Five Themes of Geography PDF

Five Themes of Geography Location, Place, Region, Movement, Human-Earth Relationships absolute location Exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates relative location The position of a place in relation to another place place A specific point on Earth distinguished b...

Five Themes of Geography Location, Place, Region, Movement, Human-Earth Relationships absolute location Exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates relative location The position of a place in relation to another place place A specific point on Earth distinguished by a particular character. region An area distinguished by a unique combination of trends or features. movement flow of things, people, and ideas human-earth relationships impacts of the environment on people and their impact on the environment. a complex web of multiway relationships. process a set of actions or mechanisms in a particular order systems a collection of subsystems that combine to create equilibrium, which can be changed under extreme stress positive feedback loop a feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified negative feedback loop A feedback loop in which a system responds to a change by returning to its original state, or by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring. Pleistocene The last major Ice Age, beginning about 2.6 million years ago and ending about 11700 years ago. Holocene The geological era since the end of the Great Ice Age about 11,000 years ago. The moderate climate has supported the massive agricultural revolution Anthropocene A proposed modern geological era during which humans have dramatically affected the environment. A direct result of large human populations and the growth of technology. Cartography science or art of making maps distortion a change in the shape, size, or position of a place when it is shown on a map scale the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. operational scale scale where social or natural processes play out and are investigated at a certain level of analysis Mercator Projection a map projection of the earth onto a cylinder. accurately shows shape and direction Gall-Peters Projection a map projection that shows the relative sizes of the earth\'s continents accurately (equal area). distorts the shape Goode Homolosine Projection a 20th century map of Earth with equal area of landmasses but interruptions of the oceans to more accurately represent a \"flattened\" sphere. Azimuthal Projection a map projection in which a region of the earth is projected onto a plane tangential to the surface, typically at a pole or the equator. Tissot\'s Indicatrix circles used to visualize distortions due to map projection. These circles are equal in area before projection, but distorted afterwards GPS (global positioning system) a system that accurately determines the absolute location of something on Earth using triangulation GIS (geographic information system) digital mapping and data analysis used in most sectors of the economy remote sensing The acquisition of data about Earth\'s surface from satellite and aerial imagery Aphelion The place in the Earth\'s orbit where Earth is farthest away from the sun. Occurs on July 4 and is approx. 94.5 million miles away from the sun. Perihelion The place in the Earth\'s orbit where Earth is closest to the sun. Occurs on January 3 and is approx. 91.5 million miles away from the sun speed of light 300,000 km/sec (186,000 miles/sec) solar cycle periodic variation in the Sun\'s magnetic activity and appearance over time sunspots dark areas of the Sun\'s surface, which are cooler than surrounding areas caused by magnetic storms solar minimum When sunspot activity is at its lowest solar maximum When sunspot activity is at its highest Corona the outermost layer of the sun\'s atmosphere Magnetosphere the area surrounding Earth that is influenced by Earth\'s magnetic field Electromagnetic energy all energy traveling in waves through space. Includes light, heat, x-rays, radar, and radio waves; classified by wavelength. Heat Transfer of energy between molecules Insolation incoming solar radiation solar constant the average insolation received at the top of the atmosphere when Earth is at its average distance from the Sun subsolar point The point on the Earth where the Sun angle is 90° and solar radiation strikes the surface most directly at any given point in time (only occurs in the tropics. global net radiation total incoming radiation minus outgoing radiation: positive in the tropics; negative at the poles. Imbalances drive circulation Sun altitude position of the sun relative to the horizon Solar Noon Time of day when sun is highest in the sky sun declination latitude of the subsolar point. Migrates between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N, June solstice) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S, December solstice). At the Equator at equinoxes (March and September) circle of illumination the dividing line between day and night eclipitic plan of orbit which Earth follows axial tilt the angle at which a planet\'s axis tilts (23.5 degrees) Layers of the atmosphere troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere air pressure the force exerted by the mass and motion of air particles. lower at high altitudes, high temperatures, and high humidity atmospheric pressure force exerted on Earth\'s surface by the weight of the air above it Heteroshpere The upper layer of earth\'s atmosphere, which exists higher than roughly 80 kilometers (50 miles) above sea level, where the gases are layered by atomic weight constant gases nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (.9%) variable gases water vapor, carbon dioxide greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to hold onto solar radiation and keeps the Earth warm. Caused by natural and human-accelerated changes, overall causing the Earth to warm anthropogenic greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (77%), methane (14%), and nitrous oxide (8%). they absorb infrared heat radiating from the earth and heat the lower atmosphere ozone layer a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun. natural pollution forest fires, dust storms, volcanoes, earthquakes anthropogenic pollution Photochemical smog (automobile exhaust; high in Nitrogen oxides), Industrial smog (high in CO2, particulates, and Sulfur oxides), aerosol, and soot aersol Solid or liquid particles suspended in gas transmission the unimpeded movement of electromagnetic energy through a medium such as air, water, or glass scattering caused by particles in the atmosphere intercepting and changing the direction of radiation diffuse radiation The energy that reaches the Earth\'s surface after it has been scattered direct radiation The energy that reaches the Earth\'s surface unscattered refraction bending of radiation as it passes through a medium mirage caused by light waves being refracted by different layers of air at different temperatures and densities Rayleigh scattering Gas molecules scattering shorter wavelengths more than long wavelengths, causing the sky to appear blue Mie scattering scattering by particles that are larger than visible wavelengths, causing the sky to appear white albedo The ability of a surface to reflect light. Lower sun altitude=more absorption molecules in the atmosphere and on the surface absorb solar radiation and convert it into another form of energy (heat or chemical). Lower albedo=more Urban Heat Island (UHI) a metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities elevation height of point on Earth\'s surface above sea level altitude distance between an airborne object and Earth\'s surface. higher=colder lapse rate the rate at which air temperature falls with increasing altitude (6.4°C/km) snowline elevation above which there is permanent snow marine effect slow heating and cooling of oceans keeps coastal island temperatures stable continental effect areas far from the ocean have larger ranges of temperature cold snap rapid temperature decrease that endangers humans, agriculture, industry, and commerce heat wave a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather; more dangerous during high humidity wind chill chilling caused by convection of heat from the body in the presence of air currents; the wind blows the warm air around your body away heat index measure of what the temperature feels like because of humidity; humidity slows the evaporation of sweat, which normally takes the heat away wind mostly-horizontal motion of air across Earth\'s surface Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) High-pressure (denser) air moving to area of lower pressure. Caused by uneven heating of the earth Isobar a line drawn to connect points of equal atmospheric pressure Coriolis Force The apparent force, resulting from the rotation of the Earth, that deflects air or water movement. Curves right in Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere. Friction Force (Ff) resistance to wind flow near the ground surface cyclone the rotation of air inward toward a low-pressure point. Counterclockwise in N. Hemisphere and Clockwise in S. Hemisphere primary circulation air flow patterns at a continental scale secondary circulation air flow patterns at regional or local scales Hadley Cell Convection Currents that cycle between the equator, 30 degrees North and South. Ferrel Cell A cell that moves air from 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude Polar Cell Weak circulation cell that occurs between 60 and 90 degrees latitude. Primary Pressure Areas Equatorial Low, Subtropical High, Subpolar Low, Polar High equatorial low a belt of low pressure lying near the equator and between the subtropical highs. Characterized by warm, wet conditions along with the Doldrums and Trade Winds doldrums a frequently windless area in the ITCZ due to weak pressure gradients trade winds reliable winds converging at the ITCZ subtropical high A belt of high pressure located at approximately 30° N and 30° S, which pushes heavy subsiding air outward toward both north and south. Characterized by hot, dry conditions along with the Horse Latitudes and the Westerlies westerlies Dominant winds of the mid-latitudes. These winds move from the subtropical highs to the subpolar lows from west to east. subpolar low a belt of low air pressure at about 60° N and 60° S latitude. Characterized by its cool, wet conditions along with the Polar front polar front boundary at which cold polar air meets the warmer air of the middle latitudes polar high dome of high pressure centered over the poles. Characterized by it\'s cold, dry conditions along with the Polar Easterlies polar easterlies weak, variable winds moving in anticyclonic direction. constant height surface based on sea level constant isobaric surface surface along which the same pressure occurs regardless of altitude. Imaginary \"sheet\" connecting points of the same pressure height contours lines connecting points of equal height along a constant isobaric surface ridge line along which winds converge and low trough line along which winds diverge and accelerate geostrophic wind A wind that moves parallel to the isobars as a result of the balance between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis effect. Rossby waves Geostrophic winds along the polar front jet streams irregular, concentrated bands of westerly winds occurring at several different locations that influence surface weather systems. Moves from west to east at wind speeds of over 300 km/h. Stronger in winter, weaker in summer. land and sea breezes Local winds that occur mostly on coastlines; they are created by the different heating characteristics between land and water. Onshore during the day, offshore at night. valley breeze a local wind produced by the movement of cooler air from the valley that moves up a mountain slope. Caused by sloped heating up earlier than the valley floor mountain breeze The movement of air caused by cool air sinking and moving down the slope of a mountain. Santa Ana Winds Winds flowing over Rockies and to West Coast/Calif. Bring dry hot weather and fuel wildfires katabatic winds Also called gravity drainage winds; they are significant on a larger regional scale than mountain-valley breezes, under certain conditions. Monsoon rainy season in southern Asia when the southwestern monsoon blows, bringing heavy rains. Caused by land-water heating difference and the migration of the ITCZ, bringing warm, moist air north. Oceanic currents a continuous flow of surface ocean water in a prevailing direction and generated by the various forces (Ex. Wind, Coriolis Effect, tides, density difference caused by salinity and temp.) gyre the large, circular surface-current pattern found in each ocean equatorial currents Major ocean currents that move parallel to the Equator due to weak Coriolis Effect. Causes water to pile up along eastern shores subtropical currents caused by gyres in subtropics where Coriolis Effect is stronger. western intensification pertaining to the intensification of warm western boundary currents of each subtropical gyre that are faster, narrower, and deeper than their corresponding eastern boundary currents. Causes sea level to rise on the Eastern coasts of countries upwelling The movement of deep, cold, and nutrient-rich water to the surface. Caused by the movement of coastal water thermohaline circulation an oceanic circulation pattern caused by differences in temperature and salinity that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water. Moves large volumes of water and creates the Global Conveyor Belt. El Niño Warm phase of oscillation every 3-7 years that pauses upwelling, reducing nutrients and marine life. La Niña Opposite of El Niño, but is weaker and less consistent phase change a change from one state (solid or liquid or gas) to another without a change in chemical composition latent heat the energy absorbed or released during a change in state. Does not change the temperature latent heat of evaporation and condensation Energy is absorbed in evaporation and is released in condensation. Causes cooling and heating respectively. saturation when evaporation and condensation are happening at the same rate humidity The amount of water vapor in the air. Warm air holds more vapor specific humidity grams of vapor per kilogram of air (including vapor). (Vapor/Air+Vapor) mixing ratio grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air (excludes vapor). (Vapor/Air) vapor pressure amount of air pressure made up of water vapor molecules relative humidity ratio of actual vapor pressure to maximum possible vapor pressure at the current temperature. dew point temperature at which air would be saturated and condensation forms parcel 3-dimensional \"pocket\" of air with specific temperature and humidity characteristics. Stable resists movement, unstable rises until it\'s surrounded by air with similar density and temperature. adiabatic processes ascending air parcel cools by expansion; descending air parcel heats by compression. These occur without any heat exchange between the parcel and the surrounding atmosphere. environmental lapse rate the rate of temperature decrease with increasing height in the troposphere dry adiabatic rate (DAR) rate of cooling or heating applies only to unsaturated air. Changes \~20°C every 1000m moist adiabatic rate (MAR) rate of cooling or heating in a saturated air parcel. Changes \~6°C per 1000m. Lower than DAR due to latent heat of condensation. lifting condensation level The altitude at which condensation begins (the temperature of the rising air parcel reaches the dew point temperature). Makes cloud bottoms flat unstable atmospheric conditions Rising air parcel has a lower adiabatic rate than the environmental lapse rate of the surrounding air\ Air parcel always warmer than surrounding atmosphere\ Parcel continues to rise, leading to saturation and cloud formation stable atmospheric conditions Environmental lapse rate less than both the DAR and MAR\ Both moist and dry air parcels have adiabatic rates higher than the\ environmental lapse rate\ Both parcels remain cooler than surrounding atmosphere and are forced to\ settle back to original positions fog a cloud layer on the ground that restricts visibility to less than 1km. radiation fog ground cools the air to dew point on calm, clear nights advection fog unsaturated air migrates to a cooler place where it becomes saturated evaporation fog cold air sits over warm water; warm water evaporates and humidifies air to saturation collision-coalescence The process by which cloud droplets merge to form raindrops. Clouds are above freezing temperatures. Bergeron Process The process by which rain is formed in cold clouds. Clouds are below freezing temp and rain starts as snow. Air Mass Classification -c- Continental (dry)\ -m- Maritime (moist)\ \ -T- Tropical\ -P- Polar\ -A- Arctic\ -E- Equatorial lake effect Continental Polar air masses absorbs hear and moisture from lake surfaces to create snowfall convergent lifting air flows toward an area of low pressure, pushing existing air upward. Causes tall clouds and high precipitation in ITCZ convectional lifting Cool air passing over warm surfaces, causing it to heat and rise. orographic lifting air forced upward by a mountain. Causes the Rain Shadow Effect. rain shadow effect air becomes hot and dry as it descends the other side of the mountain range. frontal lifting air is pushed upward along fronts with different temperatures front edge of an air mass (warm or cold) midlatitude cyclone result of two air masses of different meeting. Stronger in Winter when temperature difference is higher. squall line a narrow band of high winds and storms where two air masses meet derecho straight-line wind from fast-moving, severe thunderstorms wind shear gradient in wind speed and/or direction outgassing water vapor emerging from within and below Earth\'s crust eustasy changes in sea level due to changes in total volume of water in oceans glacio-eustasy changes in sea level caused by glaciers freezing and melting hydrologic cycle continuous flow of water around the world and through different states of matter. transpiration water moving from plant leaves into atmosphere overland flow water that flows over the land\'s surface (runoff) inflitration soaking into the surface through soil interception precipitation landing on vegetation or other surfaces before reaching Earth\'s surface streamflow water flowing into streams and rivers. percolation water infiltrating into the subsurface through soil or rock soil-moisture zone volume of water in soil available to plants field capacity The maximum amount of water held by soil particles against the force of gravity; remaining water is available to plants surface water resources Snow and Ice, Rivers and Lakes, and Wetlands. Snow and ice store the majority of surface freshwater snowpack the accumulation of winter snowfall, especially in mountain or upland regions. base flow the sustained flow of a stream in the absence of direct runoff. It includes natural and human-induced streamflows. Natural base flow is sustained largely by groundwater discharges. wetland A land area that is saturated and covered with a shallow layer of water during some or all of the year aquifer subsurface layer of silt, sand, and gravel or permeable rock through which ground water flows artesian water groundwater that is under pressure effluent source water table is higher than the stream channel it connects to, providing continuous water flow. influent source water table is lower than the stream, so the stream feeds into it. ground water mining Removing water from aquifers faster than it can be replaced cone of depression lowering of the water table around a pumping well Köppen\'s Climate Regions -A- Equatorial\ -B- Dry\ -C- Temperate\ -D- Cold\ -E- Polar\ -H- Highland -B- Dry climate with low precipitation and varying temperatures (desert and steppe) -C- Temperate climate around the mid-latitudes that rarely experiences extreme highs or lows (Dry winter, dry summer, no dry season) -D- Cold climate that is mostly continental and has large temperature extremes (dry winter and no dry season) -E- Polar climate where temperature varies by elevation (tundra and ice) -H- Highland regions with no consistent characteristics other than high elevation tropical climates -Rainforest (always warm and moist; consistent thunderstorms)\ -Monsoon (1-month dry season, 6 months of rainfall)\ -Savanna (higher latitude than rainforest; wet in summer, dry in winter) mesothermal climates -Humid Subtropical (hot-summer and winter-dry; prone to intense storms)\ -Marine West Coast (middle-high latitudes with mild winters and cool summers; unpredictable weather.\ -Mediterranean Dry-Summer (70% of precipitation occurs in winter; depleted by spring)\ -Humid Continental Hot-Summer (hot, humid summers; may have a dry season in winter\ -Humid Continental Mild-Summer (cool with low precipitation; snowfall recharges groundwater) high-latitude climates -Subarctic (extreme seasonal variation; areas with more precipitation are more forested)\ -Tundra (8-10 months of snow cover; warmest month does not exceed 10°C (50°F))\ -Ice Cap and Sheet (cold, dry air masses; very low precipitation) highland climates -Highland (occurs at any latitude; colder as elevation increases) dry climates -T+S Hot Desert (wester side of continents; up to 14in of rainfall, some regions get close to none)\ -Midlatitude Cold Desert (low moisture demand and low temp=low precipitation)\ -T+S Steppe (around TSHD; below 24in of rain/year; rain is variable)\ -Midlatitude Cold Steppe (higher latitude that MCD; often affected by Rain Shadow Effect) Paleoclimatology study of past climates based on physical evidence glaciation The process or state of being covered by glaciers or ice sheets. solar irradiance the amount of light energy per unit area orbital eccentricity Earth\'s elliptical orbit around the sun changes over 100000 years. obliquity Axial wobble; tilt of earth\'s axis changes over time (ranges from 21.8- 24.4 degrees) Milankovitch cycles periodic changes in Earth\'s rotation and orbit around the sun that affect climate permafrost permanently frozen ground Evidence of Warming Increasing Temperatures, Ice Melt, Rising Sea Levels, Atmospheric Water Vapor Causes of climate change Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halogenated gases, etc.) radioactive isotope Used to identify the difference between natural CO2 and man-made CO2 exogenic system processes operating at Earth\'s surface, driven by solar energy and the movement of air, water, and ice Geomorphology the study of the characteristics, origin, and development of landforms Superposition a principle that states that younger rocks lie above older rocks if the layers have not been disturbed Uniformitarianism A principle that geologic processes that occurred in the past can be explained by current geologic processes (processes that exist now existed then) radiometric dating Dating using decay of radioactive isotopes. Earth\'s age 4.6 billion years old Moho uneven boundary between crust and mantle contiental crust the crust of which is below land. Made up of silica and aluminum oceanic crust earths crust located under the ocean. Made up of silica and magnesium (denser than continental crust) lithosphere rigid layer that bends or breaks under force asthenosphere plastic layer that deforms and flows under force mineral A solid, inorganic substance of natural occurrence. Has specific formula, crystalline structure, and defining characteristics clasts Broken pieces and fragments of rocks lithification The process that converts sediments into solid rock by compaction or cementation. continental drift the gradual movement of the continents across the earth\'s surface through geological time. seafloor spreading the process by which new oceanic crust forms along a mid-ocean ridge and older oceanic crust moves away from the ridge subduction One plate going under another plate convergent boundary two plates moving toward each other. Produces mountain ranges and subduction zones. divergent boundary A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other. Usually occurs at mid-ocean ridges and causes magma to upwell, creating new crust. transform boundary The boundary between tectonic plates that are sliding past each other horizontally. Located at Faults and creates earthquakes Fault A break in the earth\'s crust Fluvial process Processes involving the work of running water on the surface of Earth erosion and deposition pick-up, transport, and drop-off of material from one place to another watershed (drainage basin) The land from which surface water drains into a particular river, lake, wetland, or other body of water. sheetflow Surface water that moves downslope in a thin film as overland flow; not concentrated in channels larger than rills. rill groove on landscape through which water flows continental divide ridge that divides watersheds that drain to different bodies of water that surround the continent drainage patterns dendritic (tree-like), radial (outward from a slope), rectangular (often near a fault), trellis (parallel drainage flows) gradient an incline or slope; the rate of incline. Seen in longitudinal profile base level The lowest point to which a stream can erode discharge the quantity of water in a stream that passes a given point in a period of time (=Stream Width x Stream Depth x Stream Velocity) exotic stream A stream that flows into a dry region, bringing its water from somewhere else. Hydrograph diagram of the levels or amount of water flow in a river Base flow (hydrograph) Normal discharge of the river (no precipitation) Hydraulic action The force of the moving water wears away the banks and bed of the river abrasion The grinding away of rock by other rock particles carried in water, ice, or wind dissolved load The load contains dissolved materials such as sodium and calcium (not visible most of the time) suspended load The load contains small rocks and soil in suspension, which can make the river look muddy. bed load sediment that is carried by a stream along the bottom of its channel traction dragging of bed load particles saltation bouncing of bed load particles degradation widening/deepening of a stream channel during a flood due to acceleration of water aggradation narrowing/shortening of a stream channel due to sediment deposition stream piracy The process by which one stream captures the headwaters of another stream meandering stream a stream with a channel that curves or loops back and forth on a wide floodplain. Outer portion has a steep, undercut bank, inner portion develops a point bar point bar deposit of sediment build up by a river on the inside bend of a meander oxbow lake A meander that has been cut off from the river graded stream a stream with a gradient adjusted to carry its average sediment load nickpoint The point at which the longitudinal profile of a stream is abruptly broken by a change in gradient; for example, a waterfall, rapids, or cascade. alluvium unconsolidated material, such as gravel, sand, silt, clay, and various mixtures of these, deposited on land by running water sediment sorting larger particles settle upstream, finer particles settle downstream. Caused by higher velocity upstream braided stream A stream or river that is composed of multiple channels that divide and rejoin around sediment bars natural levee An elevated landform composed of alluvium that parallels some streams and acts to confine their waters, except during floodstage. backswamps marshy floodplain landforms that develop behind natural levees in which fine-grained sediments settle after a flood river delta The end of a river where rich deposits of silt build up. This is important to human habitation due to the excellent source of good farmland. soil The loose, weathered material on Earth\'s surface in which plants can grow. Composed of water, air, and fine particles of organic and inorganic matter. parent material the rock material from which the inorganic components of a soil are derived Loess A wind-formed deposit made of fine particles of clay and silt soil horizon a distinct layer within a soil profile soil profile a vertical cross-section of soil showing its succession of horizons and the underlying parent material O horizon The organic horizon at the surface of many soils, composed of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition. Dark in color and high in microbial activity. Contains Humus Humus organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms A Horizon the topsoil layer that is a zone of overlying organic material and underlying mineral material. Most at risk of degradation E Horizon made up of coarse sand, silt, and minerals that don\'t dissolve easily Elluviation water percolating through the E Horizon Leaching removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards B Horizon accumulation of clay, iron, and aluminum from above Illuviation accumulation of material and dissolved compounds from higher layers solum A, E, and B Horizons together (contains virtually all of the biological activity) R Horizon Rock horizon. May be unconsolidated (loose) material or consolidated bedrock. Regolith weathered bedrock. Could be a part of higher horizons Characteristics of soil color, texture, structure, consistency, moisture Color of soil portrays the chemical makeup of soils.\ -Iron Oxides: yellow and red colors\ -Carbonates: white\ -Organic Matter: Black Texture of soil The relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in a mass of soil. Loam is the ideal mixture of all three, ideal for life Structure of soil Crumb, plate, block, prism, column Consistency of soil determined by texture and structure. Reflects the resistance to breaking under different moisture conditions Moisture of soil determined by soil type. hydric soils soil which is permanently or seasonally saturated by water, resulting in anaerobic conditions, as found in wetlands. Soil erosion The loss of topsoil is exacerbated by over-plowing, overgrazing, and farming on slopes. It takes centuries to recover, but is helped by no/low-till agriculture, planting on contours, and agroforestry. Desertification Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting. Results in sandstorms, shrinking lakes, and poverty Oxisols Soil order found in subtropical & tropical rain forest. They are high in iron and aluminum oxides. Often have low fertility, leading to the use of slash-and-burn agriculture Aridsols These are desert soils that are pale, low in moisture and organic matter, and require irrigation. Prone to salinization Salinization upward movement of dissolved salt that can kill plant life Mollisols Grassland soils found on steppes and prairies. They are soft and crumbly and can have high crop yields when fertilized or augmented. Alfisols Moderately weathered forest soils that are fertile given moisture and temperature Ultisols Heavily weathered forest soils that receive higher precipitation and have low soil fertility. carbon fixation The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote). nitrogen fixation process of converting nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb and use dead zone zone of minimal oxygen and life in a body of water, caused by eutrophication. biological amplification pollutant concentrations are amplified ten fold at each trophic level competitive exclusion principle Ecological rule that states that no two species can occupy the same exact niche in the same habitat at the same time Keystone species a species that has an unusually large effect on its ecosystem range of tolerance the limits to the abiotic conditions that a species can tolerate **Mastered (11)** You\'ve been getting these terms right! Select these 11 Homosphere The lower layer of earth\'s atmosphere, which exists from ground level to roughly 80 kilometers (50 miles) above sea level, where the gases are evenly mixed anticyclone the rotation of air outward from a high-pressure point. Clockwise in N. Hemisphere and Counterclockwise in S. Hemisphere horse latitudes a belt of calm air and sea occurring in both the northern and southern hemispheres between the trade winds and the westerlies. Area where sailors would often get stuck polar vortex Semipermanent area of low pressure in the upper atmosphere of Earth\'s two poles. Can move away from poles and bring extreme cold natural oscillations when global circulation patterns swing back and forth due to upwelling. Causes changes in sea-surface temperature, air pressure, winds, and precipitation. saturation vapor pressure Maximum amount of water air will hold (warm air hold more water than cold air) -A- Equatorial climate with high temperatures and high precipitation (rainforest, savanna, monsoon) endogenic system The system internal to Earth, driven by radioactive heat derived from sources within the planet. In response, the surface fractures, mountain building occurs, and earthquakes and volcanoes are activated. floodplain The area subject to flooding during a given number of years according to historical trends. yazoo stream tributary that runs parallel to the larger stream for a great distance before joining pedon smallest unit of soil that represents all the characteristics and variability used for classification