GEOG-1150-FAO Geography Exam Study Notes PDF

GEOGRAPHY EXAM STUDY NOTES GEOG-1150-FAO EXAM LAYOUT Focus on after midterm concepts Short answer questions (approx 3 questions per lesson) 35% of mark MAIN POINTS FROM LESSONS BEFORE MIDTERM ➔ The three ways that humans change the ecosystem are: 1) Population growth 2) Increase in human consumption 3) Changes in values and perception LESSON ONE: ENERGY Energy and Life What is life? All living things require energy to: - Maintain internal order (tissue replacement) - Increase in size and complexity over time (growth) - Reproduce - React to environment (movement) - Regulate and maintain a constant internal environment (body temperature) - Fit the biotic and abiotic requirements of specific habitat They continually use energy so they must have an ongoing supply (food). Potential energy is converted into chemical energy. If losses exceed gains for a long period of time, the organism dies The source of nearly all energy on earth is the sun The sun is a ball of burning hydrogen and helium some 150 million km away (about 7 mins in light years) Because it releases radiant heat in all directions= only 1/50,000,000th of its energy is reaching the earth Main fuel for life support, create climates and power the cycles of matter discussed later If we consider all of the solar radiation that reaches the earth 100% 34% is reflected back into space by the atmosphere and has no effect 42% providers heat of the atmosphere and earth’s surface 23% causes the evaporation of water 1% is used to operate our ecological systems Of the 66% entering the earth ALL must return to space (mostly as heat) if the earth is to maintain a constant temperature Net radiation and global temperature For the earth to remain at constant average temperature incoming radiation must equal outgoing radiation *key concept* If the sun were to increase its energy output the earth would be warmer and would have to increase its energy output to create a new equilibrium point One of the effects of human activity is that it has changed the content of the atmosphere so that it slows down the rate at which heat escapes into space. Thus we have global warming. Good and Bad ✅ Greenhouse gases help to stabilize the earth’s temperature at a level higher than it would otherwise be (15 C vs -18 C) and reduce daily fluctuations ❌ Human activity has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing climate change Global warming An increase of 2˚C in air temperature will cause runaway environmental damage has been standard but recently scientists have lowered that to 1.5˚C Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has to be under 450 parts per million to prevent this As of 2021, it is 414 an increase from 400 in 2013 TIME IS RUNNING OUT! The center of the earth generates energy and it is released towards the surface of the earth This results in volcanic activity and earthquakes Heat is also held in the lithosphere providing geothermal energy Compared to the energy provided by the sun it has minimal contribution to total energy Matter Has three states: solid, liquid and gas Water is the only substance on the planet that occurs in all three states at normal temperatures and pressures All matter is made up of elements Elements: are Substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical reactions. There are 94 naturally occurring elements and 24 synthetic ones. The Periodic Table Elements are listed in order by atomic number Elements are listed vertically by basic characteristics ex. Gasses, metals, non-metals The symbols are the first letters in english ex. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon or another language (usually latin) thus lead is PB iron FE Elements are composed of atoms Atoms are the smallest particles that exhibit the chemical properties of the element Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons Each element has a unique atomic structure Number of protons/atoms identifies the element. This is called the atomic number Number of Neutrons: ISOTOPE Atoms of a given element may have a different number of neutrons All living things contain carbon. When something dies the carbon begins to lose neutrons Carbon dating Carbon 14 decays to Carbon 12. This happens at a known rate so can calculate how long ago death happened by the ratio of the two isotopes Number of electrons: IONS Atoms with equal number of protons and electrons have a neutral electric charge Those with unequal numbers are called ions If atoms lose electrons they become acids, if atoms gain electrons they become bases Measured on a PH scale Plants and animals require ions for good health. Ex. iron ions are part of red blood cells that transport oxygen. Insufficient levels (anemia) feeling of tiredness. Plants use it to help absorb sunlight and have a pale or yellow color if low Bodily fluids need a balance of acids and bases Acid rain with a PH value of less than 5.6 kills forests and fish, and damages limestone and sandstone structures and corrodes metals. Molecules and Compounds Atoms combine with similar atoms to form molecules. This is done by atoms sharing some electrons called covalent bonds When different atoms combine they are called compounds. This is usually caused by oppositely charged ions attracted to each other called ionic bonds Compounds can be very small or large enough to see under a microscope (DNA) All organisms contain carbon compounds (80-90% of a cell’s dry weight) Lipids: (hydrocarbons) carbon and hydrogen that do not dissolve in water Fats and oils in the body. Carbohydrates: carbon/hydrogen/oxygen form sugar, starch, cellulose Proteins: amino acids structural and functional part of the cell- enzymes, hemoglobin, hormones, antibodies Nucleic acids: store genetic information DNA and RNA Extractions can cause disrupt aquatic organisms cattle urine > fish Living things depend on water. It makes up a high percentage of an organism's weight (60% of the human body , 95% of a tomato) Water has a slight charge which attracts it to many iconic materials and dissolves them. It also transports food and other molecules throughout the organism in plants and people. Biogeochemical Cycles Matter continually moves among different compounds of the ecosphere. This is essential to life. The characteristic path of movement is called biogeochemical cycle We are particularly interested in about 30 naturally occurring elements that are called nutrients and are a necessary part of living things LESSON TWO: MATTER & ENERGY Matter and Energy Everything in the universe is made up of either matter or energy All matter has mass and takes up space. Energy has no mass therefore does not take up space Law of the conservation of matter states that matter cannot be created or destroyed There is a finite amount of matter on the earth The amount of matter does not change over time Matter does however change or cycle between living and nonliving and as part of solids, liquids or gasses. You can't just throw something away You are simply just moving the matter from one location to another What you pour down the sink ends up in a largest body of water Smoke from a chimney will settle to the ground somewhere Trillions of transformations of matter take place every second all over the world What is ENERGY? Energy is the ability to do work. Matter changes as a result of energy influences Measured in calories: the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gm or 1 ml of water 1 degree celsius. Starting at 15 degrees The law of conservation of energy states that energy can be neither created or destroyed it is transformed into different types of energy Types of Energy Radiant: light from the sun Heat: energy being transferred from an object of higher temperature to an object of lower temperature. Heat is the total energy of all moving atoms Cold: an absence of heat- you cannot measure cold- just lack of heat Latent heat: the heat required to change the state of an object ex. Melt an ice cube. Liquid to steam Temperature: the measure at a particular time of the average speed of motion of the atoms in a substance Chemical: stored in the bonds that hold molecules together. Released when bonds between atoms in a compound are broken - As we learned earlier, when ozone changes back to oxygen, heat is given off - Complex compounds cannot change state - There is no such thing as liquid wood Kinetic energy: the energy derived from the motion and mass of an object ex. As it falls Potential energy: stored energy that can be used later Ex. gasoline has potential energy, when it is burned it can create kinetic energy that moves a car, but the combustion also creates heat which is lost to the surroundings Mechanical energy: the work being done by the moving parts Electrical energy: energy from moving electrons. Electricity is a secondary source of power. It had to be created by some other form of energy regardless of how it’s created: kinetic energy of falling water, or wind turbines, or chemical energy of coal, or uranium, or heat from sunlight. There will be a significant loss of energy from the original energy source. (heat) The Law Of Entropy States that the transformation of energy always decreases its quality (ability to do work) because it becomes more dispersed Entropy is a measure of the disorder so dispersed energy has high entropy When your car burns gasoline it is transformed from chemical energy into mechanical energy to move the car, and heat. Only about 10% of the energy is used to move your car Energy cannot be recycled. It’s entropy always increases with use ⇨ ENERGY MOVES IN ONE DIRECTION Enters as light from the sun and exists as heat lost into the space by the atmosphere The two processes need to be in equilibrium Global warming= the amount of energy coming in from the sun is greater than the amount of heat that is leaving into the atmosphere. Ice age= more heat leaving, then energy coming in Quality of energy Low quality energy is dispersed at low temperatures to gather. Oceans for example have a large amount of heat, but it is at a low temperature so very costly to use High quality energy is easy to use but the energy disperses quickly for example gasoline in a car or wood in a campfire We should match the energy used with the purpose it has. A room only needs to be about 20 degrees Nuclear energy is released at several thousand degrees and then transported using high quality electrical energy to be used in resistance heating The most efficient heating would be super-insulated houses (to prevent heat loss) and passive solar heat (sunlight on an absorbent surface) Transfer of heat energy by conduction The movement of heat through a substance without the movement of molecules in the direction of heat transfer Example: when the bottom of a frying pan is heated the heat may pass up the handle and heat it, but the pan is not changed Solids are usually heated via conduction as heat passers from one electron to the next without movement of the molecule Transfer of energy by convection The transfer of heat by the mixing of a fluid or gas. Ex. when a pot boils the water at the bottom heats, expands and rises to the top and is replaced by the colder water from the top The sun heats the earth’s surface and the air close to it rises and is replaced by cooler air. Prior to the industrial revolution available consisted of human and animal power, wind, water and burning wood or dried animal feces Limited by the input of solar energy over a short period of time Transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation An electrical and a magnetic wave perpendicular to each other and with the same amplitude and wavelength. Traveling at the speed of light 300,000km/sec Radiation can be transferred through empty space. It does not need a medium Everything constantly emits electromagnetic energy Electromagnetic radiation Amplitude: the intensity of the wave Wavelength: the type of wave it is Wavelengths are measured in microns= 1/1000 of 1 mm Everything emits radiation but… The sun emits 160,00 times more energy than the earth Earth emits radiation at longer wavelengths than the sun. Most sun emissions are light Most earth emissions are heat Stefan- Boltzemann Law ➔ Hotter bodies emit more energy than cooler ones Wien’s Law ➔ Hotter objects radiate energy at shorter wavelengths than cooler objects ➔ Solar radiation 46.8% visible light ➔ Earth almost entirely long wave radiation Why don’t I glow in the dark? The average human emits about 895 watts of power the same as 9 light bulbs but we don’t glow in the dark because the emissions are at longer wavelengths (thermal infrared) You all remember the movie Predator In developing countries, most energy comes from biomass such as firewood and dried animal feces which can be burnt for cooking or heat. Now some remote villages have solar panels. Hydrocarbons take millions of years to form Plant and animal life in oceans dies and sinks to bottom and are covered over with silt and become part of earth’s crust (fossil fuels) This material migrates until it becomes trapped The Industrial Revolution Based on use of hydrocarbons: coal and later petroleum which released vast amounts of energy formed millions of years ago This release of millions of years of potential energy in just 250 years Has led to acid rain, greenhouse gasses and climate change Because of the time to create, it is non-renewable and therefore limited The burning of fossil fuels creates chemical energy which can be converted into mechanical and electrical energy In contrast to fossil fuels, HYDRO, WIND and SUNLIGHT are renewable and can also be converted into electricity without decreasing the amount of the original source available. But there is still a loss of energy as heat What do we have to do to be sustainable? View high energy consumption as undesirable Reduce energy waste Switch from non-renewable resources to renewable The best indicator of a groups standard of living is the amount of energy they use Compare your use to that of a citizen in a developing country with no electricity! (no lights or appliance, no motor vehicle, and no running water) Structural organization and energy flow All living things are made up of matter and use energy All living things have a metabolism, whereby molecules are built up in anabolic processes and broken down in catabolic processes In photosynthesis, molecules of carbon dioxide and water are broken down to thrive the synthesis of sugar molecular that form plants Life on earth depends on photosynthesis A green pigment in plants called chlorophyll collects sunlight to convert carbon dioxide (through the stomata in leaves from the air) and water (from stem) into glucose (sugar) which plants use for food. Oxygen is given off through the stomata in the process. Photosynthesis removes 91 billion metric tons of carbon from the atmosphere each year The carbohydrates which are created build into complex starches which store energy for future use Photosynthesis is not very efficient 1-3% of energy being converted ( 8% in sugarcane) yet produces billions of tons of living matter called biomass When combined with oxygen, they burn and are converted to carbon dioxide and water LESSON THREE: NUTRIENTS Macronutrients 97% of the mass of most living organisms just six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur These are the ones we are most interested in By weight, oxygen is the most common element in the earth’s crust, in the oceans (H2O) Phosphorus ➔ Phosphorus does not have a gaseous stage. Most of it’s rocks in the earth’s crust. It is relatively rare at the earth’s surface taking centuries to erode (weather) from rock into water bodies ➔ Water in the soil contains dissolved nutrients. The breakdown of compounds of iron. Calcium and magnesium release phosphate ions where roots can absorb it, sometimes with the help of fungi ➔ As plants draw water up into them via the roots, they obtain these nutrients Phosphorus Cycle ➔ Phosphorus is often the dominant limiting factor in both soil and freshwater plants ➔ Phosphorus is essential for metabolic energy use (growth). Because it is relatively rare on the Earth’s surface in relation to biological demand, it is important that phosphorus cycles efficiently ➔ Phosphorus will move from old tissue to more active growth areas. Deciduous trees move 30% of their phosphorus out of the leaves and into the permanent part of the tree before the leaves fall. ➔ Animals obtain phosphate by eating plants. Animal waste returns the phosphate to the soil ➔ Concentrations of humans, cattle, pigs create heavy burdens of phosphate- rich waste materials which often reach water ➔ Too much phosphate in the water kills fish via eutrophication Phosphorus Farmers add phosphorus (fertilizer) to their crops to improve growth. In the past, farmers collected concentrated animal bones such as those found at Head-Smashed-In, Alberta. Some fish are eaten by birds which then drop their waste on land (guano) This was a major source of phosphorus for agriculture prior to artificial production. In some places overfishing killed the birds and ended the guano supply When animals die the phosphate is returned to the soil by decomposers but this takes time as most is in bones. Bacteria mineralize organic phosphorus into minerals that can be absorbed by plants. Some phosphorus will be carried by water to river estuaries or shallow seas where it is absorbed by phytoplankton and re-enters the food cycle. Salmon and other fish swim upstream before death and transfer nutrients back to land with them. Excess fertilizer runoff into streams. Biomass removal (harvesting) increases erosion of phosphates into streams Stream transport ends in the ocean. Estuaries are particularly rich in nutrients, as are shallow seas. May be fixed by plants and returned to the food cycle. Or sink to the bottom and over millions of years become rock again. Fishing removes phosphate from the ocean although it will eventually return via above actions. If the soil pH is below 5.5 or above 7 the phosphorus will combine with other elements and become insoluble. (This is one reason acid rain kills plants) Nitrogen and carbon cycles in the ocean are controlled by phosphorus thus it affects global warming. About 66% of phosphorus in oceans is the result of human activity. Mining phosphorus creates excessive runoff into aquatic environments Phosphorus used in detergents also ends up in the hydrosphere thus illegal in many countries. Sea spray also puts phosphorus into the land Sulphur As we have seen, phosphorus moves from the lithosphere to the hydrosphere and back again. Sulphur also does this but may also spend time in the atmosphere. Sulphur is a necessary component for life as a building component of proteins. Sulphur’s time in the atmosphere means that it recycles faster and unlike phosphorus, is seldom a limiting factor for plant growth. Sulphur has a strong dependency on microbial interaction as part of its cycle. Mostly found in sedimentary rocks such as shales and in sea water. It is not available from the lithosphere and must be transformed into sulphates to be absorbed by plants. This is done by bacteria in the soil. The type depends on the presence of oxygen (aerobic) or absence of oxygen (anaerobic) –which depends on the location of the water table and presence of other elements such as iron. The chemical process releases hydrogen sulphide (H2S) into the air (giving the rotten egg smell associated with marshlands) or sulphate salts(SO4 2-) Plants absorb the sulphates and it enters the food chain. Phosphorus cycles benefit when iron sulphides are found in sediments which converts it from insoluble to soluble usable by plants. Peat beds in northern climates go through phases of drying and re-wetting more frequently due to climate change. The re-wetting emits 3 to 4 times as much sulphur Dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere which adds to acid deposition (discussed below) Although some sulphur eventually reaches the ocean floor where it may stay for long periods of time (like phosphorus) , sulphur near the surface will return to the atmosphere via absorption by phytoplankton. Human Interaction with sulphur 99% of SO2 and 33% of other compounds enter the atmosphere due to human activity: burning coal & smelting metals. Will mix with water in the atmosphere to form H2SO4(acid rain). And ammonia form ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 Unlike phosphorus, only a small part of sulphur is fixed in organic matter. Gaseous cycles: Nitrogen N2 Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas required by all organisms for life An essential component of chlorophyll, proteins, and amino acids 78% of each breath we take is Nitrogen (N2) we don't actually process it Instead, we rely on eating specific plants beans, peas, soybeans (vegetarians need to eat these plants to fill their protein needs) Anyone eating the plant absorbs the nitrogen exists the body as organic waste Nitrogen Compounds Also in the atmosphere are Ammonia (NH3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) excess quantities of these cause acid deposition, ozone depletion, and climate change Nitrogen cycles between the atmosphere and the lithosphere through biological activity at or near the surface Human Influence High temperature combustion produces nitric oxides (NO) which combine with oxygen to produce Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2) which reacts with water to produce nitric acid (HNO3) a main component of acid deposition acid rain alters the nitrogen cycle in soils and waterways creating further problems. Excess nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere create lightning, forest fires, and burning fossil fuels combine oxygen and nitrogen (NO2) which reacts with water (HNO3) that falls to earth as acid deposition (snow, dust, rain). Lightning contributes about 7% of the HNO3 in this process Nitrogen Cycle Decomposers convert plant and animal waste and N2 from air into ammonia NH3 Bacteria change ammonia to nitrate ions NO3- Nitrates are absorbed by plants Decomposition also releases N2 into the air Nitrogen Fixation Chemotrophic bacteria consumes N2 to obtain energy required to fuel their metabolic processes and convert the nitrogen into nitrates or ammonia gas NH3 or salts NH4 Rhizobium bacteria grow on the roots of plants (peas, beans, clover, alfalfa). The bacteria infect the roots in a mutualistic relationship the plant provides sugars from photosynthesis to the bacteria and the bacteria supplies nitrates (transformed from atmosphere) needed by the plant. Rich soils are produced but quickly depleted. Nitrification and Denitrification Certain bacteria convert ammonia and ammonium salts into nitrites and nitrates. Anaerobic bacteria (such as those found on flooded field) reveres the process and convert the nitrates back into nitrogen gas Nitrates are highly soluble and may be carried off in runoff and contribute to eutrophication Human Impact Farmers grow crops that put nitrogen in soil including clover, alfalfa, soybeans, beans, peas, peanuts. Harvesting removes nitrates and ammonium ions from soil Wildflowers such as lupines and alder trees add nitrogen in natural environments. Algae that floats in oceans does the same Humans double the turnover rate of the nitrogen cycle over the whole earth. Creating the most stressed of all systems Like phosphorus, a lack of nitrogen is a limiting factor on growth so farmers use synthetic inorganic fertilizer manufactured in factories by adding nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia instead of using animal manure. More artificial fixation than natural process. Runoff of excess fertilizer causes eutrophication in water Some forms of bacteria and algae can also fix nitrogen from the atmosphere without being attached to specific plants but are not as efficient Mineralization Most physical nitrogen (nitrates and ammonium salts) come from the breakdown of existing biomass by decomposers in the food chain This is what happens in a compost pile Once fixed in the soil, nitrogen is incorporated into plant matter and moves through the food chain Mineralization is the process by which dead plants are converted back to NH3 and NH4 by bacterial action and returned to the soil demonstrating the importance of composting in agricultural production. Nitrates are not produced directly but rather indirectly through nitrification Nitrification Chemotrophic bacteria convert ammonia and ammonia salts → into nitrates. Other bacteria (anaerobic) reverse the nitrogen fixing process converting nitrates to nitrogen gas returning it to the atmosphere In flooded agricultural fields anaerobic bacteria cause denitrification Nitrates are highly soluble in water and may be lost via surface runoff Ammonia tends to adhere to soil particles and may also be removed by erosion Ammonia can be removed from an ecosystem via soil erosion as it attaches itself to soil It is also removed when crops are harvested Nutrient cycles continued: Carbon Cycle Although CO2 is only 0.03% of the atmosphere it is vital to life on the planet because it is absorbed by plants in the process of photosynthesis and converted into the fats, proteins, and carbohydrates that constitute life. This carbon then moves them through the food chain Residence time can vary Respiration converts some back into the air with every breath An old forest or a coral reef holds carbon for centuries. After death, bacteria release this as CO2 via cellular respiration, although some may become methane CH4 in anaerobic conditions Dissolved in shallow ocean waters for about 6 years, deep water up to 350 years. Increased CO2 in atmosphere reduces ocean capacity Some carbon is trapped before it decays and forms coil, oil, gas, diamonds, or limestone which stay in the ground for millions of years Carbon dioxide can be trapped in the bottom of volcanic lakes in large amounts If it escapes (ex. Due to an earthquake) it will flow as a bubble down the mountain side Animals and humans have been killed by asphyxiation as the gas replaces normal atmosphere It will eventually dissipate Human Influence The removal of forest for agriculture and for cities (roads and buildings) reduce the amount of CO2 held in vegetation The burning of fossil fuels releases CO2 from the lithosphere at the rate of one million years of photosynthesis in one year. Thus there is more CO2 in the atmosphere (over 400ppm) now than there has been at any time in the last 740,000 years (lowest at 310ppm). The effects of this are numerous but increases in ocean temperatures by 0.74ºC are changing global climates, and raising sea level by 17cm (water expands as it heats) The rate of climate change is uncertain because of the complexity of the earth as an ecosystem and the positive and negative feedback loops created Interaction of Carbon and Nitrogen Ocean acidification due to taking up anthropogenic CO2 might lead to an increase in the C/N uptake ration. Phytoplankton could increase nitrogen fixation which could increase the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and slow global warming. It is usually assumed that more CO2 in the atmosphere will increase plant growth, but nitrates are also required so the plant growth could be limited, in which case the rate of CO 2 increase will be faster and global warming will increase faster than calculated. The full relationship between carbon and nitrogen is not known LESSON FOUR: THE MAKEUP OF WATER The importance of water: the makeup of water Consisted of two hydrogen atoms with one positive charge and one oxygen with negative charge Gives the molecule a positive side and a negative side Cohesion and Adhesion Water molecules are attracted to one another and can form a thin film coating Water molecules will attach themselves to other molecules. This is how water moves up the stem of a plant and it carries the nutrients along with it Water is slightly acidic and will dissolve almost anything. This means that it picks up pollutants easily. Its quantity (purity) can change High heat capacity It takes a lot of heat to raise the temperature of water. It can store heat without gaining temperature. This is why oceans remain cool in summer and warm in winter It takes a lot of heat to change water from a liquid to gas, thus evaporation results in a cooling effect The evaporation of sweat cools your body Other characteristics Ice is less dense than water thus it floats on top- thus bodies of water freeze from the top not the bottom (which would kill everything in them) This is the reason why anything that lives in water stays alive in the winter. Bottom= water top= completely frozen Temperature under the ice tends to be 4ºC Most other molecules the solid form is denser than the liquid form so this would not happen History of water As earth formed 4.5 billion years ago water came from two sources Volcanic activity that released dissolved gasses from the lithosphere into the atmosphere and surface Meterpores and comets captured by earth’s gravity containing ice The presence of sedimentary rocks 3.5billion years go is evidence that the surface was covered by oceans prior to that time Scientists have discovered a water source deep in the earth’s crust. The world’s oldest water was discovered in the earth’s crust. The world’s oldest water was discovered in Canada, 2.4 kilometers below the surface, in a deep mine and dated to between 1 billion and 2.5 billion years old.It has been estimated that there is 11 million cubic kilometres of deep water, more than all the world's rivers and lakes put together.There is some evidence that other planets may also contain such deep water. The Hydrological Cycle Water is necessary for all life You are 70% water Although venus and Mars have water, only on earth does it occur as a liquid There is a fixed supply of water which cycles between various reservoirs driven by the energy of the sun The hydrological cycle is a continuous movement of water driven by evaporation, precipitation and gravity The length of time it takes for water to move through this cycle varies greatly. Water at the bottom of the ocean may take 37,000 years to reach the bottom of the surface and be evaporated. In contrast, water in the atmosphere stays there about 9 to 12 days Rivers move quickly enough to flush out most pollutants in a few weeks. Groundwater moves much slower and may take hundreds of years to cycle Water as a resource Earth has a tremendous amount of water- the only problem is: ➔ Only a small part is usable by people- only about 3% is fresh water and most of that is frozen ➔ Only 1% of freshwater is surface water. We can access groundwater through wells The usable water is not evenly distributed therefore some people are in need of water Human activity tends to reduce the amount that is useful to them. Causes of spring flooding Spring snowmelt causes frequent flooding The key factors are: - Amount of rain in fall before soil freezes - Amount of snowfall during winter - Amount of spring rainfall adding to flow - Early vs late spring - Flood control dams are built to regulate this water flow Permafrost Ground that remains frozen for two or more years is called permafrost and covers 25% of the landmass of the northern hemisphere This frozen soil contains twice as much organic carbon as the atmosphere contains CO2 the question arises, what will happen if this material thaws out and begins to decay. It may release large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere and if it decays under water it will also release methane, another greenhouse gas. The actual chemical makeup of the carbon and of the neighboring materials in the soil will affect the rate of decay and end products The fact that water may start moving and landslides may occur will increase CO2 released into the atmosphere However, warmer temperatures and water availability may also encourage plant and photosynthetic water organisms to grow and thus withdraw CO2 from the atmosphere. The sedge was more biodegradable and released methane rather than carbon. More potent greenhouse gas so more positive feedback. Permafrost becomes further from the surface leading to soil collapse and water drainage lowering the water table. The Case of Ward Hunt Lake,Ellesmere Island 1950-27 lake was frozen over stable ice conditions (1996-2007 melting degree days 80.4) 2008 lake was ice free in summer for first time in known history. Again in 2011. (melting degree days 2008-12 136.2) Permafrost melting caused more ponds and wetlands water melts ice positive feedback And change in vegetation from moss to sedge. LESSON FIVE: BIOMES The Biosphere The planet on which we live All the planets were formed at the same time but only earth is the right distance from the sun for water to exist in all three states and the right size for gravity to hold in its particular atmosphere The Biosphere is organized at five sub-levels 1) Individuals: one organism. It’s life history, distribution, individual behavior 2) Population: a group of organisms of the same species that live in a specific area 3) Community: all populations of various species that live in a specific area 4) Ecosystem: a community and its abiotic components As a community ages it devotes more respiration to maintaining itself and less to growth. Although trees may live to be hundreds of years old, foresters want to cut them down to much earlier to maximize return and forest management may allow this, changing the nature of the forest The edges of an ecosystem are usually suitable for two different communities and therefore have more diversity than other areas, ex. The tree line is not a line but an area containing both trees and grass Because different species have different ranges it may be difficult to put boundaries on a community or ecosystem. They are open and exchange material and organisms with other ecosystems Similar ecosystems may be grouped as ecozones representing dominant plants and animals Ecozones of Canada 5) Biome: a community that has a large geographic area with a distinctive climate and vegetation Found on different continited at about the same latitudes Ex. China and S.E. USA have the same biome There are 9 main biomes based on temperature and precipitation Hot temperature ecosystems - Hot wet tropical rainforest (rainfall all year round) - Hot medium rain savanna grassland (combination of grass and forest) - Hot dry desert (does not rain at all) Convection rainfall happens daily thus tropical rainforests At the equator, the sun is almost overhead all year and the length of daylight is always close to 12hrs. Beyond the tropics the angle of overhead sun varies by 47º between Dec 21 and July 21 and the length of day varies, thus greater temperature variations Tropical deserts: at the tropics falling air warms so it can hold more moisture so precipitation does not reach the ground. The result are the great deserts of the world. Moderate Temperatures - Sufficient rainfall deciduous forest - Temperate grassland (steppe/prairie) - Desert Cold Climates - Latitudes with rainfall/snow Coniferous forest (ex. Christmas trees) - Too cold for trees: Tundra - Extreme cold: desert Global temperature distribution Winter decreases towards poles in both hemispheres Gradient larger in northern hemisphere because colder over land than over water Summar land warmer than oceans which dominate southern hemisphere Equator runs around the center of the earth (north= mostly ocean south= mostly land) Highland Biomes As altitude increases, temperature decreases therefore vegetation changes They have orographic rainfall Mountains also affect rainfall thus they have a windward (wet) and leeward (dry) sides (rainshadow) Marine Biomes Depends on temperature, depth of water, saltwater or freshwater Oceans: cover 71% of the earth’s surface Contain over 90% of all water on the planet Average depth of the ocean is 3.7km but up to 11km in trenches (if placed in a trench Mt. Everest would be completely covered) Source of 86% of the water that evaporates into the atmosphere Types of Oceans Intertidal → (land covered periodically by waves or tides) Euphotic →open shallow water to 200m plankton, seaweed, large mammals, coral reefs in warm water. Most fish live on the continental shell that exists around all continents. Marine Ecosystems Photosynthetic phytoplankton (a producer) floats on the top of oceans. 90% is eaten by zooplankton (primary consumer). This in turn provides food for a wide variety of fish and sea mammals Phytoplankton produce about 40% of all the oxygen on the planet and are therefore major absorbers of carbon dioxide which goes into the food chain Most phytoplankton are found in shallow water of continental shelf therefore most fish are found there also. This is why the ocean is blue and not green Most marine life also lives close to the surface this is where there is most access to heat and light Global warming could reduce the amount of phytoplankton which reduce all of the life in the oceans Some falls to the bottom as detritus stored as dissolved carbon dioxide in deep ocean currents over 1,000 years The ocean contains 50 times more gas than the atmosphere so it is vital to delaying global warming Marine protected areas Canada has designated Sable Gully as a MPA 200km off Nova Scotia 70 km long 20 km wide up to 200m deep. It is home to a variety of whale species that are considered vulnerable Disturbing, damaging or destroying animals or coral in this area is illegal Bathyal: deeper water (200-1500m) - Sea floor collects fine sediment and organic debris - Bacteria, fungi, sponges, worms, starfish, some fish Abyssal: deepest part of the ocean. Limited life forms. Cold and dark In the 1970s it was discovered that bacteria live at the bottom of the ocean using sulfides from hydrothermal vents in the sea floor Other chemoautotrophs live on the sulfides released by dead whale carcasses on the seafloor. Allowed for dispersal of bacterias over a period of 30 million years Deep sea trenches collect dead material and support a large amount of species of life Deep Sea trenches There are possibly millions of endemic species living in deep ocean areas A study in 2019 found human garbage in the Mariana trench and damage to deep sea coral due to pollution, mining, shipping and military operations. Fishers are now using bottom trawling in these areas as tuna, sharks and sea mammals live in them. Extent of damage caused is unknown. Unusual life forms Scientists on a ship in 1,000m of water drilled a hole 2,446m into the sea bed to reach the coal deposit. In the sample they found a thriving microbe community- no light, no oxygen and very little water on nutrients but live on carbon compounds in the coal and expel methane- a GHG How did they get there and what implications are there for life on other planets? Ocean Water circulated Top 100m pushed by winds into currents Water moves to equalize temperatures Water moves to equalize salinity Water is pushed away from some coastlines allowing upwelling of deeper water that is nutrient rich- best fishing grounds Animals migrate to find food Salmon and other fish breed in streams but live in oceans. Tuna also migrate Whales breed in warm water but live in cooler waters with more food Giant turtles also migrate LESSON SIX: KINGDOMS OF LIFE The Kingdoms of Life 1) Monerans ➔ Monerans are microscopic single celled organisms that do not have a nucleus i.e. prokaryotic ex. Bateria, amoeba ➔ Can exist in harsh environments ➔ Thought to be the earliest forms of life on earth ➔ Can be helpful or harmful to human life ➔ Self-sufficient: gain their energy from chemicals available in the environment chemotaxis 2) Protists ➔ Protists are mostly one celled organisms but with nuclei and an internal structure i.e eukaryotic. ➔ Some are multi-celled ➔ They Can move around on their own. Eat each other. Some have hard parts which are preserved as fossil 3)Fungi ➔ Developed 400 million years ago ➔ Cannot move around so they grow in a food bearing medium such as soil. ➔ Live on dead organic matter or act as parasites ex. Heterotrophs Secrete enzymes to make food available ➔ Mushrooms (multi celled) yeast (single celled) ➔ Many are asexual 4)Plantae ➔ Multi cellular. Dominate terrestrial ecosystems ➔ Bryophytes need moist environments- moss ➔ Vascular plants have tissue in their stems that transport water and nutrients (ferns, conifers, flowering plants) ➔ It is estimated that there are 235,000 species of flowering plants 5) Animalia ➔ Multi-celled organisms with a nervous system. Have the ability to move. They cannot make their own food so must ingest plants (or other animals that have consumed plants) and digest it in their bodies ➔ Most reproduce sexually ➔ Animalia are the largest kingdom mostly because of the large number of insects which are invertebrates (no backbone) ➔ Vertebrates include amphibians, fish, birds, reptiles and mammals. Mammals feed their young with milk and are homeotherms (they can regulate their body temperature at a constant level), have hair and a four chambered heart *includes humans* Producers and Consumers PRODUCERS Because plants can capture energy and manufacture matter (grow) they are called producers or autotrophs Nearly all other organisms cannot do this and must eat plants or something that has eaten plants in order to live, They are called consumers or heterotrophs Chemotrophs such as bacteria obtain the food they need via chemical reactions The Food Chain Plants are at the base of the food chain weather a small flower or a giant fir tree Herbivores are animals that eat plants range in size from insects to elephants (primary consumers) Carnivores eat herbivores (secondary consumers) Carnivores that eat other carnivores are tertiary consumers Thus consumers form a food chain This is a simple food chain. PROBLEM: if one species is lost the entire food chain may suffer ex. In the arctic Often there are many species at each level so that a food web exists where if one species is lost others will take its place (ecological redundancy) In some ecosystems, Salmon bring nutrients from the ocean into the forests. When they die they are consumed by animals which distribute their nutrients Overfishing leads to reduction of forest growth and decline in populations from insects to bears OMNIVORES Animals that eat both plants and animals are omnivores. Humans, racoons and cockroaches Decomposers eat dead plants and animals Some herbivores have decomposers (bacteria) in their stomachs to help them digest cellulose ex. Cows,moose DECOMPOSERS Break down plant and animal material into CO2, water, phosphorus, nitrogen, other elements. Fungi consume carbohydrates and break them down B.C forest has 140 different species of birds, mammals and reptiles through which energy can flow and over 4,000 species that break down soil litter In a typical forest environment less then 10% of leaves are eaten by herbivores. The rest fall to the ground and are consumed by detritus based food cycle. Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) eat dead material. Detritivores (earthworms) eat both plant and animal remains. Decomposers Any plants that are not eaten eventually die and are eaten by decomposers Any animals not eaten by other animals also die and are eaten by decomposers Feces released by animals also eaten by decomposers eventually everything becomes heat Trophic Levels Tertiary consumers (top-level carnivores) Secondary Consumers (carnivores) Primary Consumers (Herbivores) Producers (Plants) ‼️Always an exception ➔ The pitcher plant, the provincial flower of Newfoundland, has no photosynthetic surfaces. It is a carnivore that traps and dissolves insects to gain energy Population Control Bottom up: when the amount of plant life is limited the number of herbivores are limited and this reduces the number of carnivores Top-down: when the number of carnivores controls the number of herbivores (wolf population and deer population) Health of the Biosphere is measured by biodiversity - Biodiversity: the number of different species in an ecosystem. The more there are the more energy paths exist and therefore the more resilience the ecosystem has to stress - Genetic diversity within species is another type of biodiversity (farmers grow one variety of corn when many are available) - Loss of biodiversity is an environmental issue Biotic Pyramids Because all animals depend on plants for energy and not all plants are eaten… there must be a smaller mass of consumers than producers and a smaller mass of secondary consumers than primary and so on. Very little energy available for fifth level consumers so very small in number Note: because grasshoppers are small there can be a lot of them but bears are large so few in number The Rule Of Ten Herbivores absorb about 10% of all solar energy (sunlight) absorbed by plants Carnivores absorb about 10% of all energy which is available by eating herbivores Few top level carnivores because little energy is left for them Other reasons why the pyramid works.. ➔ Not all the food that is available is food that will be eaten, therefore there is a loss in energy ➔ Energy is used by the plant or animal so not passed on to predator ➔ It takes about 12 kg of grain to produce about 1 kg of beef so it would be more efficient if humans were vegetarians Productivity Rate at which energy is transformed into biomass kilocalories/square meter/year Overall rate of biomass production= gross primary productivity (GDP) Subtract energy used in cellular respiration= net primary productivity (NPP) Rate of photosynthesis is regulated by amount of light available, nutrients, temperature and moisture Humans take 40% of terrestrial NPP for their own use, so the rest supports all the other organisms on the earth which maintain the environmental conditions we need. As human population increases the demand will increase beyond the ability of the earth to provide it (goes back to malthus; as human population grows, less food available ) High Productivity Most productive areas are estuaries, swamps, and marshes and tropical and mid-latitude rainforests Columbia river estuary is an example. The marshland area where fresh and saltwater mix. Problem pollution and industrial activity Auxiliary Energy flows Tidal energy bring in nutrients and dispersers waste in estuary so the organisms living there do not have to expend energy on these tasks thus have more energy for growth Agriculture depends on fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and fuel for tractors to maximize crop growth. There are costs involved including pollution as additives disperse Low Productivity Areas Deserts lack moisture Tundra lacks heat Open/deep ocean lacks nutrients- not many fish out in the middle of ocean Changes In Primary Productivity Canada: primary production on land improved by 22% 1985-2006 due to climate change. Tropical production increased by reduced cloud cover But warming of North Pacific Ocean has reduced phytoplankton by 40% since 1950 surface temperatures lead to less mixing of water and therefore less nutrients for plants Abiotic Components Light, temperature, wind, water, soil condition such as pH, soil type, nutrient status Soil is a mix of inorganic materials (clay,pebbles) and organic material (decaying leaves) plus air and water Soils are critical to vegetation growth and the microorganisms are critical to soil formation without them it is just bare rock One teaspoon of soil may contain millions of bacteria, algae and fungi in addition to lager species worms, mites, millipies, insects Soils begin from a parent material, rock which has been broken down (weathered) and transported by Rock breaks down into elements such as calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus. Different rocks develop different collections of nutrients Weathering of exposed sulfide minerals at the surface produces sulphuric acid which accelerates the weathering process, changes the chemical compositions of stream water and releases CO2 into the atmosphere Soil Profile (characteristics) ➔ “O” Horizon: layer of organic material (decaying vegetation) on the surface ➔ “A” horizon primarily organic mixed into mineral matter mixed humus gives it a darker color ➔ “B” horizon water moves clays down to this layer- lighter color- more mineral content ➔ “C” horizon weather remnants of underlying bedrock (called “D” horizon) Different Climates = different profiles Grassland: chernozems (brown to dark black) Coniferous forest: Podzols (gray) Tropical forest: Ferralization (reddish) Poor Drainage-peat: (bluish-gray clay) Factors determining soil quality Textures: size of the mineral particles in the soil Sand size: 0.0075 to 2mm feel gritty when rubbed between fingers Silt sized: 0.004 to 0.074mm in diameter Clay sized: less than 0.004mm clay feels smooth and cohesive, when it is wet it can be squeezed into forms Types of soil by texture Loams are best for farming: contain organic matter, retain water well, and are easy to plough. Permeability The rate at which water flows through soil. Depends on texture. Large particles (sand) it moves too quickly, small particles clay it does not move and soil is waterlogged Plants rely on ions dissolved in soil water for nutrients to live pH value Degree to which the soil is alkaline result of vegetation, hydrology and atmospheric deposition Different plants have needs → if they become too acidic they will die Farmers obtain a better crop by adding lime if soil is too acidic and sulfur if too alkaline Effect of time Time is critical factor in soil formation Tropical soils have been exposed to millions of years of chemical and physical erosion and have lost nearly all of their nutrients Glaciated areas like northern Canada the soil has been scrapped away and soil formation has only 8,000 years to develop and granite is slow to break down has few nutrients Soil orders: canadian system Places where retreating ice has deposited large quantities of clay are very fertile (the Prairies and southern Ontario) Main soil types in Canada Cryosols 40% associated with permafrost Podzols 15.6% grey under coniferous forest Brunisols 8.6% brown soils under forest Luvisols 8.8% higher clay content forest Chernozems cover 5.1% are the most productive Black/dark brown under grassland Organics 4% wetland soils A wide variety of other types of soil c.1% each LESSON SEVEN: CHANGES IN PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council Assesses some 7,000 species in Canada Identified 1,659 species at risk. Of most concern are the 129 species with 75% of their range in Canada with 99 species endemic (only found in) to Canada Important because of the basis of the natural resource sector of the economy, forestry, agriculture, ecotourism and recreation, biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. Food supply for Indigenous people in particular Endemic species are only found in one location. Canada has 54 endemic species of vascular plants, mammals, freshwater fish, and molluscs Vancouver Island marmot, Acadian whitefish, 28 plants exclusively found in the Yukon Not all insects, bacteria, and fungi are undesirable In fact, many are beneficial For example, insects fertilize flowers and control pests (bees) Crustaceans provide food for fish Bacteria recycles nutrients Fungi are essential for bread, beer, and penicillin Convention of Biological Diversity Established in 1992. 2012 established goals for 2020 At least 17% of terrestrial and inland waters and 10% coastal waters designated protected including inventory and data collection List of species at risk recovery strategies made law Conservation and enhancement of wetlands Research on effects on climate change Sustainable forest and agriculture management Fish, invertebrates and aquatic plants managed Pollution levels in Canada waters reduced Identify pathways of alien species (things that are not native to Canada- how did they get here?) and management Aboriginal use of biological resources maintained with compatible with sustainability with respect for aboriginal knowledge Taking Action Develop innovative methods of conservation and sustainable use and biodiversity Make part of elementary and secondary school criteria More canadians involved in nature and conservation activities The Auditor general’s Report of 2018 said Canada would not meet any of its goals by 2020 the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change was not providing effective leadership, coordination, or collecting necessary data How are we doing in Canada? Areas of protected land have increased and populations of some marine mammals are improving but: - There is a loss of old forest - Changes in river flows (dam construction) - Loss of wildlife habitat to agriculture - Increased wildfires (warmer/drier climate) - Declines in bird populations (chemicals) Temperature increases, shifting seasons, changes in precipitation, ice cover, snowpack and frozen ground are altering ecosystems (ex. For polar bears and caribou) Great Lakes affected by nutrient overloads, acid deposition, and introduction of non-native species The Tropical Forests At least half of the world’s species live in the 7% of the surface covered by tropical forests 100 sq m in costa rica contained 233 tree species One tree in Venezuela was home to 47 different species of orchids There are 97 species of beetles that live on sloths 175 different species of fish in the Amazon More species creates a positive feedback loop as they protect themselves from predators while improving their ability to obtain food. Plants evolve to protect themselves from insects. They also tend to be spread out from each other rather than in stands In the tropics trees get nutrients from fallen plant materials so roots are close to the surface and soil has few nutrients. Nutrients are in the biomass. If forests are cleared the soil will not support agriculture Implications All of the Earth’s inhabitants are interlocked in environmental systems that are dependent on one another for survival. Changes in open system has impacts on others Society must transform itself from a throwaway society built on use of ever increasing matter and energy to one in which energy efficiency is improved and matter use is reduced A species may have a wide range of tolerance to some factors and a narrow range to others Species with the widget ranges of tolerance for all factors tend to be the most widely distributed-cockroaches, rats, weeds, pests Eurasian water milfoil is found from Bangledesah to Canada (invasive species) Response to growth factors is not independent. Grass is more susceptible to drought when nitrogen intake is low Tolerance for different factors may vary though the life cycle (ex. As juveniles or when reproducing) Some species can adapt to slowly changing conditions up to a point but if a threshold of change is reached it will die What Can You Do? Learn about local ecosystems and species and the factors that influence their distribution Understand the main biodiversity challenges Determine how you can get engaged in resolving these challenges (consider joining an NGO) Be relentless in your search for government information particularly reports which may not be favorable, and NGo reports and private sector What We Need To Do Minimize our contribution to global warming Buy organic food Do not introduce new species into the environment (pet fish): clean your gear after boating or hiking, buy local firewood and native plants Get to know local fauna and flora so you recognize invasive species. Join a campaign to eradicate invasive species Join a campaign to save an endangered species Join a group changing the ecosystem for the better The International Convention on Biological Diversity was developed to save this important element of the environment but to date success has been limited both internationally and in Canada Beyond the influence of human actions which change ecosystems and generally decrease biodiversity, all ecosystems change over time naturally Ecological Succession 10,000 years ago all of Canada was covered by ice up to several km thick Nothing lived in Canada Therefore the number of species today is less than in non-glaciated areas Estimated about 140,000 species of which half have been named The wide ranging nature of our existing species (migrate to USA, Central America in winter) thus not only found in Canada Chapter Four: Rates of ecosystem change Depends on the factors that are driving the change The response of particular species (not every single species will react the same way) How species will interact with each other and how they respond collectively and individually to changes in the abiotic environment Collective and individual responses Response of Species For plants it relates to range to tolerance to light, nutrients, soil type. Responses to the abiotic environment For animal distribution and availability of food, potential predators. The responses of individual species, the interaction between species Collective and individual responses Rate of Change May be very fast as forest fire Some are slow such as climate change which allows for adaptation. However, climate change is speeding up due to higher greenhouse gasses Changes in vegetation change other living things in the food chain Conversely change in other life forms may change vegetation Change in the tropics is rapid (5 months to recycle plant material) but in temperature climates the same process may take 350 years. Needle-leaf trees decay very slowly compared to deciduous There are also changes in the rate of recycling for example in spring trees and plants absorb more CO2 as they are growing then in the fall and winter when leaves die and plants go dormant Often lichen which can live on rock and overtime will break it down while their biomass holds water and nutrients Over centuries the environment changes sufficiently to support moss. Moss grows faster and biomass accumulates forming soil. The lichen will be out competed by the moss This allows herbaceous plants such as grass and annual flower dandelions and fireweed to spread quickly. Seeds may lie in the soil for years before the conditions are right for them to grow Overtime, hardy shrubs will begin to grow and light tolerant trees such as birch, oak and aspen Once these trees have grown and create shaded areas, other trees such as hemlock and cedar begin to grow and will eventually take over the area. The shade limits ground level vegetation. It is then that you reach a Climax Community Succession to Climax Community Reality of climax situation In nature disturbances such as fire, insect infestations, floods, and ice storms will prevent climax from occurring These disturbances are discrete in time and space changing populations, communities and ecosystems and thus changing the succession process. Rather than moving towards a climax most ecosystems move back and forth through various stages It is now believed that these interruptions are a natural part of they eating functioning of ecosystems Major Ecosystem Disturbance Mountain pine beetles are killing 18 million hectares of forests in BC and Alberta Preventing the forest from achieving climax. They are creatine a situation for secondary succession Secondary Succession Succession that occurs in a place that has been previously vegetated so that soil exists ex. After a fire, avalanche or with the abandonment of farm fields. Change will be quicker Result depends on types of species, interactions among species, and unpredictable factors (complex) Over the past 50 years Glaciers have been retreating. Hardy species such as willow or alder can establish without previous stages Sea levels have been rising The edges of ecosystems are usually suitable for two different communities and therefore have more diversity than other areas (ex. The tree line is not a line but an area containing both trees and grass) Climate Change Problem Egg laying, spawning and flowering events occur sooner disturbing food cycles (ex. Insects are not available for young birds and the chicks starve) Auxiliary Energy Flows Tidal energy brings in nutrients and disperses waste in an estuary so the organisms living there do not have to expend energy on these tasks thus have more energy for growth Agriculture depends on fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and fuel for tractors to maximize crop growth. There are costs involved including pollution as additives disperse The Role Of Fire Fire is a natural occurrence and has several benefits It releases nutrients from the biomass into the soil increasing the diversity of plants that will grow and stimulates growth of grasses and herbs that increase presence of herbivores and therefore of carnivores. It removes shade which increases soil temperature which increases microbial action and deposition Intense fires may lead to the replacement of trees with grasses and shrubs Lodgepole pine seeds are only released from the cones at high temperatures. A lack of fire removes this species from the ecosystem Regrowth after Mount St. Helens eruption (may 18,1980) From prehistoric times humans have used fire to: make it easier to see and herd animals in grasslands, to clear forests for agriculture. More recently for insect and disease control Too frequent fires can cause nutrient depletion preventing trees from growing Since the 1800s people thought that fire was “bad and tried to suppress it resulting in changes to the ecosystems The buildup of dead leaves and branches on the forest floor led to more intense (and damaging) fires Since 1960s controlled burns are used to imitate natural situations and maintain certain plants and animals A positive feedback loop Climate change increase temperatures and reduces rainfall which leads to more frequent and intense fires These fires releaser more carbon dioxide held in the biomass into the air which leads to further temperature increases Effects of change Caribou depend on lichen as a main food source. Global warming has allowed other plants to move further north and remove the lichen. This had an effect on caribou food supply and migration Sand dunes are another area of primary succession. Grasses that can withstand water and temperature variability and moving sand start a process which may lead to shrubs and then hardy trees Vegetation and soil makeup Difference in vegetation in Gros Morne Park are due to soil minerals The brown area is high in nickel, chromium and magnesium unsuitable for trees while the green frosted area has calcium they prefer Aquatic Succession A lake or pond also goes through a succession as they fill up with nutrients and sediment and as aquatic plants take root and grow which captures more sediment In moist climates a floating mat of vegetation grows outward from the shore creating a bog. Cattails and other marsh plants grow and displace water. The former lake becomes a meadow. Willows and other trees follow Invasive Alien Species An alien species is any species not native to the area in which it is growing Many will not survive, but generalists that reproduce quickly may destroy existing ecosystems, the plants and animals that live there and reduce biodiversity. In Canada 22% of endangered species are so because of alien invasions 12% of species in Canada are non-native World Conservation Union’s 100 worst include: - Dutch Elm disease, purple loosestrife, leafy spurge, green crabs, Japanese knotweed, water fleas, gypsy moths, carp, feral cats, rainbow trout, sterlings, rats 500 alien plants are agriculture weeds that we all pay to have removed via food prices Further details can be found in the textbook over a review of damage to the great lakes Two Strategies for survival K-Strategists R-strategists Late reproducing age Early Reproductive Age Few, larger young Many, small young More care for young Little care of young Slower development Rapid development Later reproductive age Early reproductive age Greater competitive ability Limited competitive ability Longer Life Short Life Larger adults Small adults Live in generally stable environments Live in variable or unpredictable environments Emphasis on efficiency Emphasis on productivity Stable populations usually close to carrying Large population fluctuations usually far below carrying capacity capacity LESSON EIGHT: ECOSYSTEM CHANGE Range of tolerance (Niche) All organisms have a range of conditions that they can tolerate and survive. Three zones May be too much or too little: warmth, ight, water, food supply, predators- range Limiting Factors Many things limit the presents of plants or animals in an area Low temperatures limit plant growth Lack of water limits growth in most ecosystems Change in salinity of aquatic ecosystem Lack of iron in ocean surface limits photosynthesis Low phosphorus content of soil limits plant growth Dominant Living Factor All factors required to live have a minimum level at which an organism can survive and all of these factors must exist at least at this level The factor closest to this minimum in the dominant limiting factor A major goal of agriculture is to remove these limiting factors ex. Weeding out competing plants, supply sufficient water, use fertilizer to provide missing nutrients Water is often a key determinant Trees require about 1000mm of precipitation/ year Grass will dominate in 750-1000 mm/yr Cacti, sagebrush dominate below that The tundra surface contains a lot of standing water in summer which is ideal for mosquitoes Habitat The niche surroundings of an organism. Where it lives The space and resources it needs to live (food, water, shelter) and to reproduce Terrestrial habitat: based on land Aquatic habitat: something based in or on water Habitats can be defined more precisely; forest, meadow, marsh, lake Competitive Exclusion Principle No two species can occupy the same niche in the same area. Competition may be between members of the same species if resources are limited or between members of different species that have similar habitats Fundamental Niche (Potential range) realized niche (actual range) In a stable community no niche is left unfilled and no two species can occupy the same niche in the same place at the same time. Each species wants to reduce competition and maximize reproduction rate. Competition and resource partitioning e.g. different birds live in different parts of the same tree. Or some species may be nocturnal (owls) while others feed in the daytime (hawks). Animals which are specialists (e.g. panda only eats bamboo) are more likely to be endangered than generalists (e.g. black bears eat a wide variety of things including human trash) Many species identify territory which they claim particularly for reproduction (territoriality) Song birds, cats & dogs urinate, some animals fight. Predator-Prey Relationships The populations of some animals are determined by their relationship to a predator. Predators use an optimal foraging technique. E.g. Eating a lot of little animals is easier than catching one large one. Select the weakest animal in a population (young or old) or hunt in a group When hare are numerous lynx become numerous. When they kill too many hares their numbers decline also. When there are few lynx, hare become numerous. Prey species also have techniques such as camouflage, alarm calls, and grouping to flight. Plants have thorns or poisons to prevent being eaten. Many medications come from plants. Symbiotic Relationships: Parasitism Two species live together. The contact benefits one species and harms the other. Tape worms, ticks, lamprey, mistletoe. Some can move on mosquitoes, dog fleas Mutualism Two different species live in direct contact with each other for the benefit of both Lichens are algae and fungi together. The alga is the produces and food source for the fungus and the fungus provides structure and physical support the algae needs Commensalism Benefits go to one of the two species but the other is not hurt. Cattle stir up insects for birds to eat. Keystone Species Changes to the population of this species has effects up and down the food chain or to the habitat of other species Ex. the beaver builds dams to control water levels which controls water supply for many other living things in the area (waterfowl, muskrats, frogs, otters) Beavers are the second largest rodent in the world and it is estimated there were over 60 million of them before Europeans arrived. Their numbers are increasing again Beaver pods lead to the rotting of plant material which releases methane, a significant greenhouse gas. More beavers means more GHG Types of Biodiversity The more variety there is-the greater the resilience (ex the greater the change of survival) Genetic diversity: variation within a particular species. For example, there are numerous types of corn but farmers tend to grow only one variety increasing the danger of loss due to insects or disease, flooding or drought Species Diversity: variety of different plants and animals in a community so that if one is removed there is a replacement available (ex in the food chain). Farmers kill “weeds” and “pests” reducing species diversity Ecosystem Diversity: different habitats for living things. Humans tend to decrease ecosystem diversity, e.g. by draining wetlands A biodiversity count Scientists have identified 1.8 million different species although there may be between 5 and 20 million that we didn't know about 56% are insects 14% are plants 3% are vertebrates (mammals, birds, fish) 15% live in the oceans Most unknown are bacteria and fungi Greater diversity is nature's way of preventing extinction. Human activities have a tendency of preventing biodiversity Biodiversity in Canada General pattern is the further from the equator the less the biodiversity Latin america 85, 000 plant species North America 17, 000 Canada 4, 000 Primary cause is solar radiation (temperature) which increases evolutionary speed. Canada has seasons when things do not grow One place left in Canada where there should be a lot of variation, Carolinian Canada Carolinian Canada Southern Ontario has highest number of tree species in Canada mix of deciduous and coniferous – warmest place except Vancouver 360 bird species some migratory 90 stay -30 different types of warbler 40% of rare, threatened and endangered species due to agriculture and urban areas What is a system? A set of things that work together to provide a desired outcome The education system is a collection of buildings and instructors who present knowledge to students so that they can obtain a degree The transportation system is a set of roads and vehicles that provide a way to travel form your home to the university The building has a heating system that generates and distributes heat at a rate that makes classrooms comfortable Natural systems range from the pollination of a flower by a bee, to the currents of the ocean that redistribute heat globally A system may have receive matter and energy from outside itself-called inputs A system may release matter and energy- called output Matter and energy that move through the system are called throughputs A closed system exchanges energy but not matter An open system exchanges both matter and energy Natural systems form the basis of all human activity. We will discuss them next We have observed only a small part of the natural system and still have a lot to learn We examine the state of a system and try to calculate what effect various changes might have, ex. How many fish can be removed from a river On the basis of our understanding we try to replace natural systems with human controlled systems Social, ecological, technological and management constraints of society The need to continually monitor the effects of human actions on the natural system Natural Systems The biosphere is made up of many natural systems. They are subject to change. Humans can either adapt or attempt to correct these changes in order to maintain human life. POSSIBLE SCENARIO A farmer plants a crop. If there is not enough rain (no water available) he can… a) Turn to irrigation b) Find a crop that lives on less water c) Move to a location with more water Positive feedback: the output of a system becomes an input to the same system and encourages continuation or enhances the process. Snow reflects sunlight but heat from the sun melts snow. Bare earth absorbs heat and increases snow melt. Negative feedback: the output becomes an input that inhibits the process. Additional heat may increase precipitation. Snow then covers more of the surface and more sunlight is reflected Homeostasis: continuation of normal conditions In order to understand complex systems scientists try and simplify them into models Because we don't know all the complexity of systems, our models contain uncertainty. But we use them to estimate the status of a given system EXAMPLE Farmers want to MAXIMIZE crop yield so they apply pesticides and herbicides to kill things that compete with the crop Assumes change will be minor, incremental and linear. Often it is not The crop becomes less resilient to change (ex. Windstorm, hail may destroy whole field) Models Definition: any generalization of reality Arithmetic, mental, computer, laboratory Used because it is not possible to test everything directly Can not feed people position to see if they die Can not rebuild a mountain or an evolutionary process- use historical data A workable knowledge system Maintain and use a high quality, reliable, uniform and comprehensive data network available to all stakeholders and to meet their needs Should include analytical models to identify best choices Indigenous or local knowledge should be built into a system to integrate with quality science research Enabling Effective Decision Making Begin with a policy that plans for assessment, development, management and monitoring of resources and environment supported by laws that identify regulatory mechanism, enforcement and staff training. Coordination of actions to prevent duplication-creation of a committee to oversee decision making within and between agencies Consensus based decision making (everyone gets a vote) to create a feeling of ownership between various organizations and levels of government Strong community awareness and participation enhances feeling of ownership of projects Wide stakeholder participation in decision making at all levels LESSON NINE: U.N. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Clear Planning Process ➔ Well defined objectives realistic about possible options that reflect environmental constraints on development, and turf disputes between agencies ➔ Effective communication and a willingness to cooperate and use a balanced agreement- driven mechanism and monitoring of agreements Identify finances ➔ Taxes, a budget appropriation ➔ Tariffs (fees collected) ➔ Transfers (from other funding sources) ➔ A clear and legal auditing process required (to see how money was spent) Timeline 2022 Summit on Sustainable Development ➔ Johannesburg Declaration importance of concept to world community ➔ An Implementation Plan outlining actions and priorities ➔ Statement of Partnerships: government, private and NGO …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2003 Commission On Sustainable Development ➔ Report on Johannesburg and Agenda 21 in 2017 - Topics: energy, climate change, oceans, waste management, mining, forestry, agriculture, transport Sustainable Product Certification ➔ Forest products certified heaters ➔ 1995: 3.24 million hectares ➔ 2018: 440.3 million ➔ About 11% of all global forests ➔ 250 fisheries worldwide are now certified Agenda for sustainable development ➔ In 2015, the UN member states adopted the 2030 agenda for Sustainable Development ➔ A 15 year plan to achieve sustainability with 169 specific targets and 230 approved indicators involving government, business and the public opportunities for involvement UN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS Goal one: end poverty in all forms everywhere - At the end of 2014 extreme poverty was reduced by half but…. - 8 million people die each year because they make less than $1 a day. 2.8 billion people make less than $1.90/day the poverty level in most developing countries. Working poor also dropped by 66%. Only 10% make less than $1.90/day Goal two: zero hunger- achieve food security and improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture - Population experiencing hunger has been increasing - 2000 15% 2015 11% Goal three: Good health and well being - Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other disease improving maternal health - Ensure healthy lives promote well-being for all ages, Child mortality was almost halved Goal four: Quality Education - Ensure equitable and quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all children - Girls have the opportunity to go to school Goal five: Gender Equality - Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Goal six: Clean Water and Sanitation - Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. A reality for 2.3 billion people Goal seven: affordable and clean energy - Ensure availability of adorable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all Goal eight: Decent work and economic growth - Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all Goal nine: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure - Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation Goal ten: reduce inequalities - Reduce inequalities within and among cultures Goal eleven: sustainable cities and communities - Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable Goal twelve: responsible consumption and production - Ensure sustainable production and consumption patterns - Wealthier countries will have to reduce consumption by 90% for sustainability and equality to happen Goal thirteen: Climate Action - Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts - Canada: temperature increases over land in Canada are double the world average - Second highest per capita emissions of greenhouse gasses in the world - Signed the Kyoto agreement to cut emissions by 6% by 2012. Instead they went up by 29%. Canadia is the only country to withdrawal from the treaty Goal fourteen: Life Below Water - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Goal fifteen: Life on land - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Humans have averted the worst consequences of environmental degradation through technology Goal sixteen: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions - Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Goal seventeen: Partnerships for the goals - Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development Lakehead ranks among top universities in the world for societal impact based on U.N sustainable Development Goals Lakehead university has once again been rankeds in the top 10 percent globally for universities making an impact through a commitment to sustainability and positive societal change, ans the top-ranked university with under 10,000 students in Canada and North America The 2024 Times Higher Education (THE) Impact Rankings evaluated 1,963 participating institutions worldwide according to the UN SDGs. The 17 SDGs were established in 2015 as a blueprint for achieving a better, more sustainable future for all, and include goals such as no poverty, zero hunger, life on land, life below water, and partnerships focused on advancing the SDGs, among others. Lakehead's ranking reflects key operational initiatives, curricular programming and research projects that focus on addressing sustainability and inequality. "Students are more often choosing where to study based on an alignment of values because they want to be part of a learning environment that is making a positive impact on local and global communities," says Gillian Siddall, President and Vice-Chancellor of Lakehead University. "It is an honour to be recognized for Lakehead's deep commitment to tackling some of our world's greatest challenges. Being ranked in the top 10 per cent globally really hits home how much a university of Lakehead's smaller size consistently exceeds expectations. This is an exceptional achievement that students, faculty and staff can all take pride in. THE’s impact rankings added a university’s success in delivering on the UN’s SDG’s across the areas of research, stewardship, outreach and teaching using a range of quantitative and qualitative measures. Of the 1,963 post-secondary institutions evaluated, THE ranked Lakehead as a world leader in: 11th in the world and 3rd in Canada for SD1: No Poverty. Lakehead University's campuses are located in regions where the median income is below the provincial and national average. As one of the largest employers, post-secondary institutions and economic drivers in northwestern Ontario and Simcoe County, Lakehead University has a direct impact on the economic and social resilience in the regions it serves Lakehead delivers numerous supportive anti-poverty programs for students-including providing over $11 million annually in scholarships and bursaries-in addition to community-based programs such as the Ingenuity start-up assistance program to help local businesses get off the ground. 12th in the world and 2nd in Canada for SDG15: Life on Land. This SDG focuses on conserving life on land, sustainable terrestra recoisten, sustaining managing forests, combating desertification, and halting and reversing land degradation and biodiversity loss. Lakehead University incorporates sustainability principles into curriculum, research initiatives and campus operations to ensure the health and resilience of our ecosystems for generations to come. Students at Lakehead enjoy a range of programs that support land ecosystems through education including programs in environmental studies, natural resource management, forestry management, sustainability sciences, and more. 20th in the world and 4th in Canada for SDG14: Life Below Water. Healthy lakes, rivers and oceans are essential to human existence and Lakehead is a world leader in conservation and sustainable use of freshwater ecosystems. Through strategic partnerships, Lakehead is leveraging collective expertise to drive innovation and impact marine conservation initiatives to foster environmental stewardship. Lakehead supports healthy aquatic ecosystems through community outreach programs, research initiatives, and degree programs such as undergraduate studies in water resource science. The Impact Rankings also placed Lakehead University as 37th in the world and 4th in Canada for SDG6: Clean Water and Sanitation, 65th in the world and 7th in Canada for SDG13: Climate Action, and 84th in the world and 11th in Canada for SDG17: Partnerships for the Goals. Lakehead performed in the top 200 universities in the world spanning 14 of the 17 SDGs. “Lakehead is a gem among Canada’s many university offerings for both domestic and international students,” says President Siddall. “We are a leader when it comes to building a better, more sustainable future—we have accomplished so much and have more to do as we strengthen our commitment to SDGs in our new strategic plan that is currently under development. For students who know that this kind of work is essential for our collective future, this year’s rankings solidify Lakehead as a destination of choice for anyone who is passionate about sustainability and building a hopeful future.” Lakehead University’s two campuses are located in Thunder Bay in northwestern Ontario next to Lake Superior and the boreal forest, and in Orillia, known as Ontario’s lake country. As a leader in environmental programs, students benefit from exceptional field work and immersive learning experiences, cutting-edge laboratories, research opportunities, and have access to world-class faculty offering supportive instruction in smaller class settings. This year’s Impact Rankings evaluated post-secondary institutions from over 125 countries including 24 Canadian universities. To view Lakehead’s full results, visit the university’s Times Higher Education profile at: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/lakehead-university LESSON TEN: MANAGEMENT VISIONS Vision Ends need to be distinguished from means Before deciding what to do you must decide what the desirable future conditions are A clear vision statement Realistic, credible, desirable for region or group An ideal: is a shared vision to which many people are committed Achieving this is difficult because there are so many interests in society some of which are mutually exclusive How to develop a vision Ask what is likely to happen given a continuation of current trends or if some are changed What ought to happen. What will happen and what one would like to happen may be two different things What can happen? Is there a feasible solution to bring these closer? Forecasting and Backcasting Forecasting: driving down a highway and calculating where one will be by nightfall. Assumes no one has free will Backcasting: deciding where one wants to be by nightfall and planning a day’s drive that will get one there. Assumes no one has free will to determine what tomorrow will be like Vision Statements PROBLEM: they are often very brief, not specific Types of visions CATALYTIC: a prompt or stimulation to create a vision. Recognizes a need to create an awareness of aspirations and opportunities LEGITIMIZED: a legitimized vision via political process, mobilizing resources ARTICULATED: a more specific statement that various stakeholders can buy into. Still has room for flexibility and negotiation. ENACTED: identifies specific initiatives or projects highlighting teamwork EMBEDDED: a mix of formal and informal interactions to provide sustained support ROUTINIZED: reduces energy, focus, and financing so a new vision is required Ethics and Values Vision statements must reflect what values will prevail- these may be existing values or call for new ones Ethics are a set of moral principles that guide the actions and decisions of an individual or group. They determine right from wrong or good from bad and encourage appropriate behaviour Situations may exist where no ethical standard applies Some standards may conflict with others We cannot always predict the outcomes of our decisions and there may be shades of grey- some of it is good and some of it is bad Ethical principles should direct action Do unto others as you would have them do unto you Actions should be equitable, transparent and someone should be accountable Ex. if someone wants to re-do their paper since they got a bad mark, everyone must then be permitted to re-do their paper even if they don't want to Many values are implicit-known without saying. It may be difficult in a cross-cultural setting when these values are unknown to side Not as easy as that A man was asked what he would do if he had two houses and he said keep one and give one to the state. He was then asked what he would do if he had two cows and he said keep one and give one to the state. Then he was asked what he would do if he had two chickens and he said keep them both. Why is that? He was asked. Because I have two chickens he replied POINT OF STORY: Perspective changes once you have something Anthropocentric or technocentric perspective In western society, many people believe that they have a dominant role relative to nature and that the environment and natural resources exist to satisfy human needs and wants in contrast to the ecocentric or biocentric worldview with emphasis on humans as part of nature and recognition of the inherent value of non-human species and things questions this Ecocentric or Biocentric View Values that there is a harmonious and balanced natural world that humans tend to disrupt- unintentionally Reverence for, humility and responsibility towards, and stewardship of non-human nature Favours low-impact technology, prefers the small and personal, pro diversity and change The Ecosystem Approach A holistic approach with emphasis on interrelationships Includes systems concepts and analysis Decision made about one system can have effects on other systems (land,water, wildlife) Consider natural, economic and social systems Agricultural chemicals can increase production but may lead to eutrophication or to poisoning of food product Problems to overcome Fragmentation of knowledge (different disciplines) Fragmentation of ecosystems into different political jurisdictions Fragmentation of management responsibilities (different departments) Emphasis on a single resource uses or economic sectors and conflicts over possible alternative uses being ignored (ex. forestry and fishing) Failure to recognize connections between ecological and socio-economic systems Ignoring change in biophysical and socio-economic systems esp. If rapid or unexpected Being reactive to change rather than proactive Remember changes made in one area may affect changes in other areas (ex. Pollution of river and towns downstream, air pollution carried long distances Ecosystems are in constant change. Land use from forest to farming to urban, climate change An Ecosystem Approach Should Include the whole system Focus on interrelationships among elements Recognize dynamic nature of ecosystem Include concepts of carrying capacity, resilience and sustainability Use a broad definition of environments natural, physical, economic, social and cultural Encompasses both rural and urban Based on natural units (watersheds) rather than political boundaries Embrace all spatial levels of activity: local, regional, national, international Understand people are a part of nature Emphasis on species other than humans and generations other than the present Based on an ethic in which progress is measured by the quality, well-being, integrity, and dignity it accords natural, social and economic systems The myth of the Future There is no such thing as THE future There are alternative possible futures Which future happens depends on choices made and actions We make those choices under conditions of uncertainty, one has to make choices and then try to make those choices happen rather than leaving things alone in the hope they will arrange themselves Many unexpected things happen Price of oil June 2008: $145, dec 2008: $30 June 2014: $103, july 2024 $86 These changes… - The closure of the cod fishery in the 1990s put many people in Atlantic Canada out of work affect on factories, on buying power of people reopened 2024 - The 2001 destruction of the World Trade Tower increased protection costs for soft targets including pipelines and water reservoirs - Melting of sea ice and opening of Northwest Passage The Cost Of mistakes Managers use a trial and error to learn what should be done to solve a problem The experiment should not create a situation that is irreversible The personal and political investment in decisions makes people unwilling to reverse their decisions/actions. People do not like to admit or pay for their mistakes. Adaptive Management 1) Explicit about what expect so can design methods and measurement apparatus 2) Monitor process to be sure planned outcomes are happening 3) Use of information for learning. Better understanding, correct errors- change actions Adaptive Co-management The learning process is improved by integration of different knowledge systems Shared power in decision making creates shared responsibility for outcomes Features of Adaptive Co- Management Shared vision, goal or problem definition to provide common focus among stakeholders Promoting adaptability to sustain a system on a desired trajectory

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