Physiology Review: Cell, Nerve, and Muscle - PDF

GEN PHYSIOLOGY Cell Physiology I. Introduction II. Parts of the Cell III. Cell Division IV. Functional Systems V. Cellular Transport VI. Cell Death I. Cell ➔ Functional unit of the body ➔ Approximately 100 trillion cells...

GEN PHYSIOLOGY Cell Physiology I. Introduction II. Parts of the Cell III. Cell Division IV. Functional Systems V. Cellular Transport VI. Cell Death I. Cell ➔ Functional unit of the body ➔ Approximately 100 trillion cells ➔ 25 trillion RBC (MC type of cell ➔ 75 trillion are other cells 5 Functional Organization of the body Cell formed into → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism 60 % Cellular Environment ➔ Body environment consists of 60 % of cell fluids Intracellular ➔ 40 % Intracellular Fluid = Mg (Magnesium), PO4 (Phosphate Molecule) , K (Potassium) , SO4 (Sulfate) , HCO3 (Hydrogen Carbonate) , Proteins , Lipids and carbs. Extracellular Fluid (Internal Environment) ➔ 20 % Extracellular Fluid = O2 (Oxygen), (Hydrogen Carbonate) , Na (Sodium) , Cl (Chlorine) , Glucose , Fatty/ Amino Acids , CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  II. Parts of the Cell 1. Cell Membrane ➔ Covering of the cell ➔ Fluid ➔ 7.5 - 10nm ➔ Aka “Phospholipid Bilayer” Phosphate heads → hydrolific lipid tails -hydrophobic ➔ Semi-permeable permeable :lipid-soluble [ O2, CO2, Alcohol] (can pas through the membrane) impermeable : H2O soluble [ions, glucose,urea] Composition : ❖ Proteins 55 % Glycoproteins ○ Integral Proteins (tumatagos sa 2 sides) → acts as a channels, carriers, enzymes ○ Peripheral Proteins (1 side only) → enzymes, controllers of cellular fxns. ❖ Phospholipids 25% ➔ major membrane lipids that consist of lipid bilayers. This basic cellular structure acts as a barrier to protect the cell against various environmental insults and more importantly, enables multiple cellular processes to occur in subcellular compartments. ❖ Cholesterol 13% ➔ 1. Rate of permeability ➔ 2. Quality of the fluidity of the cell membrane Notes from Sir Titus : Phospholipids & Cholesterol. Insoluble in water; forms the cell membrane and intracellular membrane barriers. ★ High-Density Lipoproteins. “Good cholesterol”; 60 mg/dL CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  ★ Low-Density Lipoproteins. “Bad cholesterol”; 100 mg/dL ★ Triglycerides/Neutral Fats. 95% of fat cells; main storehouse. ★ Total Cholesterol. 200 mg/dL; most accurate m° for CVD ❖ Other Lipids 4% ❖ Carbohydrates 3% Coating of the cell “ Glycocalyx” Identification (knows the body of the cell is foreign body) Adhesion ( adhesion between 2 cells) 2. Cytoplasm ➔ Solid parts: organelles , particulates ★★ ➔ Liquid part: Cytosol ★★ ➔ 2 Zones of Cytoplasm 1. Ectoplasm (cortex) OUTER zone ➔ Semi - solid , gel - like support 2. Endoplasm ➔ Liquefied , organelles 3. Organelles a. Endoplasmic Reticulum ➔ Synthesis of substances ➔ Transports products via ER vesicles ROUGH ER SMOOTH ER Granular Agranular Ribosomes (-) Ribosomes Protein Synthesis Lipid Synthesis b. Golgi Apparatus ➔ aka "Packaging Center" ➔ it receives raw materials from ER → synthesis’ CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  c. Lysosomes ➔ aka "suicide bags" ➔ destroys worn-out cells & foreign bodies ➔ Hydrolase ➔ is from Golgi App. d. Peroxisomes ➔ detoxification ➔ Oxidase ➔ from smooth ER e. Vesicles ➔ temporary storage f. Mitochondria ➔ powerhouse of the cell ➔ ATP production g. Microfilaments and Microtubules Polymerized Fibrillar Proteins / Micro Filaments Structural Support Acts as cytoskeleton Mostly seen in cytoplasm Polymerized Tubulin/ Micro Tubules Cellular Locomotion Cilia, helen structures h. Nucleus ➔ command center of the cell ➔ genetic materials, codes ➔ Nuclear Membrane/ Envelope Nuclear pores → passage WAY of genetic materials inner layer. Outer Layer → outer layer continuous with the rough CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  ★ NUCLEOLUS RNA - rich area (-) limiting membrane III. CELL DIVISION DNA RNA “ deoxyribonucleic acid” “ribonucleic acid” double helix strand half stand of the double helix strand Types: 1. Messenger RNA → to transport generic materials to cytoplasm 2. Transfer RNA → transports activated aminoacids to ribosomes 3. Ribosomal RNA → Protein synthesis , Ribosome production FORMATION 1. Phosphoric Acid 1. Single strand of the double helix 2. Sugar Base (deoxyribose) strand 3. Nitrogenous Base 2. Sugar Base Purines: ➔ Ribose Guanine 3. Nitrogenous Base Adenine Purines: Pyrimidines: Guanine Thymine Adenine Cytosine Pyrimidines URACIL★★ Cytosine CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 B. 2 Types MITOSIS MEIOSIS Somatic Reproduction : Gametes: Sperm / ovum Diploid Haploid 46 Chromosomes 23 Chromosomes “IPMAT” Interphase (-) cell division (+) DNA replication Prophase (AFAAMCP) A ster (hair like progestion) Fragmentation of Nuc.Mem Attachment of spindles to kinetochore Migration of centrioles to opposite poles Condensation of chromatid pairs pairing of chromatids CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  Metaphase chromosomes align to the center (metaphase/ equatorial plate) Anaphase chromatid pairs split up and moves toward opposite poles Telophase (+) cleavage furrow 2 daughter cells (+) nuclear membrane CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 IV. Functional Systems of the Cell a. Endocytosis (ingestion)★ Pinocytosis ★★→ small particles ; cell drinking Phagocytosis ★★ → large particles ; cell eating b. Exocytosis (expulsion) V. Cellular Transport PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT From ↑ concentration to ↓ concentration From ↓ concentration to ↑ concentration Downhill Uphill (-) ATP (+) ATP (-) Resistance (+) Resistance Normal kinetic energy Against a concentration gradient a. Passive Transport ❖ Simple Diffusion Through the Membrane Lipid Soluble ( O2 , CO2, Alcohol) Through the Gated Channels H2O soluble (ions, glucose, urea) 2 types of Gates: ( Triggers) Voltage Gated Channels Chemical (Ligand) gated channels ❖ Facilitated Diffusion “Carriers Proteins” Ex; GLUT 1 = GLUCOSE CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion ( Di Sure? Trust Self , Study , Concentrate , Panginoon) ↓ 1. Distance Increase Rate of Diffusion ↓ 2. Size/ Mass ↑ 3. Temp ↑ 4. Surface Area ↑ 5. Sleepness of diffusion ↑ 6. Concentration gradient ↑ 7. Partition coefficient b. Active Transport ❖ Primary Active Transport Pumps (NA -K, Mg, Ca) ❖ Secondary Active Transport Utilizes energy from primary active transport Types: Co - Transport (Symport) ➔ Same direction ➔ Na-glucose linked transporter Counter- Transport (Antiport) ➔ Opposite direction ➔ Na-Ca exchanger C. Osmosis Simple diffusion H2O VI. Cell Death ❖ Apoptosis Programmed cell death Natural ❖ Necrosis Cell injury → cell death Premature cell death CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 NERVE PHYSIOLOGY I. Nerve II. Types of Nerve Fibers III. Membrane Potential IV. Refractory Periods V. Summation I. Nerve → functional unit of nervous system Parts: 1. Soma “Body” Cellular Process 2. Dendrites Receiving terminals Transfer information TOWARDS the Soma CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  3. Axon Transfers impulses AWAY from the Soma 4. Axon Hillock Origin of the axon 5. Initial Segment Where the action potential is generated 6. Myeline Sheath Insulated layers (box) 7. Nodes of Ranvier Unsimulated layers that allows “saltatory conduction” 8. Axon Terminals The branched out ends of the axon 2 Main Types of Glial Cells ➔ Greek word “Glue” Microglia ➔ Aka as Scavenger Cells ➔ It acts as “Macrophages in the CNS” Macroglia ❖ Astrocyte Found in CNS Formation of brain Maintains Blood BrainBarrieers secretes / absorb neurotransmitter ❖ Oligodendrocyte and Schwann Cells Produces Myeline sheaths “COPS” CNS → Oligodendrocytes PNS → Schwann Cells Axonal Transport: “KARD” 1. Anterograde / Orthograde ➔ From Soma to Axon Terminals CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  ➔ kinesin 2. Retrograde ➔ From Axon Terminals to Soma ➔ Dynein Types of Fibers: TYPE Size & Myelination Micrometers Function A Alpha Large (+) 12-12 ➔ proprioception, myelinated somatic motor Beta Large (+) 5-12 ➔ touch, pressure myelinated Gamma Large (+) 3-6 ➔ motor to ms. myelinated spindles Delta Small (+) 2-5 ➔ Acute pain and myelinated temperature "cold" B Small (+) 1/3 repolarization ❖ Relative " A stronger than N stimulus can excite the nerve" 1/3 repolarization -> after depolarization Summation Temporal ➔ 1 presynaptic neuron stimulating the neuron in sucession CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  Spatial ➔ Many presynaptic neurons stimulating the neuron at the same time MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY I. Muscle II. Organization III. Contractile Filaments IV. Events V. Type of Contraction I. Muscle ➔ Force ➔ Movement Locomotion Organs ➔ Types: 1. Skeletal Ms striated, voluntary, multinucleated 2. Cardiac Ms striated, involuntary, uninucleated 3. Smooth Ms ➔ Non striated, involuntary , uninoculated Multi Unit → trachea , iris , large vessels Unitary → blood vessels , digestive tract , urinary tract. CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 II. Organization Terms : ❖ Sarcomere ➔ Fxnal contractile unit of the muscle. ➔ Found between 2z-disc ❖ Sarcolemma ➔ Cell membrane of Ms ❖ Sarcoplasm ➔ Cytoplasm of the ms ❖ Muscle Fibers ➔ “Myocyte” Long red like structures (myofibril/myosin) → thick and thin bands (myofilaments/ actin complex) 1. Epimysium ➔ Outermost covering 2. Perimysium ➔ It covers the fascicle 3. Endomysium ➔ It covers the ms. fibers CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  TYPE OF MUSCLE FIBERS TYPE I TYPE IIa TYPE IIb Contraction slow fast fast Energy Utilization oxidative 0/g glycolytic Color red red white Fatigability resistant Moderate Easily fatigued fatigability Suitability Long distance Force and power Force and power endurance ★ mod. ★ Short distance distance CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 BANDS 1. z- discs ➔ Sarcomere bet.2 = disc ➔ Approximates ➔ anchors actin 2. H-zone ➔ Myosin ➔ Hanap ➔ Obliterates 3. A-band =Myosin and actin = "ala" = (-) change 4. I- band = actin ="ipit" = shortens 5. M- Line ➔ middle line ➔ anchors myosin ➔ (-) change CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024 III. CONTRACTILE FILAMENTS a. Myosin ➔ Thick bond ➔ Anchored of M-Line ➔ (+) Myosin Heads b. Actin Complex ❖ Actin → thin bands - anchored at the z-disc; actin active sites ❖ Tropomyosin → covers the actin active sites ❖ Troponin Complex ICT I→ Actin C → Calcium T → Tropomyosin EVENTS a. At Rest 1. Calcium is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. Tropomyosin covers the AAS. 3. Myosin heads cannot connect with the AAS. b. During Contraction 1. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. binding of Ca with Trop. C = unbinding of AAS 3. Myosin heads connects with AAS produced contractions CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  Sequence a. Contraction 1. Discharge at presynaptic neurons 2. Release of Acetylcholine (Ach) 3. Attachment of Ach → Ach Receptors 4. Increase condutance of Na & K ions 5. Action Potential 6. Inward spread of action potential thru the T -Tubules 7. Ca + → Sarcoplasm ( Sarcoplasmic Reticulum) 8. Tropomyosin uncovers the AAS 9. Formation of the cross bridges between Actin & Myosin ➔ Power Stroke CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024  b. Relaxation 1. Calcium is pumped back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. Unbinding of Calcium from troponin C 3. Recovering AAS by tropomyosin What initiates your muscle contraction?★★★★ ➔ The release of Calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to the cytoplasm. TYPES OF CONTRACTION 1. Isometric ➔ Same length ➔ (-) work 2. Isotonic ➔ Same tension Concentric → Shortening Eccentric → Lengthening MS TWITCH SPASM ➔ Invisible Ms. Contraction ➔ Prolonged ms. contraction ➔ 1 min visible ➔ Invisible ms. contraction ➔ (-) pain ➔ (+) pain CARMINA P. MANALO PTRP BOARD REVIEW DEC 6-7 2024