based on the observation that numerous cities evolved around market places. Thus emergence of cities primarily ascribed as a function of long-distance trade. Participation in large-scale trading networks necessitated a system to administer formal exchange of goods. Which in turn promoted the development of centralized structures of social organization. Increased occupational specialization by people and growing economic competitiveness amongst cities led to growth of cities. Defense needs Cities originated due to the need of people to gather together for protection in the safety of military defenses. Comprehensive systems of defense necessary to protect valuable irrigation systems from attack. Widespread evidence of many early cities having walls and fortifications. Warfare probably a major reason for city intensification by inducing population concentration for defense purposes and stimulating craft specialization. Religious needs Presence of temples and other religious structures reflects the importance of religion in the lives of early city dwellers. Control of altar offerings by religious elite conferred economic and political power on them to influence social changes that motivated city growth. A pervasive institutional structure like religion necessary to bring about changes in social organization associated with economic, technological, and military transformations involved in early city growth. (Knox and McCarthy, 2012) (Pacione, 2009) Agricultural surplus Population pressures Hydrological factors Hydrological theory Trading requirements Economic theory Defense needs Miliary theories Religious causes Religious theories More comprehensive explanation? Recent consensus that understanding of the origin of cities should be based on a combination of separate yet interrelated explanatory factors “It is doubtful if a single autonomous, causative factor will ever be identified in the nexus of social, economic, and political transformations which resulted in the emergence of urban forms.” (Knox and McCarthy, 2012, pp. 23) Understanding the complexity of the various processes that underlie the origin of cities and their interactions is more important than advancing a singular explanation. This approach reflects a key understanding that origin of cities entailed gradual transformation and change overtime rather than an abrupt urban revolution. “It is doubtful if a single autonomous, causative factor will ever be identified in the nexus of social, economic and political transformations that resulted in the emergence of urban forms of living. A more realistic interpretation is generated if the concept of an ‘urban revolution’ is replaced by the idea of an urban transformation involving a host of factors operating over a long period of time.” “Urbanization was not a linear arrangement in which one factor caused a change in a second factor, which then caused a change in a third, and so on. Rather, the rise of civilization should be conceptualized as a series of interacting incremental processes that were triggered by favorable ecological and cultural conditions and that continued to develop through mutually reinforcing interactions.” (Pacione, 2009, pp. 50) Pre-conditions for pre-industrial urban growth Population - The presence of a population of certain size residing permanently in one place is a fundamental requirement. The environment, level of technology and social organization all set limits on how large such a population would grow. Particularly important was the extent to which the agricultural base created a food surplus to sustain an urban population. The earliest cities were relatively small in modern terms, with few exceeding 25,000 inhabitants. Environment - The key influence of the environment, including topography, climate, social conditions and natural resources on early urban growth is illustrated by the location of the earliest Middle Eastern cities on the Rivers Tigris and Euphhrates, which provided a water supply, fish and fertile soils that could be cultivated with simple technology. Technology - In addition to the development of agricultural skills, a major challenge for the early urban societies of the Middle East was to develop a technology for river management to exploit the benefits of water and minimize the risk of flooding. Social organization - The growth of population and trade demanded a more complex organizational structure including a political, economic and social infrastructure, a bureaucracy and leadership, accompanied by social stratification. (Pacione, 2009, p. 48) Childe’s ten characteristics of un urban civilization Primary characteristics: 1. Size and density of cities. The great enlargement of an organized population meant a much wider level of social integration. 2. Full-time specialization of labor. Specialization of production among workers was institutionalized, as were systems of distribution and exchange. 3. Concentration of surplus. There were social means for the collection of and management of the surplus production of farmers and artisans. 4. Class-structured society. A privileged ruling class of religious, political, and military functionaries organized and directed the society. 5. State organization. There was a well-structured political organization with membership based on residence. This replaced political identification based on kinship. Secondary characteristics: 6. Monumental public works. There were collective enterprises in the form of temples, palaces, storehouses and irrigation systems. 7. Long-distance trade. Specialization and exchange were expanded beyond the city in the development of trade. 8. Standardized, monumental artwork. Highly developed art forms gave expression to symbolic identification and aesthetic enjoyment. 9. Writing. The art of writing facilitated the processes of social organization and management. 10. Arithmetic geometry and astronomy. Exact, predictive science and engineering were initiated. (Pacione, 2009, pp. 47). Urban origins Earliest towns and cities developed independently in regions of the world where people transitioned to agricultural food production. The regions of urban origin and earliest known agricultural communities: 1. Mesopotamia 2. Egypt 3. Indus valley 4. Northern China 5. Andes and Mesoamerica Mesopotamia Land between Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in modern day Iraq. Earliest evidence of urbanization - from about 3500 B.C.E. Eastern part of so-called fertile crescent. Growth of agricultural villages on the rich alluvial soils of river flood plains created large, autonomous rival city-states; Ur, Eridu, Uruk, Erbil. Fortified city states contained tens of thousands of people, social stratification, religious, political and military classes, innovative technologies including major irrigation projects and trade routes. City states taken over by Babylonians and then Neo-Babylonians. Egypt Fertile crescent stretched to west Egypt. Egypt became a unified state from about 3100 B.C.E. Large irrigation projects built to control the Nile’s waters for agricultural and other uses. Limited defensive fortification due to internal peace. High urban mobility, each pharaoh free to locate new capital at any chosen site for his tomb - short life span of cities. Due to lack of long-term tradition of building and rebuilding not as much evidence of city development as Mesopotamia. The Indus valley In modern day Pakistan. Like Mesopotamia but much later about 2500 B.C.E., it contained large cities supported by fertile land and extensive irrigation systems of river plains. Had a single ruler and two capital cities. Extensive trade network extending as far as Mesopotamia. Northern China Shang dynasty developed in the fertile plains of the Huang He (yellow river) about 1800 B.C.E. Similar to the fertile crescent and Indus valley, Shang cities were supported by irrigated agriculture. Evidence of social stratification and occupational specialization, including hereditary leaders and warrior elite who ruled over agricultural peasants. The Andes and Mesoamerica Oldest known center of urban civilization in the Americas. Group of settlements in the central Andes region situated on a dry desert terrace overlooking the green valley of the Supe river in present day Peru. Principal settlement dated back to 3000 B.C.E. In contrast, earliest urban settlements in Mesoamerica date to only about 500 B.C.E. Centered around present day Mexico and were based on small-scale irrigated farming. Conquered by Spanish, had been in decline for many centuries due to droughts, war, and population pressures. Structure and form of early cities, arrangement of land use, and underlying considerations Structure and form of early cities A common approach to examining the internal structure of cities is to identify whether their layout is largely unplanned or deliberately planned. Unplanned layouts - evolution of city was organic (organic growth process/pattern). Deliberately planned layouts - predetermined growth process (gridiron street pattern). Nature of planning typically reflected in the layout of streets and transportation arteries/routes. However, although planned street layouts and transportation routes indicate a significant presence of control from an early stage, Unplanned street layouts do not necessarily mean the absence of central authority/organization. For example in Mesopotamia although street layouts were not planned, reflecting organic growth as early agricultural settlements grew into towns. - Archaeological evidence of massive walls and irrigation systems indicate central planning of defense and water management. Mesopotamia Unplanned layout/organic growth process/pattern. Image of residential section of Ur, showing how narrow and winding streets. And irregular size and shape of lots. Reflect an unplanned organic growth process of urban development in Mesopotamia. - Earliest evidence of urbanization. - Large cities. - Subject to many conflicts. - Grew significantly due to agriculture/nature (fertile crescent). Indus valley Deliberately planned layouts. Image of an Indu valley city, showing use of gridiron plan. Reflecting a planned growth process in which fairly wide and straight main streets intercept cross streets at right angles. To form large city blocks that contained a number of houses. - Emerged much later than Mesopotamia. - Had a single ruler and two capital cities. - Relatively peaceful. Northern China Although limited archeological evidence. But the layout is probably planned because all buildings were oriented toward the north. However, a city’s internal structure is never static being the product of development and redevelopment. Some cities founded on strong planning ideals (gridiron street patterns) can later contain sections of organic growth. Similarly, cities that evolved with an organic growth pattern can have later planned sections. Although the debate over urban diffusion or independent origin remains unresolved, A number of common cross-cultural features among early cities are identifiable. A model of the socio-spatial structure of the pre-industrial/early city was therefore proposed by Sjoberg (1960). (Pacione, 2009). Sjoberg’s early city socio-spatial structure model Class pyramid Elite Lower class Outcasts Residential patterns: Elite - Domestic servants Lower class and outcasts - Ethnic or Occupational districts. Like all models claiming a wide range of application, this model of a generic pre-industrial/early city has been criticized for oversimplification and overextension. This generalization is questioned by others, who argue for greater emphasis to the pattern of occupational subdistricts & downplays the extent of a zone of lower-class laborers, placing them instead as lodgers scattered within the various subdistricts. Despite differences, general consensus in depiction of a walking-scale city with a general social degradation from core to periphery. Useful standard to assess individual early cities. The expansion of European cities: City development and industrial revolution Theories of urban origins Agricultural surplus. Hydrological factors. Population pressures. Trading requirements. Defense needs. Religious causes. - No one theory provides a full account, however each provide insights into the role of different factors in the evolution of early cities. (Knox and McCarthy, 2012) Urban expansion from regions of urban origin Spread of urbanization from the regions of urban origin involved uneven development; overtime and within and between different parts of the world. - Gradual and incremental progression of growth, expansion, and succession of early urban empires. Cities spread from Mesopotamia to Central Asia, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Rome etc. Egyptian cities too spread but not very long or far. The Indus valley spread and evolved to modern India and Pakistan. Cities evolved and dispersed from Northern China to East Asia: Korea, Japan, etc. Cities from the Andes and Mesoamerica spread across America; North, West, South. Urban origins The regions of urban origin and the earliest known agricultural communities: (1) Mesopotamia, (2) Egypt, (3) Indus Valley, (4) Northern China, and (5) Andes and Mesoamerica. Urban expansion Key periods in urban expansion Greek cities. Roman cities. Dark Ages. The Medieval period. Renaissance and Baroque periods. Urbanization and the industrial revolution. Greek cities Religion, commerce, administration, and defense were paramount to the Greeks as reflected in the layout of their cities. At the center was the high city - the Acropolis, the defensive stronghold containing temples, government offices, and storehouses. Below the Acropolis was the Agora; for markets and political gatherings, more government and religious buildings, military quarters, and residential neighborhoods surrounded by a defensive wall. Athens and older cities had an organic growth pattern like Mesopotamia. Later cities were based on a grid iron pattern. The Greeks located many of their early cities along coastlines, reflecting the importance of long-distance sea trade to this urban civilization. Population growth combined with a limited cultivable land drove overseas colonization and the establishment of a Greek system of cities. They established new independent city-states that stretched along the Mediterranean as far as modern Spain. The Greeks developed new forms of government whose influence is reflected in subsequent democratic and participatory modes of urban governance throughout the world. Partly due to enlightened Greek culture, political authority came to reside in an assembly of citizens who elect a city leadership. Although Greek civic life continued to be conducted within a religious context, laws and political decisions were no longer presented as unchallengeable divine commands as in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Roman cities The Roman empire displaced Greek civilization during the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E. The Romans established towns and urban systems across Europe. Roman cities were similar in some aspects to Greek cities: - Based on a grid system. - Contained a central forum, for markets and political gatherings. - Were encircled by a defensive wall. - Were small and part of an extensive system of long-distance trade. However, Roman cities were also different to Greek cities in a number of ways: Unlike Greek cities, Roman cities were not independent but functioned within a well-organized empire centered on Rome. Cities were designed along hierarchical lines, reflecting the Roman rigid class system. Unlike Greeks cities which were mainly located along coastlines, majority of Roman cities were located in inland locations reflecting their predominant function as control centers as against the predominant sea trade orientation of the Greeks. The Romans achieved impressive civil engineering feats. Most important towns were directly connected to one another and to Rome by magnificent road systems that facilitated strategic military and trade communications. Underground sewer and surface water supply infrastructures which contributed to impressive health benefits and set the standard for later cities. A system of elevated aqueducts and fresh water reservoirs that brought water for drinking and bathing into the city. The Romans used cities as a mechanism to impose their authority and legal system throughout their vast empire. By the fall of Rome in the 5th century, the Romans had established a well-integrated urban system and transportation network stretching from England to Babylon. Population decline and labor shortages allowed the incursion of “barbarian” tribes from east-central Europe that helped topple the empire. Dark Ages Period of stagnation and decline in city life in Western Europe after the collapse of the Roman empire, around the 7th century C.E. Urban life continued to flourish in other parts of the world, notably amongst cities associated with the “explosion of Islam”, e.g. Mecca. And parts of Europe where long distance trade continued, e.g. Seville. Rest of Europe was ruled by invaders and raiders who took over after the collapse of the Roman empire. Led to the predominance of a feudal system in cities, which curtailed the development of European cities due to self contained nature. Feudalism was a rigid, mostly rural form of economic and social organization based on the communal chiefdoms of the tribes that defeated the Roman empire. Each feudal estate was largely self-sufficient in the provision of food and basic necessities. The Medieval period - urban revival in Europe At the start of the 11th century, the feudal system weakened and began to collapse due to successive demographic, economic, and political crises. Mainly due to steady population growth alongside modest technological improvements and limited cultivable land. To bolster their incomes and raise armies against each other, feudal nobility/leaders began to increase taxes. As a result the laborers were forced to sell more of their produce for cash on the market leading to a more extensive money economy. The emergent regional specializations and trading patterns led to a new phase of urbanization based on merchant capitalism. The key people in this system were the merchants who supplied capital required to reestablish a vibrant system of long-distance trade. The merchants made the towns. They needed walls and wall builders, warehouses and guards, artisans to manufacture their trade goods, cart builders, shipbuilders and sailors etc. They bought the privilege of self government and established a complex trading system and intense urban development across Europe. Renaissance and Baroque Periods - era of urban expansion and consolidation Between the 14th and 18th centuries, fundamental changes transformed cities and urban systems of Europe and the entire world economy. The protestant reformation and scientific revolution stimulated economic and social reorganization. While the church and religious doctrine was dominant in people's lives in medieval times, human reason and achievement was foremost during the Renaissance. The scale of merchant capitalism increased. Aggressive colonization allowed Europeans to shape the world's economies and societies. A major aspect of this urbanization and trade expansion was the establishment of gateway cities around the world to act as links between one country/region and others. Europeans founded or enlarged thousands of towns in other parts of the world as they extended their trading networks and established their colonies, the majority being port cities. This process fueled urban growth in Europe. Urbanization and the industrial revolution. Large-scale manufacturing began in the English Midlands in the mid-1700s. The industrial revolution was a powerful impetus for urban growth because it changed how and where good were produced. Previously, individual rural workers produced goods by hand in their cottages but now for the first time all stages of production were mechanized and combined under one roof in factory buildings. Industrialization and cities grew simultaneously, creating many kinds of new cities. As industrialization spread across Europe, the pace of urbanization increased. Higher wages and greater opportunities for people in cities attracted a massive influx of rural workers. This combined with declining death rates contributed to rapid urban population growth in Europe and beyond. The growth of U.S./North American cities: The mercantile period, industrialization, and patterns of suburbanization Evolution of US/NA urban system Five distinctive periods that together established the foundations for the contemporary urban system. Frontier urbanization (period until independence). Period of mercantilism (1790-1840). Early industrial expansion (1840-1875). Era of industrialization (1875-1920). Emergence of Fordism (1920-1945). Frontier urbanization (period until independence) Although there were many small urban settlements in North America before the sixteenth century, the first large towns and cities were those that Europeans established as outposts of their economy. Spanish (San Antonio, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles); Dutch (New Amsterdam) and French colonialism (Quebec, Montreal, Detroit, St. Louis) left an imprint, mainly training posts. However, it was the English colonization that established the most vigorous roots of the U.S. urban system. In Virginia, the English began tobacco cultivation for export to Europe and established the first representative government on the continent in about 1607. Although profitable, tobacco cultivation was labor intensive, so slaves were brought in to work on the tobacco plantations. In 1664, the British took New Amsterdam from the Dutch and renamed it New York, establishing it as the capital of the New York colony. Developed the best natural harbor on the entire Atlantic seaboard into a major port. This embryonic urban system operated as a string of gateway cities: control points for; assembly of goods for export, distribution of imported goods, and administration of new territories. Initially each gateway port operated quite independently, having more links with European cities than with each other. Overtime as colonization extended, a hierarchy of settlements developed, as places with better resources and accessibility became larger and acquired a broader range of services. As transatlantic trade intensified, the need to rationalize transatlantic shipping schedules prompted the development of a network of coastal shipping between the largest ports. As a result few cities; Boston, Charleston, Newport, New York and Philadelphia emerged as entrepots: intermediary centers of trade and transshipment. With time they grew larger and larger by dominating smaller hinterland market areas, by about 1775, New York was the largest city, then Philadelphia and Boston. The mercantile period (1790-1840) Characterized by the intensification of trade and trade links which expanded the urban system. Simultaneously the urban system expanded as particular cities and regions specialized according to their comparative advantage. Comparative advantage - the economic activity, given local conditions, that could be undertaken most efficiently, compared to other places. As a result manufacturing and consequent immigration contributed significantly to urban growth in this period and this process led up to the period of industrial revolution. A characteristic feature of the urban system in the mercantile period was the Pedestrian City. The nature of economic development in this period and the lack of fast inexpensive forms of transportation resulted in very compact cities with distinctive patterns of land use. Because most towns and cities were sea or river ports, the hub of economic activity was the waterfront, which were dominated by merchants offices, workshops, warehouses etc. Residential houses, stores, public buildings etc. were located in close proximity, with little separation between home and workplace. As a result cities were compact and most places were a walking distance. Class pyramid: (top to bottom) Elite, Lower class, Outcasts Residential patterns: Domestic servants (elite), ethnic or occupational districts (lower class and outcasts) Early industrial expansion The transition from a trading economy to a mature agricultural and early industrial one occurred for various reasons, key reasons being: - The arrival of industrial technology and methods of industrial and commercial organization and migrants from Europe. - Accelerated improvements in agricultural productivity resulting in the expansion of cities to neighboring lands and settlements due to mechanization that begun in the mercantile period. - Rural-to-urban migration. Probably the most fundamental change that emerged to the form and spatial organization of cities had to do with intense competition for the best/most accessible sites for factories, warehouses, offices, housing etc. Ultimately these changes turned the city inside out as industrial and commercial uses took over central areas, whilst the rich exchanged their congested and polluted central locations for peripheral locations. This was facilitated by the advancement of modes of transportation, first horsecars and subsequently railroads. Era of industrialization Cities in the US went through drastic changes in the era of industrialization. The pressures of increased population densities, economic specialization, competition for space, and increasing scale of economic activities resulted in urban land use becoming highly specialized. As economic growth brought in more industry, businesses, and people, both the extent and intensity of different land uses increased, bringing acute competition and conflict over land. The opportunities for urban development were dramatically expanded with the emergence of new technologies: gaslight, electrification, steel-frame skyscraper construction and elevators. These changes transformed the economy and financed the creation of modern infrastructure networks; roads, tunnels, bridges, sewers etc. Cities came to be regarded as complex networked “machines” that could be organized as a single system. Thereafter, land use zoning laws emerged: different zones/districts; shopping districts, office districts, warehouse zones, central business districts (CBDs). Emergence of Fordism (1920-1945) During this period, Henry Ford’s vision of mass production and mass consumption was achieved in the auto industry. Widespread ownership of cars, significant investment in building and improvement of roads. Pressure on land use for parking especially in industrial and commercial districts led to the development of the first parkways. Negative effect on mass transit and simultaneous creation of culture of suburban growth. Suburbanization led to decentralization and modification of spatial organization of land uses. - Multiple-nuclei model: schematic representation of the relative locations of major categories of land use based on the decentralization of commercial and industrial nodes beyond the CBD. Cities, globalization, networks, chains, and systems Evolution of US/NA urban system (Lecture 5) Five distinctive periods that together established the foundations for the contemporary urban system: Frontier urbanization (period until independence). Period of mercantilism (1790-1840). Early industrial expansion (1840-1875). Era of industrialization (1875-1920). Emergence of Fordism (1920-1945). Emergence of Fordism (1920-1945) During this period, Henry Ford’s vision of mass production and mass consumption was achieved in the auto industry. Widespread ownership of cars, significant investment in building and improvement of roads. Pressure on land use for parking especially in industrial and commercial districts led to the development of the first parkways. Negative effect on mass transit and simultaneous creation of culture of suburban growth. Lecture looks at changes to the US urban system & other industrialized & less- industrialized countries post-1945, based on two periods: Period of regional decentralization & metropolitan sprawl (1945-1973). Period of economic crisis, restructuring & new metropolitan form (1973-Present). Period of regional decentralization & metropolitan sprawl (1945-1973) As in previous periods of development in the US & beyond, changes in transport & technology strongly influenced economic & urban outcomes in this period. Key developments that affected the urban system were the construction of the interstate highway system & the growth of network of airports. Increased accessibility, combined with cheaper land & labor, lower taxes etc. made smaller cities attractive to manufacturing companies & hence grew rapidly. Manufacturing industries attracted to smaller cities because they could establish themselves & have the cities & their infrastructure conform to them, rather than the other way round. Also benefits of initial advantage in earlier manufacturing areas/cities subsequently seemed to be outweighed by effects of agglomeration diseconomies, i.e. - increasing costs of now-inefficient infrastructure & relatively low productivity of dated machinery. Outcome was a decentralization of jobs & people within the urban system, away from the core of the manufacturing belt toward metropolitan centers in peripheral cities. Similar process took place internationally as well. “Fordist centers of mass production in the US... continued to expand well into the … 20th century. But their inner cities had already started to lose manufacturing employment to the surrounding suburbs.... Growing problems within the Fordist system (e.g., declining productivity... and lack of technological innovation and investment in existing infrastructure) prompted major US corporations seeking to increase their profit margins to relocate assembly functions to new industrial zones in peripheral urban regions …where labor and land were cheap.... By the 1970s and 1980s the forces of spatial decentralization of manufacturing led to the establishment of off-shore assembly in urban regions such as Tijuana or Cuidad Juárez on the US–Mexico border, and export processing zones around the world in places like the Dominican Republic, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, India, and China. Cheap transport, easier global communications etc. opened up new locations for capital investment worldwide.” (Jonas et al. 2015, pp. 103) Also growth in car ownership resulted in dramatic suburban growth, so that the 1950s were the decade of the greatest-ever growth in suburban population. Also, there was a spectacular increase in housing construction based on Fordism; mass production for mass consumption. Profit focused property developers perfected prefabrication technology. Leading to the development of a distinctive way of life & a new social order known as suburbia; Fordist suburban development. Marketed by developers as the setting for the “American dream” of private home ownership. Some general features of urban structure under Fordism & post-Fordism Fordism Post-fordism Financial/corporate central Knowledge/creative finance business district. industries in the downtown. Declining industrial activity in the Selectively revitalized inner city inner city. districts. Growth of regional branch plant Global clusters of new economic economies. activity. Cities specialized in making New industrial districts based standardized manufactured around flexible products and products. processes. Spatial concentrations of unionized Urban reserves of nonunion and labor. contingent labor. Strong functional ties between city Weak ties between central city and and suburbs. suburbs. Emerging suburban retail centers Edge cities and suburban and office parks. downtowns with back offices. Specialized industrial and Mixed industrial and residential residential suburbs suburbs. Auto-dependent urban Transit-oriented urban development. development. Metropolitan planning to achieve Regional collaboration to achieve economies of scale. economies of scope. (Jonas et al. 2015, pp. 108) Period of economic crisis, restructuring and new metropolitan form (1973-Present). Period of economic prosperity ended abruptly in the early 1970s in the US & Western Europe, leading to an economic crisis that reverberated around the urban system. Manufacturing sector was hardest hit & most impacted cities were specialized manufacturing centers, with the crisis leading to deindustrialization. Massive deindustrialization led to factory closures, unemployment, lower incomes & taxes & the inability of city govts. to maintain or improve public services & amenities. As in previous periods of economic & urban development, new technologies were critical in facilitating the restructuring of U.S & European economies since the 1980s. Larger corporations took advantage of the locational & organizational flexibility made possible by recently developed circulation & transaction technologies. Leading to evolution of new division of labor among metropolitan areas nationally & internationally; process of globalization. Globalization: growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures & populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods & services, technology & flows of investment, people & information (PIIE, 2022). Globalization and urban change Networked infrastructures of transportation, information & communication systems, e.g. telephone systems, computer networks, internet services, are central to the vital relationship between urbanization & globalization. In contrast to infrastructure networks of earlier technology systems that underpinned previous phases of urbanization. These information & communication technologies are not locally owned, operated & regulated. Rather they are designed, financed & operated by transnational corporations to global market standards. Detached from local processes of urban development, these critical networked infrastructures are highly uneven in their impact & contribute to the “digital divide.” Because they selectively serve certain neighborhoods, cities & metropolitan settings, resulting in what is referred to as “splintering urbanism.” Splintering urbanism is characterized by intense geographical differentiation, with individual cities & parts of cities engaged in various ways in dynamic & increasingly complex circuits of economic & technological exchange. - Traditional patterns of urbanization are overwritten by new dynamics dominated by enclaves of super connected people, companies & institutions. The Global economy and cities: Megacities, global cities, shrinking Cities Cities in the Contemporary World: The Global Cities Literature What is a global city? For the majority of urbanists, the term “global cities” refers to a specific way of thinking about urban globalness. One associated with an extensive body of work conducted by geographers, sociologists, planners & others that has come to be known as the “global cities literature. This literature does not exemplify the only approach to understanding the relationships between cities & global processes, but it has been very influential & very useful. (Jonas et al. 2015, pp. 103) Global cities literature A literature in geography and urban studies that emerged in the 1980s around the term “world cities” before adopting the term “global cities” in the 1990s. Still, the terms are used in combination and sometimes interchangeably. The literature is focused on understanding the ways in which cities are related to the organization of the contemporary global economy. A key argument is that certain cities are “global” because they are locations of intense bundles of “command and control” functions which allow firms to maintain their global operations. (Jonas et al. 2015, pp. 103) World cities While the dominance of large traditional manufacturing centers in the US & Western Europe characterized urban systems until about the 1950s. The key role of urban areas specializing in service industries characterizes urban systems under globalized capitalism. Some cities have become so closely integrated within the global economic system that they are known as “world cities.” (Knox and McCarthy, 2012) The term world city was used to highlight the primacy of those cities in which a disproportionate amount of the world's business was conducted. The term “world city” predates contemporary globalization processes. In the first phases of capitalism the key role of world cities involved the organization of trade & the implementation of colonial, imperial & geopolitical strategies. As such until about the 1970s the main world cities were London, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Genoa, Lisbon & Venice. However, since the mid-1970s, the key roles of world cities have been concerned less with the orchestration of trade & the deployment of imperial power. And more with transnational corporate organization; international banking & finance; fashion, design & the media & the work of international agencies. Becoming the sites of extraordinary concentrations of activities associated with organizing finance and investment. And creating & managing flows of information & cultural products that collectively underpin the economic & cultural globalization of the world. Basically, contemporary processes of globalization have created a global urban system, wherein world cities are concerned with; - transnational corporate organizations. - international banking & finance. - international agencies etc. Cities that have been most caught up in these processes are the most prominent world/global cities, i.e. London & New York. World cities have become the control centers for flows of information, culture & finance that collectively sustain the economic & cultural globalization of the world. The "square mile/the city” of the City of London is the cornerstone of London as a world city. There are about 500 banks with offices in the city. London accounts for a quarter of the world market for marine insurance & over a third of the market in aviation risks. World cities also provide an interface between the global & the local. Containing economic, cultural & institutional apparatus that channel domestic resources into the global economy & transmits the impulses of globalization back. World cities are connected in different ways & integrated to different degrees in the global urban system. Therefore, they can be categorized based on their levels of integration within the world city network. Megacities Megacities are cities with a population of 10 million or more inhabitants. Most megacities are generally associated with overurbanization & most are located in developing/peripheral regions of the world & still growing. Megacities are usually characterized by primacy & high degree of centrality in their national urban systems. Primacy: when the population of the largest city in an urban system is disproportionately large in relation to the 2nd & 3rd largest cities. Centrality: functional dominance of cities, i.e. cities that have a disproportionately large share of national economic, political & cultural activities. Shrinking cities Shrinking cities is an umbrella term for urban environments that undergo depopulation due to various complex reasons. Often closely linked to processes of deindustrialization & economic decline. Mainly relates to monotowns; - whose main economic activity becomes outdated. - locals have migrated to more competitive towns/cities. - with an aging & declining population. Declining population results in reduced capacity to care for the urban environment, leading to a deterioration of urban infrastructure. It is mostly associated with cities in developed/core countries, e.g. Detriot, Leipzig, Manchester, Bilbao. The Urban World: Urbanization and Global change Significance of urbanization Urbanization is a major phenomenon in the world today and is growing in significance. Urbanization is one of the most important geographic phenomena in today's world. Urbanization is irreversible because of the global shift to technological-, industrial- & service-based economies. The proportion of the world's population living in urban settlements is growing at a rapid rate. The world's economic, social, cultural & political processes are increasingly being played out within & between the world's systems of towns and cities. Between 1950 and 1975 population growth was basically equally shared between urban and rural areas globally. But in recent times urban growth has significantly taken precedence. Consequently in 2008 it was officially pronounced that for the first time in history majority of the world’s population now live in urban areas. And in subsequent years 90% of total new global population increase will be in cities (UNFPA 2007; Watson, 2007; McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). Urbanization trends/Demography of urban areas globally Generally developed regions were the first to rapidly urbanize and achieve high urban shares. Whilst less developed regions are only just undergoing similar processes. Urbanization slows down as a higher ratio of people dwell in urban areas. Much of the developed world has become almost completely urbanized, as they were the first to rapidly urbanize & achieve high urban shares. Regions such as Europe & North America have low urbanization rates as over 70% of their population reside in urban areas. Whilst rates are rising in less developed regions. Urbanization rates estimated to be fastest in Asia & sub-Saharan Africa (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). These regions rapidly urbanizing with current rates of urbanization without precedent. This urban transition is creating a unique set of challenges for all concerned. “This [urban] transition is presenting urban management and planning with issues that have never been faced before... [as] rapid urban growth is taking place in those parts of the world least able to cope: in terms of the ability of governments to provide urban infrastructure, in terms of the ability of urban residents to pay for such services, and in terms of coping with natural disasters. It is these parts of the world where the highest levels of poverty and unemployment are to be found. The inevitable result has been the rapid growth of urban “slums”, referring to physically and environmentally unacceptable living conditions in “informal settlements” and in usually older inner-city and residential areas.” (Watson, 2007, pp. 207). “Africa & Asia are at the epicentre of the second large-scale urban transition in the history of the world. The first transition unfolded between 1750 & 1950 in North America & Europe. Which saw the urban share of their total population grow from 10% to 52%. The second urban transition has been unfolding largely in the global South since 1950. By 2030 the urban share of the population in this region will have grown from 18% to 56%. Africa’s urban population rose from 15% of its total population in 1960 to 35% in 2006 & is expected to be above 60% by 2030.” (UN-Habitat, 2011, pp. 4) A key reason why urban areas in developed regions & some other regions of the world display a high level of organization. Is because they developed under positive economic conditions (key being the industrial revolution). Therefore urbanization took place in line with economic development & as such there was significant prosperity which facilitated better organization. For example govts. had considerable funds to provide urban infrastructure & urban residents were also able to pay for such services, much of which continues until date. This is not the case in many developing regions, especially sub-Saharan Africa, where urbanisation is largely characterised by considerable levels of poverty. As Watson (2007) describes: “The issue of urbanizing poverty is particularly severe in the context of sub-Saharan Africa, given that the bulk of urbanization is taking place under different global economic conditions than those [in other regions].... Here urbanization is occurring for the most part in the absence of industrialization and under much lower rates of economic growth: in effect urbanization has been decoupled from economic development.” (Watson, 2007, pp. 208). Urbanization, growth, and development of cities World Urbanization Today What is an urban area? No internationally recognized definition. Common criteria used to classify a settlement as urban, one or a combination of: -population size. - population density. - administrative functions/responsibilities. - availability of; advanced forms of employment (e.g. non-agricultural employment). - facilities (e.g. high-level schools). - infrastructure (e.g. trains, trams). Arguably, most common criteria used is population size, with settlements with a minimum population of between 1,000 to 5,000 inhabitants generally classified as being urban. (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). In Canada “An urban area has a minimum population concentration of 1,000 persons and a population density of at least 400 persons per square kilometer”(Statistics Canada, 2009). “Urban” is defined as all areas that are inside of census metropolitan areas (CMAs) and census agglomeration (CAs) - A census agglomeration (CA) is formed by one or more adjacent municipalities centered on a population center (known as the core). A CA must have a core population of at least 10,000. - A census metropolitan area (CMA) is formed by one or more adjacent municipalities centered on a population center (known as the core). A CMA must have a total population of at least 100,000 of which 50,000 or more must live in the core (Statistics Canada, 2023). The Degree of Urbanization methodology offers more nuance than the “urban” and “rural” binary that categorizes the demographic classification of human settlements common in many national statistical offices. - Cities: settlements of at least 50,000 inhabitants in a high-density cluster of grid cells (greater than 1,500 inhabitants per sq. km). - Towns and semi-dense areas: an urban cluster with at least 5,000 inhabitants in contiguous moderate-density grid cells (at least 300 inhabitants per sq. km) outside cities. - Rural areas: grid cells with a density of less than 300 inhabitants per sq. km or higher density cells that do not belong to a city, town or semi-dense area. Urban areas are defined as “cities” plus “towns and semi-dense areas.” It is recommended, however, to keep all three classes separate given their different nature (UN-Habitat, 2022). What is urbanization? Urbanization is the process in which the number of people resident in cities/urban areas rises in comparison with the number of people resident in rural areas. (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). It is the process through which the share of a country’s urban population rises in relation to its total population (UN-Habitat, 2010). Urbanization at the core The high levels of urbanization & relatively slow rates of urban growth within the world's core regions are reflected in relatively stable urban systems. However, there is constant change in patterns & processes of urbanization as; - metropolises, cities & towns adjust to opportunities of new technologies & new industries. - as well as to constraints of obsolescent urban infrastructure & land-use conflicts. New rounds of urbanization occur in places suited to new technologies & industries, whilst places less suited often suffer deindustrialization & urban decline. Deindustrialization: involves a decline in industrial employment in core regions as firms scale back their activities in response to lower levels of profitability. Common in cities where heavy manufacturing constituted a key economic sector but have suffered substantial reductions in employment in recent decades. Especially in 1970s & 80s when better, more flexible transport & communications networks allowed many industries to choose from a broader range of potential locations. - Examples of such cities include; Sydney (Nova Scotia), Hamilton (Ontario), Pittsburgh & Cleveland (United States), Manchester, Sheffield & Liverpool (United Kingdom), Lille (France), Bilbao (Spain). In many cases, deindustrialization has been intensified by the negative effects of increasing urban size & density on growth of larger metropolitan areas, e.g. - noise & air pollution, - increased crime & high commuting costs. - inflated land and housing prices. - traffic congestion & crowded port & railroad facilities. The result of deindustrialization has been a decentralization of jobs & people from larger to smaller cities. In some cases, routine production activities were relocated to smaller metropolitan areas with lower labor costs & more hospitable business climates. Whilst in other cases, these activities moved overseas, as part of the new international division of labor, or were eliminated entirely. Deindustrialization can also potentially lead to counterurbanization, resulting in the deconcentration of population within an urban system. - happened in the United States, Britain, Japan & many other developed countries in the 1970s & 1980s. Counterurbanization: the net loss of population from big cities to smaller towns & rural areas. However, Counterurbanization seems to have been short-lived as globalization & related events have restored the trend toward concentration of population within urban systems. Urbanization at the periphery and semiperiphery Unlike in core regions, urbanization in peripheral regions has been a consequence of population growth that preceded economic development. Although urbanization is a fairly recent phenomenon in peripheral regions, it has generated rapid population growth with limited levels of industrialization. Unfortunately, few peripheral countries can handle this rapid urbanization, causing unprecedented problems, e.g. traffic, housing, employment etc. The consequence of this rapid urbanization is overurbanization, which often leads to the creation of widespread slums Overurbanization: a condition which occurs when cities grow more rapidly than they can create and sustain jobs and housing. Slums: residential areas with poor quality housing lacking basic utilities - e.g. paved streets, proper sanitation facilities, water supply etc. - constructed from readily available materials, e.g. planks, corrugated metal, mud, etc. Many of these instant slums are squatter/informal settlements, built illegally by families who are desperate for shelter. Squatter/informal settlements: residential developments with poor quality housing lacking basic utilities built on land not owned nor rented by its occupants. These settlements typically account for between one-third & three-quarters of the population of major cities in peripheral regions. Over the years government authorities commonly sought to eradicate slums & Squatter/informal settlements. However, over time some city government attitudes to informal settlements have ranged from eviction to reluctant tolerance & support for legalization & upgrading. Despite the challenges in major cities in peripheral countries they play a key role in the international economy, linking local regions with the global economy. As a result, these cities accommodate a combination of geographic spaces of the formal & informal sectors of the economy. This is evidenced by the contrast between high-rise modern office & apartment towers & luxurious homes & the slums & shantytowns - Common in cities like Mexico City (Mexico), São Paulo (Brazil), Lagos (Nigeria), Mumbai (formerly Bombay, India), Dhaka (Pakistan), Jakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan) & Manila (Philippines). The informal economy In many peripheral cities, more than one-third of the population is engaged in the informal sector of the urban economy. Mainly, people who cannot find regularly paid work who resort to various ways of making a living. The informal sector consists of a broad range of activities that represent an important coping mechanism, examples include; - home-based workers. - street vending. - small-scale/informal transportation. - street-corner services & repairs, e,g, shoes repairs and shining. - waste picking in garbage dumps. Work in the informal economy is associated with many challenges, e.g. - child labor. - low incomes. - long working hours. - poor working environments. But despite this there are positive aspects, e.g. they provide; - an important source of employment. - cheap & accessible goods & services. - support to formal sector enterprises in peripheral economies. Demography of urban areas globally, urban growth, benefits and challenges of urbanization Significance of urbanization Urbanization is a major phenomenon in the world today and is growing in significance. Between 1950 and 1975 population growth was basically equally shared between urban and rural areas globally. But in recent times urban growth has significantly taken precedence. Consequently in 2008 it was officially pronounced that for the first time in history the majority of the world’s population now live in urban areas. And in subsequent years 90% of total new global population increase will be in cities. (UNFPA 2007; Watson, 2007; McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). Factors that contribute to urban growth Three factors contribute to urban growth: Rural-urban migration. Natural population increase. Reclassification of rural into urban areas (UN-Habitat, 2010). I, Rural-urban migration Movement of people from rural to urban areas usually in search of better economic opportunities and services. Often seen as the most significant contributory factor to urban growth, however this is not the case. Although migration is an important driver behind urban growth it is not the most significant, as less than half of global urban growth is due to rural-urban migration (Watson, 2007; McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). Ii, Natural population increases Typically, an outcome of higher fertility & reproduction rates, as well as lower mortality levels. Most significant contributory factor to urban growth globally. Urban growth is mainly a result of natural increase & not migration, 60% of global urban growth due to natural increase (Watson, 2007; UN-Habitat, 2010). Natural population increase basically relates to high fertility rates & low mortality levels & this is influenced by a number of factors, e.g.; - social development - investments in health and education - better access to reproductive health services (UNFPA, 2007). Iii, Reclassification of rural into urban areas Another factor that contributes to urban growth is the development of rural settlements into urban centers. For example, when the population of a rural settlement grows and it attains some of the criteria that define urban areas, e.g.; - high population density - availability of advanced forms of employment - availability of advanced facilities & infrastructure. Establishment of new urban centers through the reclassification of former villages as they grow to meet national urban standards is a significant contributing factor to urban growth (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). Benefits and Challenges of urbanization Urbanization is an important factor in sustainable development (SD), SD broadly has three dimensions; - Economic, social & environmental Urbanization affects all three dimensions (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014). The impacts of urbanization on the three aspects of SD include; I, Economic impacts of urbanization Urbanization is vital to economic development, with the most developed nations generally the most urbanized. “urbanization and economic growth are inextricably linked.... The prosperity of nations is intimately linked to the prosperity of their cities. No country has ever achieved sustained economic growth and rapid social development without urbanizing. Evidence shows that the transition from low- income to middle-income country status is almost always accompanied by a transition from a rural to an urban economy.” (UN-Habitat, 2010, pp. X). “Cities have the potential to make countries rich because they provide the economies of scale & proximity that generate enhanced productivity” (UN-Habitat, 2010, pp. X). “urbanization is integral to economic growth... Urban agglomeration provides industrial and service... enterprises with economic opportunities for greater specialisation and larger-scale production, with lower transport and transaction costs... In the language of urban economists, agglomeration facilitates sharing (e.g. of large facilities), matching (e.g. of jobs and people) and learning (e.g. about more productive ways of working)...” (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014, pp. 18). Negative economic effects of urbanization Urbanization leads to congestion & overcrowding. The same self-interested behaviour behind urban agglomeration potentially creates urban congestion & crowding (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014, pp. 18). Ii, Social impacts of urbanization The most obvious social impacts of urbanization (especially in developing regions) are often negative. Some major social problems associated with urbanization are inequality & social exclusion. “... although urbanization is often associated with growing inequality, measures to inhibit urbanization can amplify these inequalities... [for example] South Africa’s apartheid system, built around racial controls on urbanization, was not only among the most oppressive systems of urban exclusion... [it] left a legacy of spatially and racially fragmented cities.... Brazil’s more passive resistance to urbanization contributed to the emergence of its favelas, which are also at the centre of many of the country’s current conflicts and social and economic inequalities... about 45 per cent of the urban population in developing countries live in slum households.... which represent a ‘grey zone of urban exclusion’” (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014, pp. 20). What is a slum? “A slum household consists of one or a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area, lacking one or more of the following five amenities: (1) durable housing (a permanent structure providing protection from extreme climatic conditions); (2) sufficient living area... (3) access to improved water (water that is sufficient, affordable & can be obtained without extreme effort); (4) access to improved sanitation facilities (a private toilet, or a public one shared with a reasonable number of people); & (5) secure tenure (protection against forced eviction).” (UN-Habitat, 2010, pp. 33). “Many... disadvantaged urban residents, including low-income migrants, cannot afford to secure housing in formal markets or through public provisioning. They may not be physically evicted from their cities and towns, but end up living informally, or even illegally, in locations where neither private nor public ownership controls are tightly enforced. This often means that the poorest residents live in locations ill-suited to habitation, and lack access to public amenities and services.” (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014, pp. 20). Positive social impacts of urbanization Usually access to better jobs. Education. Living standards. Iii, Environmental impacts of urbanization Environmental impacts of urbanization are also quite pronounced, especially with the close link between urbanization & industrialisation. “urbanization has always raised environmental concerns.... During the industrialisation and urbanization of 19th century Europe and North America, the persistently unhygienic sanitary conditions of cities facilitated the spread of cholera and other waterborne pandemics. Ambient urban air pollution became the scourge of some of the most economically successful cities. London’s Big Smoke of 1952 brought road, air and rail transport to a virtual standstill, causing thousands of deaths and raising sufficient public and expert concern to convince politicians to act...” (McGranahan and Satterthwaite, 2014, pp. 21). Positive environmental impacts of urbanization Better use of natural resources. Reduced travel distances (potentially reducing carbon footprint). Urban Development in the Global South/developing world The Global South The term global South is essentially a replacement for the older, out-of- date term, “Third World,” & has become a synonym for the term “developing countries.” Developed countries are basically highly industrialized countries with comparatively high standards of living & strong economic growth. - all countries in Europe, Northern America, Australia/New Zealand & Japan (UNDESA, 2019, p. viii). Developing countries are countries with limited levels of industrialization, lower standards of living & weak economic growth. - mainly all countries in Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin America & the Caribbean (UNDESA, 2019, p. viii). The concept of the global South has been criticized. First, it is geographically dubious - although most of the North is in the northern hemisphere, Australia & New Zealand are in the southern hemisphere. Also, some countries in the South have experienced rapid economic growth recently & are now classified as high-income countries (e.g. UAE & Singapore). New terms have therefore been coined, e.g. the “majority world”, but these terms have not yet been widely adopted & global South is still widely used (Smit, 2021). However, the usage of the terms global South & global North does not imply an inherent simplistic duality. As there are vast differences within the global North & South, despite the many similarities & links between them. Nevertheless, the term global South is useful to describe countries with generally higher levels of poverty, informality & weaker govts. than is typically the case in the global North. Whilst there is no consensus with regards to boundaries & there are places that defy classification as North or South, there are important underlying differences between North America, Europe & Northeast Asia, on the one hand & the regions beyond, on the other (Schindler, 2017). Most new urban population growth is taking place in the global South, as it is rapidly urbanizing. It is, however, important to note that levels of urbanization & urban population growth rates can vary considerably within the global South, for example: - Africa currently has the lowest levels of urbanization but highest urban population growth rate. - Latin America & Caribbean are currently most urbanized and have lowest urban population growth rate. Drivers of Urbanization in the Global South The major factors that contribute to urban growth/urbanization globally are: - migration to urban areas. - natural population increase of urban populations. - reclassification of rural areas as urban (UN-Habitat, 2010; 2013). However, specifically in the global South, urbanization is typically made up of: - 60% from natural population increase. - 20% from migration from rural areas to urban areas. - 20% from the reclassification of rural areas as urban (Smit, 2021). Key Characteristics of Urbanization in the Global South There are a number of key characteristics of urbanization in the global South, some key ones are: - rapid increase in the number of megacities. - strong urban–rural linkages. - urban sprawl & fragmentation. - growing urban inequalities. Rapid increase in the number of megacities A notable characteristic of urbanization processes in the early 21st century has been the increase in the number of megacities, particularly in the global South: - In 1970, there were only three megacities, all in the global North (New York, Tokyo & Osaka). - By 2018, the number of megacities had increased more than 10 times to 33; 27 were in the global South. - Number of megacities globally is expected to increase to 43 by 2030; 35 will be in the global South (UNDESA, 2019). Strong Urban-Rural Linkages All urban areas have linkages with their surrounding rural hinterlands, but urban & rural are particularly porous concepts in the global South. Urban lifestyles permeate rural areas & vice versa, many people having a simultaneous foothold in both, with unclear boundaries between them. Therefore, in the global South the distinction between rural & urban is becoming blurred as urbanization spreads. The distinction thus needs to be regarded as a continuum rather than a dichotomy. A number of terms have been developed to try to capture this: - such as semi-urban areas, city-regions etc. Urban Sprawl and Fragmentation Over time, many cities in the global South are becoming less dense & compact and expanding in unsustainable, uncoordinated & low-density forms. Although many cities in the global South have dense cores, there has been low-density sprawl in peri-urban areas & fragmented growth of “new towns.” The densities of many cities in the global South has continued to decline. Intra-urban Inequalities The combined effect of rapid urbanization & the inability of the state to manage cities adequately include: - rise of inequality. - increasing prevalence of elite gated developments. - Growth of slums & informal settlements. Another tangible example of intra-urban inequalities is that more than 20% of the world’s population lives in slums, overwhelmingly in the global South. - “A slum household consists of one or a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area, lacking one or more of the following five amenities: (1) durable housing (a permanent structure providing protection from extreme climatic conditions); (2) sufficient living area... (3) access to improved water (water that is sufficient, affordable and can be obtained without extreme effort); (4) access to improved sanitation facilities (a private toilet, or a public one shared with a reasonable number of people); and (5) secure tenure (UN-Habitat, 2010, pp. 33). - Informal settlements are settlements in which residents do not have legal security of tenure & do not have dwellings that comply with planning & building regulations, and which therefore generally lack adequate services (Smit, 2016). Modern challenges in cities: Sprawl, inner city decay, gentrification, inequality and social integration Urban Sprawl Rapid expansion of the geographic boundaries of cities, typically involving low- density housing and dependence on automobile transportation. Often characterized by surrounding new urban spaces and settings. In many parts of the world the general form of large urban areas has evolved from a largely straight forward, monocentric structure to an extensive sprawl with a polycentric structure. Neighborhood Change Why do neighborhoods change? - Factors behind neighborhood dynamism are highly interdependent, they include: Physical deterioration/obsolescence. Investment/disinvestment. Social and demographic changes in place. Household mobility. Physical deterioration/obsolescence Physical deterioration of housing stock - clearest and most straightforward aspect of neighborhood change. - Function of the quality of construction and level of maintenance by property owners. Obsolescence - Closely related to physical deterioration. - Function of the needs and expectations of (potential) occupants. - Occurs when nature of housing becomes unsuited to peoples contemporary needs. - Doesn't necessarily bring about abandonment or demolition but often leads to change of occupants and potentially to shortened physical lifespan. - E.g.. Houses built before 1910 without off-street parking and garages. Investment/disinvestment Physical deterioration, obsolescence and social change bring about opportunities for investment or otherwise. Typically overtime most neighborhoods attract a certain amount of investment by homeowners and landlords in renovations and improvements. However in some cases physical deterioration, obsolescence and social change can discourage investment, causing disinvestment. Disinvestment – deliberate neglect of routine maintenance, putting properties (homes, vacant land etc.) up for sale or abandoning them. Social and demographic changes in place Essentially means changes experienced by a community in a specific locality. Specifically relates to the gradual aging of the initial group of residents, given most housing developments are built for a specific and largely homogeneous set of residents. Household mobility Linked to social and demographic changes. Different stages of the household life cycle trigger moves by people to different kinds of accommodation in various parts of the city e.g. Childbirth, large incomes, retirement etc. New households move in to replace them. Continuous “filtering” potentially causes social and demographic change. Neighborhood life cycles A typical sequence of processes and interdependent relationships constitute a neighborhood life cycle, these include: - Suburbanization - In-filling - Downgrading - Thinning out - Renewal/rehabilitation and gentrification Suburbanization: - Beginning of life cycle, characterized by low-density, single family housing occupied by young families. In-filling: - Addition of multifamily and rental dwellings on vacant lots, increasing neighborhood density and decreasing social and demographic homogeneity of neighborhood. Downgrading: - Period of slow but steady deterioration and depreciation of housing stock, increasing population turnover etc. Thinning out: - High population turnover causing social and demographic change, conversion and demolition of some houses. Renewal/rehabilitation and gentrification: - Renewal ends the neighborhood life cycle and begins a new one in form of new tracts of housing, usually at high density. - Sometimes rehabilitation and gentrification by new and existing residents can extend the neighborhood life cycle through conversion and reinvestment. Gentrification A significant type of neighborhood change. It is simultaneously; “... a physical, economic, social and cultural phenomenon. [Which] commonly involves the invasion of by middle-class or higher-income groups of previously working class neighborhoods... and the replacement or displacement of many of the original occupants. It involves the physical renovation or rehabilitation of... deteriorated housing stock and its upgrading to meet the requirements of its new owners. In the process, housing in the areas affected... undergoes a significant price appreciation...” (Hamnet, 1984, p. 284). “Gentrification is the process by which urban neighborhoods, usually the home of low income residents, become the focus of reinvestment and (re)settlement by middle classes. This process is seen in the redevelopment and upgrading of housing and retail landscapes. Socially, it is frequently represented by displacement of existing residents as rents and property taxes rise. The process is now expressly encouraged by many local states, which hope to gain more amenities and higher tax revenues. While originally associated with the redevelopment of older buildings, the process now also includes “new build” gentrification, where neighborhoods are razed and new buildings are built from scratch. (Jonas et al. 2015, pp. 67) Inequality Urban poverty and inequality remain one of the most intractable and highly complex problems confronting cities. These issues cut across developed and developing contexts: “The notoriously overcrowded slums in Mumbai, India; Nairobi and Rio de Janeiro; chronic homelessness in London; and persistent concentrated poverty in Baltimore, US, all send one clear message to policymakers: tackling urban poverty and inequality is one of the key priorities for building inclusive and equitable urban futures.” (UN-Habitat, 2022, pp. 73) Inequality essentially refers to the unequal and/or unjust distribution of resources and opportunities among members of a given society. Well planned and managed urbanization processes can reduce poverty and inequality by creating employment opportunities, ensure access to infrastructure and basic urban services, especially for the most vulnerable. Conversely, poorly planned urbanization can be a key driver of and catalyst for urban poverty, inequality, social exclusion and marginalization. Without concerted action at all levels, poverty and inequity might become enduring features of the future of cities. Increasing concerns about the general scale of inequality globally. “In January 2019, Oxfam’s research found that 26 individuals own the same amount of wealth as the poorest half of humanity... The world’s richest people are amassing more and more wealth as part of a long- term pervasive trend. The richest 1% have received half of the global increase in wealth since the turn of the century, while the poorest half of the world has taken just 1% of that increase.” (Oxfam, 2019, pp. 9). “Cities have become arenas of contestation between different interests. Elites are increasingly concentrating economic and political power in ways that manifest spatially. Thus, despite being incredible generators of economic growth and well-being, cities are potentially poverty and inequality traps. More than ever, increasing levels of poverty and inequality are becoming persistent trends in our towns and cities.” (UN-Habitat, 2022, pp. 73). Income inequalities have been increasing in many countries globally, partly due to globalization, deindustrialization, deregulation and new technology causing greater differentiation in the labor market. Divergent incomes have affected the configuration of cities in various ways, arguably most notably, residential segregation has intensified, with affluent households living further apart from concentrations of the poor. Social integration Issues regarding the integration of people in a social setting/an urban area basically relate to the integration of poorer communities into these settings. The challenge is often how to integrate the 'haves' (well off) and 'have not’s (poorer groups). Growing urban divides are a cause for public concern for various reasons - For instance, inequality and segregation that tends to widen social disparities over time. - Separated from economic and educational opportunities worsens poverty and fuels discontent. - Polarized cities foster mutual suspicion, prejudice, fear and crime, which weaken social cohesion and contribute to political instability. Due to these issues significant efforts have been made in recent times towards the development of inclusive cities. As described by the World Bank: “... while urbanization is moving the global economy forward, rising inequality and exclusion within cities can derail development progress. In that context, the international community has acknowledged the need to create more inclusive cities, and to make sure that people can reap the benefits of urbanization. The World Bank’s twin goals – ending extreme poverty and promoting shared prosperity – place the topic of inclusion front and center. Likewise, [The United Nations] Sustainable Development Goal 11 calls for “inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” cities.” (World Bank, 2015). What is an inclusive city? “An inclusive city... is one that provides all residents – regardless of race, ethnicity, gender or socio-economic status – with adequate housing and decent basic services, and facilitates equal access to social amenities, opportunities and other public goods that are essential to the general and environmental well-being of everyone.” (UN-Habitat, 2010, pp. 56) “An inclusive city is one that values all people and their needs equally. It is one in which all residents—including the most marginalized of poor workers—have a representative voice in governance, planning, and budgeting processes, and have access to sustainable livelihoods, legal housing and affordable basic services such as water/sanitation and an electricity supply.” (Douglas, 2013). Housing Processes - Government-led housing provision, people-led initiatives, slums and informal housing development Public housing to social housing There are many similarities between public & social housing, notably both are driven by social considerations over commercial interests. Housing is allocated to tenants based on need rather than effective demand or ability to pay & the rents charged are below market levels, Govt. subsidies are necessary to sustain low rentals & ensure that the housing providers remain viable. This enables poor households to access better quality & more secure accommodation than they could otherwise afford, which benefits their health & well-being. There is a long history of public housing in the global North/developed countries. In the first half of the 20th century, municipalities acted because private house building could not keep pace with urbanization. Public housing became central in improving well-being of all members of society, esp. working class & vulnerable groups, expanding over time to become a major part of the total housing stock. However, govt. support diminished in 1980s/90s, with lower public investment causing housing decay & negative reputation for public estates, “The projects”/slums in the US. Leading to the privatization & sale of municipal housing stock, with unequal social & spatial impacts, contributing to homelessness. In recognition that many still can’t afford market housing, govts. continue to play a supporting role through social rented housing provided by housing associations & other organizations. Social housing often takes the form of medium or high density flats/apartment buildings rather than single houses to suit more accessible urban locations where land is expensive. Enabling supplementary provision of services, e.g. security, childcare, play areas. Social housing may also be clustered with other kinds of housing in larger precincts to foster more diverse & mixed communities. Developing word context Significantly characterized by the incident of slums/informal settlements. Informality exists in all regions of the world. But it is a common feature of rapid urbanization in developing countries. Urban informality is “a state of exception from the formal order of urbanization” (Roy, 2005, p. 147). Involves processes of urbanization that fall outside the control of the state and policies that moderate the urbanization process (Sandoval et al., 2019). Informal housing/settlements Informal housing includes forms of shelter/settlement outside of government control or regulation, or is not afforded protection by the state (Roy, 2009). Informal settlements are residential areas where: - 1) inhabitants have no security of tenure vis-à-vis the land or dwellings they inhabit, with modalities ranging from squatting to informal rental housing. - 2) the neighborhoods usually lack, or are cut off from, basic services and city infrastructure. - 3) the housing may not comply with current planning and building regulations, and is often situated in geographically and environmentally hazardous areas (UN-Habitat, 2015a, pp. 1). About 29.7 percent of the total urban population in the world, lived in informal settlements or slums in 2014. Majority of informal urban growth is taking place in developing countries, but there are differences across the board. Estimates show that the number of informal residents/slum dwellers in the developing world seems on the increase given that over 880 million residents lived in slums in 2014, compared to 791 million in 2000, and 689 million in 1990. Sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Asian regions show the most significant increase, whilst the Latin American and Caribbean region shows a somewhat constant number of informal dwellers. A number of interrelated factors have driven the emergence of informal settlements: - population growth - rural-urban migration; - lack of affordable housing; - weak governance (particularly in policy, planning and urban management); - economic vulnerability and low-paid work; - displacement caused by conflict, natural disasters and climate change. Many governments refuse to acknowledge the existence of informal settlements, which undermines citywide sustainable development and prosperity. These settlements continue to be geographically, economically, socially and politically disengaged from wider urban systems and excluded from urban opportunities and decision-making. City government attitudes to informal settlements range from opposition and eviction to reluctant tolerance and support for legalization and upgrading. Upgrading informal settlements, through tenure regularization and provision of infrastructure, is widely accepted as preferable to relocation, helping to sustain social and economic networks considered vital for livelihoods. The favela barrio project, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Improvements made to many Favelas (shanty towns). Urban Design interventions to enhance lives of residents in degraded neighborhoods. Turned Favelas into Bairros, that is functioning neighborhoods that have been improved and integrated with the adjacent city. Architects and planners are required to be present in the community on a daily basis. Residents hired as the workforce, receive training, income and work experience. Social/State delivered housing in the global South: The South African experience The discourse on state-delivered housing in South Africa after apartheid revolves around debates on ‘RDP’ housing, a national govt. policy post-apartheid. The govt’s. Reconstruction & Development Program of the 1990s gave rise to govt. funded low-income houses popularly called ‘RDP’ housing, mainly developed in newly- laid out, orderly neighborhoods. This was the govts. response to the housing problems inherited from the apartheid period. Whilst the scale of delivery of the houses was impressive & significantly addressed the massive housing deficits of poor households, it did not meet their needs. This was due to its autocratic orientation which emphasized technical efficiency, order and standardization, over the housing needs of the poor. Essentially, the houses were detached from the everyday lived realities of targeted beneficiaries and more inclined to the ambitions of government officials. The program sought to transform a shack settlement into an orderly suburb, but soon after its completion was barely distinguishable from the original informal settlement, with RDP houses swamped by informal structures. The predominantly South American experience Process of “Autoconstruction” “.... Residents are agents of urbanization, not simply consumers of spaces developed and regulated by others. They build their houses and cities step-by-step according to the resources they are able to put together... each phase involves... improvisation... complex strategies and calculations; and constant imagination of what a nice home might look like. Sometimes residents rely on their own labor; frequently, they hire... others. Their spaces are always in the making... [it] involves a distinctive temporality; homes and neighborhoods grow little-by-little, in long-term processes of incompletion and continuous improvement led by their own residents... [it] does not involve spaces already made that can be consumed as finished products before they are even inhabited. Rather, it involves spaces that are never quite done, always being altered, expanded, and elaborated upon.” (Caldeira, 2017, pp. 3). “As the neighborhood grows... streets are paved; water, electricity, and sewage arrive … facades are improved, houses are enlarged... spaces are constantly redecorated. Despite indisputable precariousness and persisting poverty, the processes of transformation... offer a model of social mobility, as they become the material embodiments of notions of progress.” (Caldeira, 2017, pp. 4). Half a good house, Chile Architect - Alejandro Aravena. Most famous for "half a good house" developments. Using limited government subsidies to build the essential half of a decent-size family home. Residents can then fill in the void over time based on their needs and financial situation (Dezeen, 2016). Has delivered more than 2,500 of these units, adapted for different budgets and locations. The low cost means that publicly funded housing can be built on expensive inner- city land, giving poorer residents access to better schools and transport links. Approaches to Low-income Housing in global South On-site upgrading. Resettlement on suitable land. Government-led new public schemes. Sites-and-services and incremental land development. City-wide housing strategies. (UN-Habitat, 2011) On-site Upgrading: Definition Means improving the physical, social and economic environment of an existing informal settlement, without displacing the people living there. In addition to improving infrastructure, a comprehensive scheme can also involve improvements to: - Houses - Land tenure - Income-generating opportunities - Common facilities - Access to public services - Welfare ‘When cities and governments support the process of upgrading informal communities, it is the least expensive, most humane way of enhancing a city’s much-needed stock of affordable housing, instead of destroying it.’ (UN-Habitat, 2011). Economies and livelihoods - Role of urban economies in development; local economic development; informal economy and urban livelihoods Urban economies and development Cities play a key role in economic development; urbanization has been essential to most nations’ development towards stronger and more stable economies. Most of the largest cities globally are in countries with the largest economies, evidence of the link between economic wealth and cities. Cities and towns play important roles in social transformation, being centers of artistic, technological and scientific innovations as well as culture and education. In general, the history of cities and towns is fundamentally connected to the evolution of civilization. Key role of cities in economic development Economies of agglomeration: Positive economic benefits that firms gain from being located in close proximity with others engaged in similar businesses or interests (i.e. agglomerating). - leads to reduction of business costs - Improves efficiency and productivity because of better interaction between firms and knowledge spillovers Economies of scale: Improved efficiency of firms due to location of different firms in the same place - creates labor pooling which allows firms to have access to a variety of skilled labor forces - enables enhanced interaction, exchanges of ideas, supplies due to the proximity Efficiency gains from having firms located in the same place variety of goods offered is greater, search and travel costs are reduced - competition is stronger - ‘economies of scale’, example a shopping mall which leads to efficiency gains in retail. Proximity gains from firms being closer to their cu

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