Biodiversity and Environmental Science Notes PDF - Saint Louis University

SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biol...

SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIT 3 Biodiversity A. Definition of Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms from all sources including, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. – IUCN Biodiversity is especially important in maintaining balance in the ecosystem. There are numerous services that biodiversity offers to ensure the wellbeing of our planet. This will be discussed in more detail later in this unit. B. Types of Biodiversity 1. Genetic Diversity - Members of the same species or population have basically the same genetic composition that gives them their universal characteristics - However, there are still differences observed between and among members of a species due to differences in their genetic composition, and this is referred to as genetic diversity - Example: The human species, Homo sapiens, are made up of individuals with the same genetic compositions responsible for general human traits. But, except for identical twins, no two individuals are the same due to genetic variations. These genetic variations are responsible for the genetic diversity observed in the human species. 2. Species Diversity - If we look at a particular area and count the number of different species that live there, we are looking at species richness - If we look at a particular area and count the number of different species, as well as the abundance of individuals per species that live there, we are looking at species diversity - Example: In fig 1.3.1, both communities have 4 types of species (Species A, B, C, and D) thus, both have the same species richness. However, based on the abundance of individuals in each species per community, the individuals in community 1 are more evenly distributed thus, community 1 exhibits a greater species diversity. jevicente 1  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology - Fig. 1.3.1 Species diversity and Species richness https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-the-difference-between-species-diversity-and-species-richness 3. Ecosystem Diversity - both genetic and species diversities are about varieties and variabilities in the biotic components only of an environment - Ecosystem diversity, on the other hand, includes the varieties and variabilities in BOTH abiotic and biotic components that undergo interactions - The more variable these components, the more diverse the ecosystem - Example: a forest has greater ecosystem diversity as compared to polar regions jevicente 2  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology C. Patterns of Biodiversity How is it that some areas are more biodiverse than others? How come, there were more species before than today? These questions pertain to the extent and distribution of all components of biodiversity in space (spatial) and in time (temporal). The trend in this biodiversity distribution is referred to as the pattern. What governs these patterns? There are several natural and anthropogenic factors that affect biodiversity, as well as multiple indicators for biodiversity, which makes it difficult to determine exactly the biodiversity in a particular area. Nonetheless, with knowledge of how external factors affect survival, we can have a fairly reliable approximation of the patterns of biodiversity. 1. Spatial Pattern - remember that the survival of organisms depends on both abiotic and biotic factors, collectively called external factors - spatial patterns in biodiversity are therefore determined by the characteristics and types of external factors in that particular area - these differences are often influenced by latitudes and altitudes a. Latitude Gradient - starting from the equatorial region are the tropical, temperate, and polar regions - these different regions exhibit variability in terms of physical factors such as temperature, rainfall, and sunlight, which determines the type and abundance of organisms that thrive in these areas - since the tropical regions have physical factors that are more conducive to survival, these areas exhibit greater biodiversity as compared to temperate and polar regions - similarly, temperate regions are more conducive to survival than polar regions, thus, more biodiverse b. Altitude Gradient - physical characteristics change as we move from sea level to a higher altitude - for example, the temperature becomes colder, oxygen levels drop, and slopes become steeper - once again, these factors affect organismal survival - organisms that can adapt, can thrive in higher altitudes - it follows that biodiversity is greater at sea level and decreases with altitude Fig. 1.3.2 is an example of spatial pattern of biodiversity as affected by both the latitude and altitude gradients jevicente 3  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology FIG. 1.3.2 Spatial Pattern of Biodiversity https://www.slideshare.net/pranavathiyani/global-pattern-of-biodiversity 2. Temporal Pattern - the environment is not stagnant, it is constantly changing - organisms respond to these changes, and adapt or at least try to - over time, organisms that can adapt will survive, perpetuate, and even give rise to new species, whereas those that cannot adapt die and become extinct - such is the cycle of speciation and extinction - but this cycle is also changing due to both natural and mostly anthropogenic activities that increase the rate of environmental change, making it difficult for organisms to adapt - this then leads to an increase in the rate of extinction causing a decline in biodiversity over time D. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Biodiversity is important in maintaining a balanced ecosystem and a healthy planet. It allows an ecosystem to function properly and carry out its services. Humans are especially benefitted from ecosystem services where ecological, social, and economic processes intersect. jevicente 4  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology 1. Provisioning Services - refer to the material benefits that are extracted from nature and used by organisms, especially humans - some material benefits include food, water, fuel, timber, minerals, fibers, and medicinal benefits 2. Cultural Services - refer to the non-material benefits for intellectual, emotional, psychological, and spiritual well-being of humans - cultural services also foster creativity as well as the advancement of local, national, and global cultures through tourism - they provide aesthetic, educational, recreational, and spiritual services 3. Regulating Services - refer to services that serve to maintain a clean, sustainable, and balanced environment - some regulating services include water and air purification, pollination, decomposition of organic wastes, erosion and flood control, and climate regulation 4. Supporting Services - The most fundamental of all services, without which, provisional, cultural, and regulating services would not exist - These constitute basic natural processes such as photosynthesis, biogeochemical cycles, and soil formation - The provision for habitat is also an important service that sustains basic life forms Fig. 1.3.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services jevicente 5  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology https://healingearth.ijep.net/glossary/ecosystem-services FIG. 1.3.4 Conceptual Framework for Ecosystem Assessment showing the link between the environment and the well-being of human societies https://biodiversity.europa.eu/maes Examples of Ecosystem Services 1. Mangrove Ecosystem Services jevicente 6  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology FIG. 1.3.5 Mangrove Ecosystem Services https://www.iucn.org/theme/marine-and-polar/our-work/climate-change-and-ocean/mangroves-and-coastal-ecosystems 2. Cordillera Ecosystem Services - known as the Watershed Cradle of North Philippines - serves as a host to 13 major river basins - supply water for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, fisheries, industrial, and domestic use - it is crucial for mitigating flooding, erosion, and siltation of river systems in downstream regions with the preservation of watersheds and forests in the highlands 3. Bioremediation and Biodegradation - examples of ecosystem services provided by microorganisms, from marine and terrestrial sources, which produce useful enzymes for industry, agriculture, bioenergy, bioremediation, and waste recycling - Cladosporium cladosporioides was found to degrade polyurethane (Brunner, I. et al., 2018) KEY CONCEPT: Ecosystem services are free and infinite but should never be taken for granted if we are to maintain both our well-being and the health of our planet. E. Threats to Biodiversity jevicente 7  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology 1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation - urbanization is the primary cause of habitat loss and fragmentation - when natural habitats are cleared by humans for their use, plants, are destroyed and animals are driven out of their habitat - fragmentation occurs when a large natural habitat is divided into smaller parcels or patches due to the construction of roads or buildings, reducing the available habitat for organisms - in both cases, biodiversity is decreased in areas of habitat loss and fragmentation 2. Over-exploitation for commercialization - over-exploitation of natural resources means maximizing economic gain at the expense of biodiversity - the rate of harvest is faster than the rate of reproduction, an unsustainable use of biodiversity - Examples: excessive logging, fishing, and hunting, all of which greatly decreases biodiversity 3. Invasive Species - Invasive species are the species that are new to a habitat, which were brought or introduced in that area directly or indirectly - the absence of natural predators for the invasive species, allows them to reproduce uncontrollably and soon become the dominant species, resulting in the loss of native species, reduction of biodiversity, and upsetting the balance in the ecosystem 4. Pollution - An unusual increase in substances in the environment is considered a pollutant - all forms of pollutants are destructive to ecosystems and biodiversity - air pollutants such as sulfur, nitrogen emissions, and ground level ozone impede growth and development of organisms - sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are responsible for acid rain that increases water and soil acidity that eventually becomes detrimental to organisms - organic pollutants can lead to eutrophication and algal blooms that reduce available oxygen for aquatic organisms - solid wastes, especially plastics, have been proven to be the cause of death of numerous aquatic animals - toxic wastes that seep into the soil pollute water supplies - these are just some of the pollutants that greatly reduce biodiversity 5. Climate Change - All organisms require optimal environmental conditions for normal growth and development. This is the basis for the spatial pattern of biodiversity. - So, a change in climatic conditions such as temperature, amount of rainfall, and wind patterns can disrupt the conditions of habitats to levels that cannot be tolerated by the organisms in that area jevicente 8  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology - If the conditions exceed the range of tolerance of organisms, they cannot cope up and eventually die, decreasing biodiversity 6. Population Growth and Overconsumption - One of the important biodiversity and ecosystem services is the provisioning services - unfortunately, due to the ever-growing human population, the provisions are being consumed at unprecedented rates that threaten to destroy and deplete resources - biodiversity is under the threat of destruction and depletion due to increase in global human population 7. Illegal Wildlife Trade - The term illegal is evidence enough for the danger of wildlife trade - wild species are removed from their natural habitat and traded as live pets or dead parts for consumption or other uses - This kind of trade threatens the existence of numerous species in the wild, pushing them into the brink of extinction F. Conservation of Biodiversity The term conservation refers to the sustainable use of biodiversity. It means, benefitting from the services offered without abusing biodiversity. At the same time, conservation in this context may also include the preservation, maintenance, recovery, and enhancement of the components of biodiversity. A balance between the environment, development, and society results to sustainable development which ensures biodiversity conservation. This refers to development that meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. 1. In-situ Conservation - conservation and protection of species, especially the endangered ones, in their natural habitat, either by cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. - In-situ conservation is being done by declaring an area a protected area Advantages of In-situ Conservation o The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference. o The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural way. o In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated benefits to our environment. o It is less expensive and easy to manage. o The interests of the indigenous people are also protected. Examples of In-situ Conservation o National parks jevicente 9  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology National parks are relatively large areas not materially altered by human activity where extractive resource uses are not allowed and maintained to protect outstanding natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use. o Protected Landscape and Seascape Protected landscapes/seascapes are areas of national significance which are characterized by the harmonious interaction of man and land while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal lifestyle and economic activity of these areas. o Wildlife Sanctuary Wildlife sanctuary comprises an area which assures the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic communities or physical features of the environment where these may require specific human manipulation 2. Ex-situ Conservation - Conservation and protection of species, especially the endangered ones, outside their natural habitat - Some ex-situ methods include captive breeding programs for animals, artificial propagation of plants, collection of species for protection in zoos, botanical gardens or aquaria, gene banks, and seed banks FIG. 1.3.5 Flow chat of Biodiversity https://www.brainkart.com/article/Conservation_38281/ In-situ Conservation Ex-situ Conservation jevicente 10  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology It means onsite conservation. It means offsite conservation. It is the conservation of wild species in their It is conservation of species in the man- natural habitats in order to maintain and made habitats that imitate the natural recover endangered species. habitats of species. It is more dynamic as it involves natural It its less dynamic as it involves man- habitats of organisms. made habitats. It provides protection to endangered species It provides protection against all hostile against predators. factors. It is suitable for animals that are found in It is suitable for animals that are not found abundance. in abundance. It is not suitable in the event of a rapid decline It is an ideal option in case of rapid decline in the number of a species due to in the number of a species due to environmental, genetic or any other factor. environmental or any other reason. Wildlife and livestock conservation involve in- It can be used to conserve crops and their situ conservation. wild relatives. Examples include national parks, wildlife Examples include zoo, aquarium and sanctuaries, biospheres reserve etc. botanical garden. It involves designation, management and It involves sampling, storage and transfer monitoring of the target species in their natural of target species from their natural habitat. habitats to man-made habitats. It helps maintain the ongoing process of It separates the animals form the ongoing evolution and adaptation within the natural process of evolution and adaptations within environment of the species. their natural environ Table 1.3.1 In-situ vs. Ex-situ Conservation https://www.javatpoint.com/in-situ-conservation-vs-ex-situ-conservation jevicente 11  SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING, ALLIED HEALTH, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Department of Biology Department of Biology jevicente 12