General Biology 2 L1 PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 MODULE 1 Genetic Engineering Sherwin M. Bernabe Subject Teacher MELCs Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA Lesson 1: Genetic Engineering Figure 1. Every type of tissue in your body contai...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 MODULE 1 Genetic Engineering Sherwin M. Bernabe Subject Teacher MELCs Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA Lesson 1: Genetic Engineering Figure 1. Every type of tissue in your body contains a complete copy of your body’s DNA Figure 2. These pigs’ glow from having received jellyfish bioluminescent genes as embryos. Gene Editing Our recent advance in DNA technology is the production of transgenic animals – animals that contain genes from another species. For example, researches have created a variety of miniature pigs for the purpose of providing organs for human transplants.  How do Can anyone guess what would happen if we combined the DNA engineers from two creatures? Could engineers create a "spiderman" change the in the lab today? traits of In 2000, engineers created the first goat able to produce spider silk proteins (an organisms? amazingly strong and elastic fiber with futuristic benefits in construction [bridge DNA contains all of the genetic suspension cables, information to determine an airbags that are gentler for passengers], organism's traits or characteristics. medicine [artificial skin to heal burns, By modifying the artificial ligaments, thread for stitching DNA, engineers are able to wounds] and the military [body armor] if determine which traits an sufficient quantities could be generated), so organism will possess. maybe it is not too far away. Activity 1: DNA Paper Model Activity Imagine DNA as a twisted ladder. The outside of the ladder is made up of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. The sugar is called deoxyribose. The rungs of the ladder are made of a pair of molecules called bases. There are four bases in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Because of the chemical structures of the bases, adenine only pairs with thymine and cytosine only pairs with guanine to form a rung. Activity 1: DNA Paper Model Activity Procedure: 1. From the paper provided by your teacher, cut out the pattern for the chemical bases sugars, and phosphates assigned to you. 2. Arrange the cut outs on any firm surface to form the pattern described in the introduction. BE SURE YOU LAY ALL PIECES OUT BEFORE GLUING THEM TOGETHER! As a guide, you can attach the chemical base to the sugar molecule by matching up the dots. You can attach the phosphate group onto your model by matching up the stars, and you can attach the top of the phosphates to the sugars by matching up the squares. 3. Paste or tape the model together. 4. Put your name on your model. 5. When finished, check your model, it should have constructed a long DNA molecule. What is DNA? DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in nearly all living organisms, carrying the instructions necessary for growth, development, functioning, and reproduction. It is a molecule composed of two strands that coil around each other to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a sequence of four nucleotide bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). These bases pair specifically (A with T and C with G) to encode genetic information. Found primarily in the cell nucleus, DNA segments called genes are responsible for the unique characteristics and traits of an organism. DNA not only determines inherited features but also plays a critical role in processes such as protein synthesis and cellular replication. Why are proteins important? Proteins perform all of the work in organisms. Some functions of proteins include: a. Serving as catalysts for reactions b. Performing cell signaling c. Transporting molecules across membranes d. Creating structures When a protein is created by its gene, it is said that the gene is "expressed," or used. Most gene expressions do not produce results visible to the unaided eye. However, some genes, such as those that code for proteins responsible for pigment, do have visual expression. The expression of a gene in an observable manner is called a phenotypic trait; one example is an organism's hair color. In fact, everything you can see in an organism is a result of proteins or protein actions. How is DNA used in genetic engineering? By definition, genetic engineering is the direct altering of an organism's genome. This is achieved through manipulation of the DNA. Doing this is possible because DNA is like a universal language; all DNA for all organisms is made up of the same nucleotide building blocks. Thus, it is possible for genes from one organism to be read by another organism. In the cookbook analogy, this equates to taking a recipe from one organism's cookbook and putting into another cookbook. Now imagine that all cookbooks are written in the same language; thus, any recipe can be inserted and used in any other cookbook. In practice, since DNA contains the genes to build certain proteins, by changing the DNA sequence, engineers are able to provide a new gene for a cell/organism to create a different protein. The new instructions may supplement the old instructions such that an extra trait is exhibited, or they may completely replace the old instructions such that a trait is changed. Genetic Engineering Technique The process for genetic engineering begins the same for any organism being modified 1. Identify an organism that contains a desirable gene. 2. Extract the entire DNA from the organism. 3. Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA. One way to do this is by using a restriction enzyme. These enzymes search for specific nucleotide sequences where they will "cut" the DNA by breaking the bonds at this location. 4. Insert the new gene to an existing organism's DNA. This may be achieved through a number of different processes. When modifying bacteria, the most common method for this final step is to add the isolated gene to a plasmid, a circular piece of DNA used by bacteria. This is done by "cutting" the plasmid with the same restriction enzyme that was used to remove the gene from the original DNA. The new gene can now be inserted into this opening in the plasmid and the DNA can be bonded back together using another enzyme called ligase. This process, shown in Figure, creates a recombinant plasmid. PETA: My Own Genetically Modified Organism Instruction: Learners (individually) create your own recombinant organisms. You can pick any organism and decide what gene you would like to add. If desired, provide a list of genes from which you can choose (such as genes that makes an organism smarter, bigger, faster, grow extra limbs, etc.) Write down a potential use for the resulting creatures. Finally, sketch your recombinant creatures on how it will look like on a short/A4 bond paper.  With genetic engineering, we will be able to increase the complexity of our DNA, and improve the human race. Stephen Hawking Lesson 2: Recombinant DNA Technology GloFish, the first and only transgenic animals available to the public in the U.S., are genetically modified zebrafish that glow in various fluorescent colors due to the insertion of green fluorescent protein (gfp) genes. Created through recombinant DNA technology, which involves combining or inserting DNA from different genomes, GloFish have sparked discussions about the ethical and regulatory aspects of genetically modified Figure 1: The multicolored GloFish®. animals. Approved by the U.S. FDA for consumer use, these fish exemplify the application of genetic engineering, a field that originated in the 1960s and 1970s when scientists began exploring DNA repair and recombination processes. DNA Cloning Genetic engineering has been practiced indirectly for centuries through selective breeding, altering the genetic makeup of crops and livestock to the point that they differ significantly from their wild ancestors. This process focused on selecting physical traits rather than directly manipulating genes. Since all organisms share DNA as their hereditary molecule, scientists can create "recombinant DNA" by combining DNA from different species. Modern technology now allows for direct gene manipulation in the lab, including isolating and replicating specific genes through a process called DNA cloning. Cloning Issues Read the essay below and write your opinion on a separate sheet. Here is the guide question for you on what you will write based on your own opinion. Guide Question: Is it cloning is an ethical problem? Essay: Human Cloning and Never Let Me Go: Ethical Problems from Clones’ Perspectives Imagine growing up in an exclusive boarding school called Hailsham in the English countryside. It was a place of mysterious rules where teachers were constantly reminding the students of how “special” they were. After gradua tion, the students were told that they were clones made specifically to donate their body parts to human patients. Despite the fact that the students seem no different from other human beings- --their teenage happiness, anguish, and romantic relationships that they go through during their Hailsham days---they will be commanded to be confined in hospital after they hit a certain age in order to have their organs taken out for transplants. Usually they have such operations several times before they “complete” -- a metaphor for “die” -- at around the age of thirty. This is the premise of the award-winning novel published in 2005 by Kazuo Ishiguro, “Never Let Me Go,” which raises important questions including moral issues surrounding human cloning. Cloning Issues Essay: Human Cloning and Never Let Me Go: Ethical Problems from Clones’ Perspectives In the first place, it is a human rights infringement to treat cloned humans as commodities or research tools. When the protagonists in “Never Let Me Go” know of their fate as adult donors, they are devastated. They start to believe in the rumor that if a cloned couple is truly in love, and if they can prove to the scientists that they have “souls” at all, they can postpone their roles as donors ---that they can live a few years as other human couples do before donation. However, the rumor turned out to be untrue. They quietly accept their own fate and give in to it. In the second place, human cloning causes identity confusion in the clones with their originals. In the novel, one protagonist goes on a journey with her mates to find her “possible” --the person who might have been a model for her. It has been a taboo topic for the Hailsham students before because “one big idea behind finding your model was that when you did, you’d glimpse your future.” It is clear that how their models led their lives has great impact on their identity, as they think they share the exact same genes and that they might follow the same paths as their originals did. Cloning Issues Essay: Human Cloning and Never Let Me Go: Ethical Problems from Clones’ Perspectives In the third place, there is an issue of technical and medical safety of cloned humans. The Hailsham students get frequent health check-ups because their health conditions in the long run are yet to be proved as the same as uncloned humans’. They are told that “keeping yourselves well, and keeping yourselves healthy inside is the most important” over and over again. James Caryn says, “Ishiguro’s idea, that clones are people, too, shapes his novel, which takes the theme to a more profound level”. Indeed, his work precisely appeals to our morality on the issue of human cloning being ethically problematic for cloned human beings in terms of their human rights infringement as research tools, confusing identity issues with the originals, and technical and medical safety. This society needs to find other alternatives apart from human cloning as it contains many a problem which requires hard decisions. (source: https://sites.google.com/site/humantechnologyandethics/masashi-yoshida-1/essay) Recombinant DNA Technology Recombinant DNA technology is a revolutionary scientific method used to manipulate and alter the genetic material of organisms to achieve desired traits or produce biological products. This technique involves combining DNA molecules from different sources into a single molecule to create new genetic combinations. The process typically includes isolating a gene of interest, inserting it into a vector—such as a plasmid— and then introducing it into a host organism, like bacteria, which can replicate and express the gene. This technology has a wide range of applications, including the production of insulin, growth hormones, and vaccines, as well as advancements in agriculture through the development of genetically modified crops with improved resistance to pests and environmental conditions. Recombinant DNA technology continues to be a cornerstone of modern biotechnology, providing valuable tools for research, medicine, and industry. Genetically Modified Plants Recombinant DNA technology has significantly improved crop varieties by creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This process often uses the Ti plasmid from Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a soil bacterium, to insert desired genes into plant cells. Traits such as pest resistance and enhanced nutritional value are achieved through this method. Examples include Bt corn, which expresses a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis to resist corn borer disease, and golden rice, engineered to produce beta-carotene to combat vitamin-A deficiency. Other advancements include rice and potatoes modified as natural vaccines and herbicide-resistant soybeans, enabling weed control without damaging crops. Genetic engineering has a wide range of applications beyond agriculture and medicine. Here are some notable examples: 1. Medicine Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic disorders by introducing functional genes into patients’ cells. Vaccine Development: Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are used to produce safer and more effective vaccines, such as those for hepatitis B and COVID-19. Antibiotics and Hormones: Production of antibiotics, human growth hormones, and other therapeutic proteins through genetic engineering. 2. Agriculture Crop Improvement: Enhancing resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental conditions (e.g., drought and salinity). Nutritional Enhancement: Developing fortified foods like golden rice, rich in beta-carotene to combat vitamin deficiencies. Bioherbicides and Biopesticides: Creating GM crops like Bt corn to naturally resist pests without chemical pesticides. Genetic engineering has a wide range of applications beyond agriculture and medicine. Here are some notable examples: 3. Environmental Applications Bioremediation: Engineering microorganisms to clean up oil spills, degrade plastics, or detoxify pollutants in soil and water. Carbon Sequestration: Genetically modified plants and microorganisms are being developed to absorb and store atmospheric carbon dioxide effectively. 4. Industrial Biotechnology Biofuel Production: Engineering microbes to produce bioethanol, biodiesel, and other renewable energy sources. Biodegradable Plastics: Creating microorganisms capable of synthesizing environmentally friendly plastics. Enzyme Production: Generating industrial enzymes for detergents, textiles, and food processing. 5. Forensic Science DNA Profiling: Genetic engineering tools are critical in forensic investigations, helping identify individuals and solve crimes. Genetic engineering has a wide range of applications beyond agriculture and medicine. Here are some notable examples: 6. Synthetic Biology Custom Organisms: Designing and creating entirely new organisms with specific functions, such as bacteria that produce synthetic drugs or bio-sensors for detecting toxins. 7. Animal Research Transgenic Models: Developing genetically modified animals like mice for studying human diseases and testing new treatments. Xenotransplantation: Engineering animals to grow human-compatible organs for transplantation. 8. Space Exploration Stress-Resistant Organisms: Engineering microbes and crops to survive extreme conditions, aiding future space colonization efforts. These diverse applications demonstrate how genetic engineering continues to transform industries, solve global challenges, and improve quality of life. Ethical Considerations Genetic modifications offer vast possibilities but also raise public concerns about potential negative effects. These include health risks like allergic reactions, gene transfer between GM plants and pathogens, and harm to ecosystems. In the Philippines, GM crops like Bt corn and Bt eggplant (Bt talong) have been widely adopted, with nearly one million hectares planted with Bt corn. However, in 2015, the Philippine Supreme Court banned further field testing of Bt eggplant due to safety Figure 2 Genetically Modified Eggplant concerns. Despite this, experts affirm that approved GM crops are safe, having undergone rigorous testing, and they reduce the need for harmful pesticides. Recent Developments Recombinant DNA technology using restriction enzymes is limited because it inserts entire DNA segments into plasmids, which may not allow for precise modifications. However, advances like CRISPR/Cas9 technology have made precise genome editing possible. Derived from a natural bacterial defense mechanism, CRISPR/Cas9 uses CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and trans-activating RNA (tracrRNA) to guide the Cas9 protein to target DNA sequences, which it cuts to destroy. Scientists have simplified this by creating single guide RNA (sgRNA), enabling targeted genome editing. Plasmids or viral vectors encoding Cas9 and sgRNA are delivered to host cells to modify DNA sequences with high precision. Facts About CRISPR-Cas9 Origin: CRISPR-Cas9 is derived from a natural defense mechanism in bacteria and archaea against viruses and plasmids. Acronym: CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. Cas9 Protein: Cas9 is an enzyme that acts as "molecular scissors" to cut DNA at specific locations. Guide RNA: The system uses a single guide RNA (sgRNA) to direct Cas9 to the target DNA sequence for precise editing. Customizable: The sgRNA sequence can be engineered to target almost any DNA sequence in the genome. Precision: CRISPR-Cas9 enables targeted modifications, including gene insertion, deletion, or repair. Applications: It is used in gene therapy, agriculture, drug development, and creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Speed and Efficiency: Compared to earlier techniques, CRISPR-Cas9 is faster, cheaper, and more efficient. Ethical Concerns: Its potential for editing human embryos and creating "designer babies" raises ethical and societal questions. Nobel Prize: In 2020, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on CRISPR-Cas9. Limitations: Challenges include potential off-target effects, incomplete edits, and delivery into cells. Versatility: Beyond cutting DNA, CRISPR can also activate or repress gene expression without cutting. Global Impact: Widely adopted in research and industries across the world due to its transformative potential. PETA: GMO Infographics Instruction: Create a poster infographic about a genetically modified crop or animal, featuring its name, traits, and purpose. Include a picture, printed image, or hand-drawn sketch of the GMO and present key facts in bullet points, such as the scientific process used to create it, its benefits, and any controversies or challenges associated with it. Use an 8.5 x 11-inch paper or larger, ensuring your design is neat, creative, and organized with clear sections. The infographic should be visually engaging, accurate, and easy to understand. SAMPLE Here are more examples of genetically modified organisms (GMOs): Golden Rice - Engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A, to help combat vitamin A deficiency, particularly in developing countries. Bt Cotton - Modified to express the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin, which makes it resistant to cotton bollworm, reducing the need for chemical pesticides. Roundup Ready Soybeans - Genetically modified to be resistant to glyphosate, a herbicide, allowing farmers to spray their fields with the herbicide to control weeds without harming the soybeans. GloFish - A transgenic aquarium fish that has been modified to express fluorescent proteins from jellyfish or coral, making them glow under ultraviolet light. AquAdvantage Salmon - A genetically modified Atlantic salmon that grows faster than conventional salmon, as it has a gene from a Chinook salmon that promotes growth throughout the year. Innate Potato - Modified to reduce bruising and black spots, and to produce less acrylamide, a potentially harmful chemical that forms when potatoes are cooked at high temperatures. Herbicide-Tolerant Canola - Genetically engineered to resist herbicides like glyphosate, enabling farmers to control weeds without harming the crop. ZapMail™ Tomato - A genetically modified tomato designed to be resistant to certain viruses, helping farmers protect their crops and reduce losses. Rainbow Papaya - Modified to be resistant to the ringspot virus, a major threat to papaya crops, particularly in Hawaii, ensuring stable harvests. Virus-Resistant Squash - Genetically modified to resist viral infections like zucchini yellow mosaic virus and squash leaf curl virus, which often damage squash crops.  Transhumanism is the ethics and science of using things like biological and genetic engineering to transform our bodies and make us a more powerful species. Dan Brown