Gender and Society PDF

Gender and Society Covering topics: - Theoretical Perspective on Gender - Gender Identity Role and Development - Gender and Sexuality - Gender and Families - Gender and Education - Gender and Work Sociological Theories' Perspective on Gender Sociological Theories...

Gender and Society Covering topics: - Theoretical Perspective on Gender - Gender Identity Role and Development - Gender and Sexuality - Gender and Families - Gender and Education - Gender and Work Sociological Theories' Perspective on Gender Sociological Theories - Functionalist Perspective - Conflict Perspective - Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Functionalist perspective "Gender" helps all of society work well. - The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. - Explores the "what ought to be" of a particular individual - The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. - This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation and broadly focuses on the social structures that shape society as a whole.  - Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home - The roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time - Once established, these roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly. Conflict perspective Karl Marx - As societies evolve from agricultural to industrial this leads to the development of two classes of two people: - Bourgeoisie (owners of factories, farms and businesses) dominant - Proletariat (the workers) subordinate Friedrich Engels - The same owner-worker relationship exists in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. - Modern conflict theorists suggest that when women become wage earners, they can gain power in the family. "Gender" is a structural system that distributes power and privilege to some, and gives disadvantage to others. Conflict Theory - Asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interactions - Our identity or sense of self is shaped by social interaction. - "Gender" is something that a person "does" (clothes, hairstyles, behavior, expressions, etc). - When people perform tasks, or possess characteristics based on the gender role assigned to them, they are said to be "doing gender". - Whether we are expressing our masculinity or femininity, West and Zimmerman (1987) argue, we are always "doing gender". Thus gender is something we do or perform, not something we are Gender Roles Gender - is the - ascribed to males and females. These roles which are learned, change over time and vary widely within and between cultures. It is socially learned behavior and expectations that distinguish between masculinity and femininity. - "Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given society, community or other social group, they condition activities, tasks and responsibilities are perceived as male or female. - Gender roles are affected by age, class race, ethnicity and religion, and by the geographical, economic and political environment" (Pavlic, Sam-Vargas, 2000). - Gender Roles are a range of behaviors and attitudes considered acceptable and appropriate based on the assigned sex. Society expects people to adhere to their gender roles. However, the division between man and woman is based on the most basic difference between the two: Child bearing. This cultivated simplistic generalization on men and women. Gender Equality and Equity - Gender equality, equality between men and women entails the concepts that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices. - It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. - Gender equity, meanwhile, is about fairness. The process to achieve gender equality Gender Mainstreaming - A Strategy for making men and women's concerns and experiences as an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. - To empower individualism to be accountable, and to ensure integration of efforts in making sure that gender mainstreaming is holistic rather than just a "band-aid" solution. Gender Identity, Role & Development Biological differences of Male and Female Chromosomes: The fundamental Cause of Gender Chromosomes are made by our DNA. The DNA that decides whether a newly fertilized ovum (Egg cells) becomes a male or female is found. 23rd pair of chromosomes (total of 46) identify the sex of the individual ○ XX – Female ○ XY – Male "All men were once women" At first, the embryo (the first stage of human development) has the same sex organs whether it has XY or XX chromosomes. ○ 6 weeks after conception and the Y chromosomes in males results in changes that lead to the gonads becoming testicles. ○ If Y chromosomes are not present then the gonads (testis/ovary) become ovaries. The female sex is considered a "fundamental" sex, because if a particular chemical prompting is absent, all fertilized eggs will develop into females. For a fertilized egg to become male, a cascade of chemical reactions must be present initiated by a single gene in the male Y chromosome called the SRY (Sex-determining Region of Y chromosomes). Females do not have any Y chromosome; hence they do not have the SRY gene. Both the male and female embryos have the same group cells that will potentially develop into male or female gonads or sex glands. However, the presence of the SRY gene initiates the development of the testes while suppressing the vital genes for female development. So we know that at its very core the cause of physical differences in men and women is due to biological differences in DNA.  Meanwhile, an individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness is his or her gender identity. ○ Outward expression of gender identity, according to cultural and social expectations, is a gender role Hormones: The Biological Cause of Gender Hormones are chemicals in the body that regulate changes in our cells including our growth. ○ Hormones are very important in explaining our gender differences ○ Testosterone - produced by the testes; responsible for sexual activity, increased muscle and bone mass, appearance of hair, deepening of voice. ○ Estrogen - produced in the ovaries; responsible for development of female reproductive system, regulating the menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy Psychological and Social Influences on Gender Identity Biological make up may play a major part on an individual's gender identity, however, psychosocial and societal factors still influence an individual’s view of himself/herself. Gender Identity Is ultimately derived from chromosomal makeup and physical appearance, but this derivation of gender identity does not mean that psychosocial influences are missing.. individual's personal sense of maleness or femaleness. Gender Socialization The process whereby a child learns the norms and roles that society has created for his or her gender, plays a significant role in the establishment of his/her sense of "femaleness" or "maleness". ○ If a child learns she is a female and is raised as a female, the child believes she is a female ○ If a child is told he is a male and is raised as a male, the child believes he is male. Beginning at birth, most parents treat their children according to the appearance of their genitals. Parents even handle their baby girls less aggressively than their baby boys. Children quickly develop a clear understanding that they are either female or male, as well as a strong desire to adopt gender-appropriate mannerisms and behaviors. This understanding normally occurs within 2 years of age, according to many authorities. ○ Biology sets the stage, but children's interactions with social environments determine the nature of gender identity. Gender Roles Gender roles or Sex roles - In society it means how we're expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. - Outward expression of gender identity For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing. Gender roles are both cultural and personal. - These roles determine how males and females think, speak, and interact within the context of society. - Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles. - These gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what defines masculine and feminine. Major Theories that can be attributed to the development of a person's identity: Psychoanalytic – Sigmund Freud Social-Learning – Albert Bandura Cognitive-Developmental – Lawrence Kohlberg Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud's theory of psychological development explained that children satisfy their basic biological motivations which were discovered through a treatment known as psychoanalysis – The examination of the unconscious. Thus, Psychoanalysis was the first comprehensive personality theory that attempted to explain the origins of what we now call "gender" (Ovesey, 1983).  Sigmund concluded that there were primary aspects of the psychoanalytic theory: id, ego, and superego. The personality combined the id(basic instincts such as hunger, desires, and aggression/personality for example, an infant is 100% id), ego (reality testing and rationalization/psychological and the superego (conscience, moral judgment/social) ○ Id - Operates on the pleasure principle. - Every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences - When the id achieves it demands, you experience pleasure; when it is denied, you experience "unpleasure or tension" ○ Ego - Operates according to the reality principle. - It works out realistic ways of satisfying the id's demands (often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society). - The ego considered social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave ○ Superego Freud's psychosexual development theory stage Age range Erogenous zone Behavioral focus oral 0-2 Mouth, lips, and Sucking, biting and tongue chewing anal 2-4 anus Bowel movements Phallic (crucial) 3-6 genitals Genital stimulation, attraction to opposite-sex parent, imitation of same-sex parent Latency 6 None (sexual Cognitive and impulses are social development suppressed) (education and social relationships) Genital puberty-adulthood genitals Development of sexual and intimate adult relationships  Freud's psychosexual development theory of gender development suggests that gender development takes place during third stage of his psychosexual theory of personality development ○ He called this phallic stage, which occurs between three and six years old. ○ In the phallic stage, the child's libido is focused on his or her genitals. Development of gender is psychoanalytic theory is different for boys and for girls: ○ Boys experience the Oedipus complex and identify with their father and take on a male gender role. ○ Girls experience the Electra complex and identify with their mother and take on a female gender role. Oedipus complex ○ In psychoanalytic theory, a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex and a concomitant sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex a crucial stage in the normal development process. Electra Complex ○ Is a term used to describe the female version of the Oedipus complex It involves a girl, aged between 3 and 6, becoming subconsciously sexually attracted to her father and increasingly hostile toward her mother. Social-Learning Theory Social Learning theory Was proposed by Bandura as a way of explaining how children acquire their gender identity based on the influence of other people (particularly their parents) In Terms of Gender development, children receive praise if they engage in culturally appropriate gender displays and receive punishment if they do not. When aggressiveness in boys is met with acceptance, or a "boys will be boys" attitude, but a girl's aggressiveness earns them little attention, the two children learn different meanings for aggressiveness as it relates to their gender development. Thus, boys may continue being aggressive while girls may drop it out of their repertoire. Socialization of children is one of the major causes of gender differences between boys and girls Children are encouraged to do the appropriate sex-typed activities by the parents, media, and school Stages of development in social learning theory - These are four stages that a child goes through when developing gender behavior. These are: 1. Attention - This is merely where the behavior is noticed and observed 2. Memory - This is when the behavior is memorized and committed to memory 3. Imitation  - The behavior is performed or "reproduced" based on imitating what they see around them 4. Motivation - Their behavior is based on the desired consequences or what will be gained by the behavior, either immediately or in the near future. Cognitive-developmental theory This approach focuses upon the thought processes underlying learning. This theory gives importance to the internal states of the person as well as the environmental events; however, it is the thinking and perception that is the key factor. The term Cognition refers to the "knowledge" as well as the "process of knowing" The cognitive approach focuses upon the child's "understanding" ○ Information about gender is organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes. Cognitive learning States that children develop gender at their own levels. Children's own cognition are primarily responsible for gender role development The model, formulated by kohlberg, asserts that children recognize their gender identity around age three but do not see it as relatively fixed until the ages of five to seven. This identity marker provides children with a schema (A set of observed or spoken rules for how social or cultural interactions should happen.) In which to organize much of their behavior and that of others. Thus, they look for role models to emulate maleness or femaleness as they grow older ○ Example 1: Information about which toys are for girls and which toys are for boys form a schema that guides behavior. ○ Example 2: If a son sees his mother and sisters respected in the family, he will perceive women as respectable beings; and if he has seen his mother being battered and maltreated by his father he will perceive that women are taken as less valued individuals. Gender Sexuality What is Sex? Sex is often referred to as the act of reproduction According to popular culture, sex is something done for pleasure, and perhaps in a more Freudian sense, it is what drives people to do certain things. For most living creatures, there are two sexes, the male and female sex Characteristics of female and male sex Female Sex ○ Produced egg cells that are fertilized by another sex ○ Bears offspring Male sex ○ Produces sperm cells to fertilize the egg cells Chromosomes determine one's sex ○ XX – female ○ XY – male Hormones ○ The exposure to hormones in the womb affects how the organism develops as a male or female. Both male and female have estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone but in varying amounts The main reproductive hormones estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone are instrumental in sexuality and fertility. Hormonal imbalances, both natural and induced, can result in someone born as a female to have more testosterone than her male counterpart Genitalia ○ The organs used for reproduction, and secondary sex characteristics are largely influenced by one's X and Y chromosomes. These chromosomes determine whether someone's body will express itself as a "female" or a "male". What is Gender? Gender ○ Is a social construct that determines one's roles, expected values, behavior, and interaction in relationships involving men and women. ○ Is a socially learned behavior usually associated with one's sex  ○ Is also based on how people see themselves and on their tendency to act along either the masculine or the feminine line Main Differences between Sex and Gender ○ Sex Psysiological (has to do with the body and its systems) Related to reproduction Congenital (existence since birth) Unchanging ○ Gender Social Cultural Learned behavior Changes overtime Varies within a culture/among culture Does Sex correspond to gender? ○ Many scientists, psychologists, and sociologists believe that sex does not determine one's gender. ○ Femininity, or the behavior that one associates with females, may not actually be tied to a womans' sex. ○ Doing household chores is said to be a woman's job, yet there are some men who do the cooking and cleaning at home. Aggressive sports are said to be more for men, but for every men's sports team, there is a counterpart for women. In these types of scenarios, gender role socialization comes in. Gender role socialization. Is defined as the process of learning and internalizing culturally approved ways of thinking, and feeling and behaving. Socialization affects all parts of one's identity by dictating what is acceptable to do because of one's educational background, class, religion, and gender. Thus male and female gender roles develop. ○ One's socialization regulates his/her perceptions of gender in two ways: External regulations Internalized self control ○ External regulations Involves various institutions dictating what is proper and normal based on one's identity. It affects how one sees his/her gender, and that gender relation to other gender Example: Homosexuality is bad! Only girly boys do housework! ○ Because of these external regulations enforced by society, notions on gender are absorbed and internalized social control is formed  ○ Internalized social control Causes a person to police himself/herself deviating from what society finds normal, he/she may become deviant and excluded from society. Gender Stereotypes Gender Stereotypes ○ Develop when different institutions reinforced a biased perceptions of a gender's role These institutions include the family, the church, the school, the state and media ○ Four types of Gender Stereotypes Sex stereotypes Sexual stereotypes Sex-role stereotypes Compounded stereotypes ○ Sex stereotypes Are a generalized view of traits that should be possessed by men and women specifically physical and emotional roles ○ Sexual stereotypes Involve assumptions regarding a person's sexuality that reinforce dominant views\ Example: A prevalent view is that all men are sexually dominant Another notion in heteronormativity, or the assumption that all persons are only attracted to the opposite sex. ○ Sex-role stereotypes Encompass the roles that men and women are assigned to based on their sex, and what behaviors they must possess to fulfill these roles. ○ Compounded stereotypes Are assumptions about a specific group belonging to a gender Example: Young women, old men, single men or women, women factory workers, and the like, SOGIE (Sexual Orientation Gender Identity and Expression) Sogie ○ Abbreviation SOGIE stands for Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity and Expressions Sexuality is different from sex, ○ Sexuality is the expression of a person's thoughts, feelings, sexual orientation and relationships, as well as the biology of the sexual response system of that person.  Sexual orientation covers three dimensions of sexuality namely: ○ Sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies ○ Emotional preference, social preference, self identification ○ Heterosexual or homosexual lifestyle. Sexual orientation ○ Involves the person to whom one is attracted and how one identifies himself or herself in relation to this attraction which includes both romantic and sexual feelings. Gender Identity ○ Refers to one's personal experience of gender or social relations It determines how one sees himself/herself in relation to gender and sexuality A person could identify himself or herself as a masculine or feminine Gender Expression ○ determines how one express his or her sexuality through the actions or manner of presenting oneself. LGBTQIA LGBTQIA In short for lesbian, gay, transgender, queer/questioning, intersex, asexual This category describes distinct groups outside of heteronormativity Who are usually defined by their SOGIE? Heteronormativity ○ Is defined as the notion that being heterosexual or the attraction to the opposite sex, is the standard for correctness Heterosexual, or straight ○ Refers to people who have sexual and romantic feelings mostly for the opposite gender – men who are attracted to women, women who are attracted to men Homosexual, gay ○ Describes people who have sexual and romantic feelings for the same gender – men who are attracted to men, and women who are attracted to women. Cisgender ○ Someone whose gender identity corresponds with his or her biologicalsex ○ A gender identity that aligns with the sex a doctor assigned a person at birth ○ A person can be a homosexual at the same time a cisgender ○ People who are cisgender may or may not be straight ○ Heterosexual is about sexual orientation, while cisgender is about gender identity Cisgender is opposite of transgender ○ But some people feel that they identify as neither cisgender nor transgender. Some people see it as nonbinary, which means they don't identify strictly as a man or woman.  If you are cisgender (pronounced "sis-gender") or cis, ○ Means the gender you identify with matches the sex assigned to you at birth, while transgender is when your gender identity differs from the sex on your birth certificate. ○ In latin, "cis" means "on this side", "trans" means "on other side" Transgender ○ Is an umbrella term that refers to someone whose assigned sex at birth does not represent his or her gender identity Lesbian ○ Pertains to women who are attracted to other women Gay ○ Refers to men who are attracted to other men ○ It can also be used as an umbrella term for homosexuality Bisexual or bi ○ Denotes people who are attracted to both genders The labels were created to recognize the identity of those who are considered outside the norm of society. They are temporary, as the terminologies for sex and sexuality can change depending on the direction of the LGBTQIA movement. What is a SOGIE BILL? Sogie Bill Aims to prohibit discrimination based on SOGIE in various aspects of life, including education, employment, healthcare, and access to public services ○ SOGIE BILL, was first introduced in 2011, stemming from the growing awareness of SOGIE discrimination ○ The bill went through multiple revisions and debates in Congress, facing challenges and opposition from various groups ○ As of now, the SOGIE bill has yet to be passed into law, despite ongoing advocacy and support. Key provisions of the SOGIE BILL The bill outlines specific provisions aimed at protecting the rights of individuals based on their SOGIE Prohibition of discrimination ○ In employment, education, healthcare, public services etc Protection from harassment ○ Verbal, physical, psychological or online harassment Equal access to facilities ○ To public and private facilities, such as restrooms, locker rooms, and shelters Right to self-determination  ○ Freedom to choose one's gender identity and expression Importance of SOGIE BILL The SOGIE Bill is crucial for promoting equality, inclusivity, and respect for all Filipinos, regardless of their SOGIE. Human Rights ○ It upholds fundamental human rights, including the right to equality and non-discrimination Social Justice ○ Creates a fairer and more just society by addressing systemic inequalities and biases Public Health ○ Promotes mental and physical well-being by reducing stigma and discrimination Economic Development ○ Empowers individuals to reach their full potential, contributing to economic growth Challenges and Criticisms Despite its importance, the SOGIE Bill has faced challenges and criticisms from various groups, raising concerns and debates Religious Opposition ○ Some religious groups argues that the bill contradicts their beliefs and values Traditional Gender Roles ○ Certain individuals hold views about traditional gender roles and may oppose the bill's recognition of gender diversity Legal Concerns ○ Legal experts have raised concerns about potential conflicts with the existing laws and the need for clarity in certain provisions Potential Impact of the SOGIE BILL The passing of the SOGIE bill could have a significant impact on the Philippine society, creating a more inclusive and equitable environment Increased Protection ○ It would provide greater legal protection for individuals for based on their SOGIE Reduced Discrimination ○ It could lead to a reduction in discrimination and harassment in various areas of life Improved social acceptance ○ It could promote greater understanding and acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals Gender and Families Socialization Plays crucial role in determining what children believe to be acceptable behaviors for members of their own sex Is the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group – the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and actions thought appropriate for them Mate Selection Do women and men differ in selecting their partners? One theory is that gendered beliefs about love are shaped by how we as culture define the roles of men and women. Historically, men are considered to value resources and that women are dependent to men for economic resources, even today, women who have careers, status and considerable earnings tend to be with men who have greater status and power Choosing a life partner is still influenced by the cultural barriers or restrictions which limits the pool of eligible partners Cultural barriers Are societal norms and expectations that restrict the choice of marital partners to those with certain demographic or personal characteristics Demographic characteristics example: Education Race Religion Family Status Occupation Popular Density Sex Ratio Gender Marital Status Homogamy The tendency to choose to marry someone similar in age, education, religion, social class and race Heterogamy The tendency of people to marry others not like themselves on the same characteristics People are most likely inclined to choose a partner of the same status, class, race, religion and family values for the main reason that commonality establishes a lasting relationship. This norm tends to block the relationships between people of different backgrounds. Nonetheless, heterogamy is becoming increasingly acceptable (Surra, 1991). In Filipino society, homogamy is observed by the Muslims and other religious groups who adhere to their traditions and beliefs in terms of marriage. - At any rate, nowadays people tend to marry from different backgrounds due to various influences. Gender Role in Marriage Aside from the legal mandates imposed on marriage,people make personal adjustment when they marry. Spouses accept certain cultural prescriptions for husband and wife role-taking while working out discrepancies between each other’s marital assumptions. They also actively create marital roles based on their own individual and couple values, needs, and goal-role making. Functionalism assumes that the family system operates best when husband and wife do not overlap roles. - The father provides, the mother manages the domestic household, and their children are to pursue the same roles in the future. - In this perspective, everyone is assuming a role for the full function of the family. Conflict theories - view marriage and family as made up of individuals who possess differing amounts of resources and power, and who have individual interest to consider and defend. The conflict theorist assumes that women and wives today explore and experiment newer roles which have been the prerogative of men and husband in the past. Forms of Marriage Monogamy Monogamy permits a man to take only one spouse at a time This is practiced by almost everybody and sanctioned by the church Its advantage over polygamy is that it offers a more balanced division of labor and minimizes emotional and psychological tensions Polygamy Polygamy is a plural marriage wherein a man can marry to two or more women at the same time This is practiced by muslims and other tribal groups whose laws, religion, or traditions allow them to have more wives at the same time This is allowed among muslims due to the Philippine Government's recognition of the Sharia Law, or Islamic Code derive from the Quora'n Marriage Based on Authority Patriarchal Family Is one which the authority is vested on the oldest male in the family, often the father. Matriarchal Family Is one which the authority is vested on the mother's kin. This presupposed that the mother dominates the households Egalitarian Family Is one which the husband and wife exercise a more or less equal amount of authority This is one in which marriage is no longer tied to traditional beliefs about gender roles. Household tasks are divided by skills, desires, rather than what is seen as a masculine or feminine. There is an equitable distribution of household chores between the husband and wife Family Relations Motherhood The belief that a woman's greatest fulfillment and ultimate achievement will be her role as a mother is socialized into girls very early in life. The "motherhood mandate" assumes that it is the woman's obligation to dedicate her life unselfishly to the raising of her children and to be constantly on call for her child's needs. Fatherhood Like women, men also see raising a family as a very important goal in their lives, although they still believe women should be primarily responsible for child care It is presumed that a father assumes the role of provider, breadwinner, and disciplinarian among other things attached to his social role as a father. Alternatives to Traditional Families The massive social change occurring in other segments of society has impacted the family to a great extent As a result of alterations involving such areas as expanded employment opportunities for women and men, separation, annulment, remarriage, and definitions regarding acceptable parenting behavior, non-traditional families are emerging House Husbands The paths are virtually uncharted for men who give up their breadwinning roles to take on primarily responsibilities for household tasks and child care. Mother and the Single-Parent household Financial uncertainty is one of the problems faced by the single parent family, particularly the woman. Being separated from the husband or as a result of separation, annulment of marriage, and divorce, the wife carries the burden of rearing the children alone. Fathers and The Single-Parent household As far as household tasks and child care is concerned, single fathers appear to adapt rather well, perceive themselves as capable as the primary parent, share most of the household responsibilities with their children, and do not rely on outside help to a great extent. Gay and Lesbian families and relationships Marriage between homosexuals is not universally accepted, though there are other countries that legalized same sex marriage. There is still on going debate in Philippine Congress as to pass such bill of same sex marriage considering Filipinos are typically conservative with respect to the sanctity of marriage Filipino Family issues and relations The filipino family is undergoing many changes due to myriad factors that affect the family. These are ○ Geographically mobility ○ Increasing population ○ Industrialization and urbanization ○ The changed status of filipino women ○ Mass media Today, emerging patterns include mate selection based on free choice ○ Sex norms have changed ○ Women now initiate in inviting the boys out ○ Premarital sex, early pregnancies, children out of wedlock, and live-in unions are now accepted and permitted ○ Marriage markets are now available via social networking There is also emergence of solo parent families because of: ○ Marital separation ○ Migration ○ Illegitimacy ○ Adoption even by single men and women These social changes bring about conflict in values and morals, which may in turn bring about social problems Problems that may affect the filipino families today are: ○ Conflict in the families ○ Separation and desejurtion ○ Abortion ○ Illegitimacy ○ Prostitution ○ Juvenile delinquency ○ Drug abuse Gender and Education "To the hardworking soul, gender does not dictate wisdom nor skill" Education "Education is a basic human right, one that is essential for the progress of society" The aggregate of all the processes by which a person develops abilities and other forms of behavior or practical values in the society in which ge lives The social process by which people are subjected to the influence of selected and controlled environment, so that they may obtain social competence and optimum development "In all aspects of the school and its surrounding community, the rights of the whole child and all children to survival, protection, development and participation are at the center" - This means that the focus is on learning which strengthens the capacities of children to act progressively on their own behalf through the acquisition of relevant knowledge, useful skills and appropriate attitudes; and which creates for children, and help them create for themselves and others, places of safety, security and healthy interaction - According to Frederic H Harbinson - A country which is unable to develop the skills and knowledge of its people and to utilize them effectively in the national economy will be unable to develop anything else - It is in this regard that our formal education systems have become our primary institutional mechanism for the development of knowledge and skills, as well as attitudes and values that will enable individuals to effectively contribute to society The value of education therefore, is widely acknowledged We recognize education as a vital instrument for the improvement of welfare and alleviation of poverty. Internationally, education is recognized as a leading global concern This premise makes equal access to education importance because it allows the possibility for social and economic mobility especially among marginalized sectors of society For a lot of countries, disparities among geographical areas, across social classes and even between sexes still exist and the Philippines is not exempt from these gaps ○ Philippine education is a product of long history of struggle" (Durban et al., 2012) Education has been a priority agenda for most government and development agencies as reflected in Philippine laws and Policies The right of both genders to education was a right fought for by various people across the globe Gender can influence an individuals experience with education ○ It can affect a person's access to quality education ○ IN some countries, women are still fighting for their right to education ○ Some struggle for the basic privilege to take up a non-traditional course – a course that is not usually associated with a particular gender role.  The positive effects of education on girls create a more just and equitable society Benefits include: ○ Better economic ○ Opportunities ○ Delayed reduced fertility ○ Better sexual and reproductive health and rights ○ Equality and empowerment In schools students are taught what jobs will generate more money, who has power in the current shape of society, and how to be that person. Hence, education is also a powerful tool for socialization ○ A school teaches what is important, such as an individual's responsibilities in society and one's potential Education policies must then reflect the values of the society one wishes to see. In this respect, education helps create a just and fair society. Gender issues in Education CUrrently, gender issue in education include a non-sexist curriculum, nonsexist language, freedom in career options, and the removal of all forms of discrimination Currently, gender parity is present in the Philippines, with girls outperforming boys in terms of test scores and degree completion. However, equal access does not mean that discrimination has been eliminated from education. The beijing + 20 non-governmental organization (NGO) report shows that issues surrounding education have more to do with discrimination caused by cultural beliefs and gender biases. Others include early pregnancy, sexual harassment, lack of accessible facilities, and access to quality education. The report also maintains that these barriers to education have an effect throughout women's lives. Stereotyping as a Violation of Human Rights The CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of ALl forms of Discrimination Against Women) states that there is limited awareness about stereotyping and its elimination. As a response, the CEDAW requires the elimination of stereotypes in educational materials along with the promotion of materials that show women in all aspects of life. It also makes a call to: ○ "Modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customs and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women…" Issues in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) According to the Philippines+20 NGO report, the promotion of women's successes in the fields of STEM is lacking  ○ Older textbooks overlooked female research and achievements in the sciences. ○ Most scientists in various textbooks are male. Thus, it creates a gap between the genders represented in the scientists that stuendes learn about ○ As a result, science textbooks ,ay not relate to the lived experiences of young and women girls, making it harder for them to see themselves in this field Sexual and Reproductive health and rights The limited sexual and reproductive health rights (SHR) in the philippines can affect one's access to education The increase in teenage pregnancy in the Philippines is a major factor for the high drop-out rate of female students. While the Magna Carta of Women prohibits discrimination against pregnant women from accessing education, pregnant students are still victims of cultural discrimination in their institutions Young mothers and fathers may also drop out of school to support their familities or take care of their children. The responsible Parenthood and reproductive health act of 2012 requires public academic institutions to teach age appropriate sexual and reproductive health topics Private schools, however, are not required to teach this course. Thus, there appears to be limited space for discussions on SRHR Gender-Fair textbooks and Programs According to the 2015 PCW report for the 20th anniversary of the Beijing Platform for Action, DepEd makes numerous efforts to correct gender-biased textbooks, teaching materials, and methods in accordance with the MCW and Women's EDGE Plan. ○ These endeavors may include the addition of gender-sensitive instructional materials in science high schools as provided by the Department of Science and Technology. ○ - How exactly this effort will address the STEM issues mentioned in the previous sections is yet to be discussed. - One of DepEd's plans is to incorporate gender-sensitive principles into teaching guides for primary and secondary education. Male Performance in Schools Statistics show an increase in female participation and a decrease in male performance in schools. This disparity calls for a need to find. out why there is a larger percentage of male students who dropout of school or do not enroll in the first place. What are the issues affecting boys in education? - Part of the feminist agenda is to increase men’s not just women's participation in education Sexual Violence in Education One marker of gender-responsive university is a clear protocol for sexual harassment, including mechanisms for addressing sexual harassment cases on campus. Sexual violence is a form of discrimination against mostly women. -- It is usually women who are victims of sexual violence and harassment in schools, which contributes to higher and earlier dropout rates, as well as their lower academic achievement. Sexual violence inhibits women and girls from participating in the education sector and accessing and continuing their education. It must be noted however, that sexual harassment happens to men and members of the LGBTQIA+ as well. Conclusion Twenty years after the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, gains have been noted insofar as education and training of women and girls are concerned. Women have received gender parity in education in most countries across the globe. However, school culture and discriminatory practices against both women and men still greatly hinder gender equality. What is clear is that there must be a constant push for gender equality in all aspects of education, from curriculum to programs and services, as well as campus culture and other interactions.