General-Biology-1-REVIEWER (1).pdf

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 10. PEROXISOMES- where fatty acids are metabolized and hydrogen peroxide is detoxified REVIEWER...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 10. PEROXISOMES- where fatty acids are metabolized and hydrogen peroxide is detoxified REVIEWER 11. VACUOLES- membrane sacs that are generally larger than CELL vesicles. Food vacuole - formed when protists bring food into the cell by Cell- basic unit of life, capable of responding to stimuli, movement, endocytosis reproduction, metabolism, adaptation that caters the Contractile vacuole – collect and pump excess water out of characteristics of life some freshwater protists 1595- Hans and Zaccharias Janssen, produced the first compound 12. MITOCHONDRIA- synthesis of ATP microscope by combining two convex lenses within a tube 3 major pathways involved in ATP production 1665- Robert Hooke, basic building blocks of life, discovered the Glycolysis - cytoplasm cellular composition of cork, introduced the word cell Krebs Cycle - matrix 1674-1683- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, improve magnification of Electron transport system (ETS)- intermembrane space microscope by polishing lenses, discovered animalcule Cristae- folded inner membrane in mitochondria which 1833- Robert Brown, discovered the nucleus of the cell increases the surface area for chemical reactions to take 1838- Matthias Schleiden, discovered that plants were made up of place cells 13. CHLOROPLAST- site of photosynthesis 1839- Theodor Schwann, discovered that animals were made up of Stroma-fluid part of chloroplast cells -Chlorophyll in granum 1855- Rudolf Virchow, cells come from existing cells 14. CYTOSKELETON-give cells internal organization, shape, and Unified Cell Theory ability to move Microtubules are the thickest of the three 1. All living things consist of one or more cells. components of the cytoskeleton 2. Cell is the smallest unit of life. Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. thinnest components Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a Modern Cell Theory middle range 15. CILIA AND FLAGELLA- move whole cells or materials across the 1. Hereditary information (DNA) is passed from cell to cell. cell surface 2. All cells have the same basic chemical composition 3. Energy flow occurs within cells. Structures found in plant, but NOT in animal cells CELL STRUCTURES Chloroplasts Central vacuole- storage area for water, sugars, ions, All Cells have: amino acids, and wastes Other plastids/vacuoles – chromoplast, amyloplast –an outermost plasma membrane Cell wall- provides structure and protection –genetic material in the form of DNA –cytoplasm with ribosomes PROKARYOTE AND EUKARYOTE PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE Lack of true nucleus and Presence of true nucleus, membrane-bound organelles membrane-bound organelles Smaller in size (0.5–5 µm) Larger in size (10–100 µm) Cytoplasm bound by the Cytoplasm in the region plasma membrane between the plasma membrane and nucleus Cell wall has peptidoglycan Cell wall has chitin (fungi), cellulose (plant) Smaller ribosomes Larger ribosomes Asexual mode of Asexual and sexual mode of reproduction reproduction 1. PLASMA MEMBRANE-All membranes are phospholipid bilayers Examples: Examples: Bacteria, Archaea Animal, Plant, Protists, Fungi with embedded proteins The outer plasma membrane controls what gets in and out of Domain: ARCHAEA the cell, receives signals 2. CELL MEMBRANE- 2 layers of phospholipids Halophiles-salt lovers A. Phosphate head is polar (Hydrophilic) Thermophiles-heat lovers B. Fatty acid tails non-polar (Hydrophobic) Methanogens- methane making C. Proteins –membrane component can be either found on Psychrophiles-cold lovers its surface or embedded in the membrane structure Acidophiles-acid lovers D. Cholesterol- contributes to the fluidity of the membrane 3. NUCLEUS- contain hereditary factors and controls most of the Domain: BACTERIA cellular activities 4. RIBOSOMES- are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein, Proteobacteria- Alpha (Rhizobium), Beta carry out protein synthesis in two locations (Nitrosomonas), Gamma (sulfur bacteria), Delta 5. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)- has ribosomes (myxobacterium), Epsilon (Helicobacter pylori) attached, modifying protein chains into their final form subgroup 6. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)- no ribosomes Agrobacterium- produces tumors in plants attached, synthesis of lipids and is used in genetic engineering 7. TRANSPORT VESICLES- transport modified proteins and lipids Rhizobium-form root nodules in legumes and from the ER to the Golgi apparatus (and from Golgi to final fix atmospheric N2 destination) Escherichia coli resides in the intestines of 8. GOLGI APPARATUS- Sorts, tags and packages fully processed many mammals and is not normally proteins and lipids in vesicles pathogenic 9. LYSOSOMES- small membrane-bordered structures that contain Chlamydia- parasitic bacteria that live within animal substances necessary for the digestion of some cellular cells. materials  Cyanobacteria- are photoautotrophs that generate ANIMAL TISSUE/ BODY TISSUE O2, Plant chloroplasts likely evolved from cyanobacteria by EPITHELIAL TISSUE- responsible for covering and protection, endosymbiosis especially on the outer linings of the different body organs Gram-positive bacteria- Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan Simple epithelium has one layer of cells Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan Stratified epithelium has more than one cell layer and an outer membrane that can be toxic Pseudostratified epithelium has one layer, but appears to have two or more layers Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on Transitional epithelium is stratified epithelium that can be humans greatly stretched Some prokaryotes are human pathogens, but others have Simple Squamous- Lines air sacs of the lungs, Forms walls of positive interactions with humans. capillaries MUTUALISTIC BACTERIA Simple Cuboidal- Kidney tubules and their ducts, lining of terminal bronchioles, surfaces of ovaries Human intestines are home to about 500–1,000 species of bacteria Simple Columnar-Lining of stomach and intestines Many of these are mutualists and break down food that is undigested by our intestines Pseudostratified- trachea, bronchi of the lungs, lining of nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, pharynx PATHOGENIC BACTERIA Stratified Squamous- Skin (Keratinized), mouth, throat, larynx, Prokaryotes cause about half of all human diseases esophagus, anus vagina, cornea (non-keratinized) Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease by releasing exotoxins or endotoxins Stratified Cuboidal- sweat glands ducts, ovarian follicles, salivary Some pathogenic bacteria are potential weapons of glands ducts bioterrorism Stratified Columnar- mammary gland ducts, larynx Prokaryotes in Research and Technology Transitional- lining of urinary bladder, ureter, superior urethra Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important advances in DNA technology CONNECTIVE TISSUE- binding and support other tissues For example, E. coli is used in gene cloning For example, Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used to Extracellular matrix contains protein fibers, ground substance, produce transgenic plants fluid Bacteria can now be used to make natural plastics Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation. Loose Connective Tissue- 3 types of loose connective Bacteria can be engineered to produce vitamins, tissue: (1) Areolar Connective Tissue, (2) Adipose Tissue, (3) antibiotics, and hormones Reticular Connective Tissue Bacteria are also being engineered to produce ethanol from waste biomass Dense Connective Tissue- Contains more numerous, thicker CELL TYPES and denser fibers but fewer cells than loose connective tissue. TISSUE-An aggregation of cells and cell products of 3 types: Dense regular CT, Dense Irregular CT, Elastic CT similar structure, origin and performs a common Dense Regular- Bundles of collagen fibers are arranged function regularly in parallel patterns that give it strength, found in tendons and ligaments Dense Irregular- Collagen fibers are packed closely together in an irregular, random pattern found in dermis of the skin or heart valves Elastic- Contains branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts, found in lungs and arteries Cartilage- 3 types – hyaline (weakest), fibrocartilage (strongest) and elastic Chondrocytes – mature cartilage cells Lacunae – holes in the matrix in which the cells sit Perichondrium – dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds cartilage Bone-2 types: compact and spongy Blood Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) – transport oxygen White Blood Cells – function in immunity Platelets – participate in blood clotting TENDONS- connect muscle to bone LIGAMENTS- connect bone to bone MUSCLE TISSUE SKELETAL CARDIAC SMOOTH Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary Striated Striated Not Striated Multinucleated usually have one Usually have a nucleus per cell single nucleus Attaches to the muscular tissue Forms the walls of skeleton and which functions hollow organs allows for throughout the life (except the heart) movement continuously and also is found  without fatigue, in the skin and the Functions- transport prepared food materials from the leaves to muscle of the heart eyes the storage organs & later from storage organs to the growing regions of the plant body. NERVOUS TISSUE CELL MODIFICATIONS Nervous tissue is specialized to conduct action Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is potentials (electrical signals) a process that occurs after cell division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they Neurons conduct action potentials can perform their function efficiently and effectively. Neuroglia supports the neurons Dendrites usually receive signals, while axons typically transmit them. Dendrites bring electrical signals to the cell body and axons take information away from the cell body. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process. The cell body is the spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and connects to the dendrites, which bring information into the neuron, and the axon, APICAL MODIFICATION- which sends information to other neurons. The job of the cell body is to control all of the functions Pseudopods of the cell. · These are temporary, irregular lobes formed by PLANT TISSUE amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells. Cilia and Flagella MERISTEMS · Cilia are usually short, hair – like structures that move in waves Meristems are regions of cell division · Flagella are long whip-like structures Plants could keep growing their entire lives · Formed from microtubules Possible to grow a new plant from a cutting Villi and Microvilli Present in tips and roots of the plant · These are finger-like projections that arise from the epithelial layer in some organs. SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE · They help to increase surface area for faster and more Parenchyma -type of permanent tissue comprises the fleshy part efficient adsorption of a plant that mainly stores food, thin walled & alive at maturity; · Microvilli – is often seen in organs where the often multifaceted. epithelium plays a primary role in the absorption of Location: leaves, stems and roots molecules Extra-Cellular Matrix (ECM) Collenchyma – thick walled & alive at maturity, elongated in · It is a compound secreted by the cell on its apical shape, present in dicot’s stem and petiole, provides mechanical surface, Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in support and elasticity animal cells LATERAL MODIFICATION Sclerenchyma – thick walled and dead at maturity, composed of dead cells, presence of lignin, can withstand strains and Gap Junction- type of cellular junction has closable pressure channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjoining Location: stems, veins of leaves, roots animal cells and is also known as communicating Functions: protection, gives strength, rigidity, elasticity and junction flexibility Tight Junction- type of cellular junction acts as barriers Epidermis – alive at maturity, single-layered group of cells that that regulate the movement of water and solutes covers the leaves, stems and roots of a plant between epithelial layers and prevents leakage of the ECF Trichomes – “pubescence” or hairs on epidermis Adhering Junction Root Hairs – tubular extensions of epidermal cells · It anchors junction on the lateral surface of the cell · It is like the anchoring junction of the basal surface of Cuticle- helps protect a plant against infections and toxin the cell damage and helps prevent excessive water loss. BASAL MODIFICATION Desmosomes/Hemi-desmosomes COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE · The anchoring junction on the Basal surface of the cell Xylem – water conducting tissue · Primarily composed of keratin, integrins, and cadherins Vascular tracheid and vessels element (bounded by thick Specialized Plant Cell lignified. Vessels are very long tube-like structures The guard cells- specialized structures surround the formed by a row of cells placed end to end. They stoma and regulate the transpiration of water vapor in conduct water). plants Specialized Animal Cell Functions: Red blood cells are specialized to transport oxygen. Cells specialized to produce proteins are found in the carry water & minerals salts upward from the root to pancreas. Pancreatic cells also possess large number of different parts of shoots. other organelles needed for protein export, including a Since walls of tracheid, vessels of xylem are lignified, well-developed Golgi apparatus and clusters of storage they give mechanical strength to the plant body. vacuoles loaded with enzymes. The human ability to move is the result of the Phloem- food conducting tissue specialized structure of muscle cells. Skeletal muscle Two types: 1. Sieve tubes 2. Companion cells cells are packed with fibers arranged in a tight, regular pattern.