General Biology 2 Grade 12 Past Paper PDF

General Biology 2 12 General Biology 2 – Grade 12 Quarter 3 – Module 11 Evolutionary Relationship of Humans to other Vertebrates First Edition, 2020 Republic Act 8293, Section 176 states that no copyright shall subsist in any work of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior appro...

General Biology 2 12 General Biology 2 – Grade 12 Quarter 3 – Module 11 Evolutionary Relationship of Humans to other Vertebrates First Edition, 2020 Republic Act 8293, Section 176 states that no copyright shall subsist in any work of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties. Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them. Published by the Department of Education - Schools Division of Pasig City Development Team of the Self-Learning Module Writer: Glenn Mark C. Victorino Editor: Reviewers: Illustrator: Layout Artist: Management Team: Ma. Evalou Concepcion A. Agustin OIC-Schools Division Superintendent Aurelio G. Alfonso EdD OIC-Assistant Schools Division Superintendent Victor M. Javeña EdD Chief, School Governance and Operations Division and OIC-Chief, Curriculum Implementation Division Education Program Supervisors Librada L. Agon EdD (EPP/TLE/TVL/TVE) Liza A. Alvarez (Science/STEM/SSP) Bernard R. Balitao (AP/HUMSS) Joselito E. Calios (English/SPFL/GAS) Norlyn D. Conde EdD (MAPEH/SPA/SPS/HOPE/A&D/Sports) Wilma Q. Del Rosario (LRMS/ADM) Ma. Teresita E. Herrera EdD (Filipino/GAS/Piling Larang) Perlita M. Ignacio PhD (EsP) Dulce O. Santos PhD (Kindergarten/MTB-MLE) Teresita P. Tagulao EdD (Mathematics/ABM) Printed in the Philippines by Department of Education – Schools Division of Pasig City  General Biology 2 12 Quarter 3 Self-Learning Module 11 Evolutionary Relationships of Humans to Other Vertebrates Introductory Message For the Facilitator: Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module 11 on Evolutionary Relationships Among Organisms! This Self-Learning Module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators from the Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its Officer-in-Charge Schools Division Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A. Agustin, in partnership with the City Government of Pasig through its mayor, Honorable Victor Ma. Regis N. Sotto. The writers utilized the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum using the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) in developing this instructional resource. This learning material hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent learning activities at their own pace and time. Further, this also aims to help learners acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs, namely: Communication, Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Character while taking into consideration their needs and circumstances. In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of the module: Notes to the Teacher This contains helpful tips or strategies that will help you in guiding the learners. As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they do the tasks included in the module.  For the Learner: Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module 11 on Evolutionary Relationship of Humans to Other Vertebrates! This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning material while being an active learner. This module has the following parts and corresponding icons: Expectations - This points to the set of knowledge and skills that you will learn after completing the module. Pretest - This measures your prior knowledge about the lesson at hand. Recap - This part of the module provides a review of concepts and skills that you already know about a previous lesson. Lesson - This section discusses the topic in the module. Activities - This is a set of activities that you need to perform. Wrap-Up - This section summarizes the concepts and application of the lesson. Valuing - This part integrates a desirable moral value in the lesson. Posttest - This measures how much you have learned from the entire module.  EXPECTATIONS This module focuses on the discussion pertaining to the Evolutionary Relationships of Humans to Other Vertebrates. After completing this module, learners are expected to: 1. Determine the components of a simplified phylogenetic tree. 2. Use a phylogenetic tree to trace the evolutionary relationship of humans to other vertebrates. 3. Construct a simple phylogenetic tree based on the evidence/s of evolution in order to trace evolutionary relationships. 4. Recognize the significance of evidence of evolution in constructing a phylogenetic tree PRETEST Identify the important terms commonly used in describing evolutionary relationships. Choose your answers in the box and write the correct answers on the blank. A. cladistics D. less recent common ancestor B. more recent common ancestor E. clade C. monophyletic F. phylogenetic tree _____1. This term describes a group of organisms that are classified in the same population or group of organisms. _____2. This refers to a diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics. _____3. In taxonomy, this term usually refers to a group who shares a common ancestor and all of their living and extinct descendants. _____4. The relatedness of two species in a phylogenetic tree has a very particular significance. We can assume that two species are more related if they have a_____. _____5. Species in clade are said to be less related in the phylogenetic tree if they have a _______.  RECAP Determine the evolutionary relationship parameters defined in each statement. Fill in the blanks with the right answers after choosing your answers in the box. A. Genome Phylogeny D. Homologous Structures/Traits B. Mitochondrial DNA E. Gene Conservation C. Molecular Comparisons F. Analogous Structures/Traits _____1. The existence of genes in a number of species, such as the gene that codes for cytochrome proteins in ATP production. _____2. It is commonly used for contrasting organisms within a species or those that have diverged in a short amount of time. _____3. This is a diagram used to distinguish between biological taxa and to trace a species' evolutionary history. _____4. Differences in the amino-acid sequence of a protein, differences in the individual nucleotide sequence of a gene, or differences in gene arrangements. _____5. The arrangement of bones in dolphins' flippers, bats' wings, horses' and cats' forelegs, and humans' bodies. _____6. These are identical structures that do not have a shared evolutionary history, such as the wing styles of bees, birds, and bats. LESSON Humans, bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and their extinct relatives belong to the Hominidae family of species. According to similarities of anatomy and genetics, researchers typically accept that humans are the most closely related living animals in this group to chimpanzees and bonobos. We will try to portray life's history as a kind of family tree derived from these morphological and genetic features if it is the product of "descent with alteration," as Charles Darwin put it. This mechanism is indeed a significant proof in order to determine evolutionary relationships of humans to other living organisms. The majority of modern classification systems are focused on evolutionary relationships between species, or phylogeny. Phylogenetic classification systems group organisms or other groups in ways that show our understanding of how they descended from common ancestors. Let’s take a closer look on how to use a phylogenetic tree in identifying the evolutionary relationship of humans to other animals specifically vertebrates. Know the Parts of a Phylogenetic Tree We reflect our best hypothesis on how a group of organisms (or other groups) originated from a common ancestor when we draw a phylogenetic tree. This theory is based on the knowledge we've gathered about organisms, such as their physical characteristics (morphological similarities and differences), gene and DNA sequences. Scientists compare and evaluate several features of the organisms or other groups involved to create a phylogenetic tree. External morphology (shape/appearance), internal anatomy, habits, biochemical processes, DNA and protein sequences, and even the features of fossils are examples of these characteristics. The species or groups of interest are found at the tips of lines referred to as the tree's branches in a phylogenetic tree. The phylogenetic tree below, for example, depicts relationships between five species, A, B, C, D, and E, which are located at the branches' ends: Figure 1 Image Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-evolution/hs- phylogeny/a/phylogenetic-trees In our understanding of how the species in the tree originated from a set of common ancestors is represented by the sequence in which the branches bind. A divergence case, or the splitting apart of a single group into two descendant groups, is represented by each branch point (also known as an internal node). The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all the groups descended from that branch point is found at each branch point. For example, we will find the most recent common ancestor of species A and B at the branch point that gave birth to those two species. The most recent common ancestor of all the species in the tree will be found at the branch point directly above the tree's base (roof of the tree) (A, B, C, D, E).  Figure 2 Image Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-evolution/hsphylogeny/a/phylogenetic-trees Horizontal lines in the tree represent a line of ancestors that leads to the species at the very top. For example, because the species E diverged from the other species in the tree, the line leading up to it represents the species' ancestors. Likewise, the root reflects a line of ancestors that leads to the most recent common ancestor of all of the tree's species. Determine which species are more related to one another The relatedness of two species in a phylogenetic tree has a very particular significance. If two species have a more recent common ancestor (MRCA), they are more related, and if they have a less recent common ancestor (LRCA), they are less related. To find the most recent common ancestor of any pair or group of organisms, we can use a simple procedure. Starting at the branch ends holding the two species of interest, we "walk backwards" in the tree until we reach the point where the lines of the two species intersect. Let’s examine the phylogenetic tree below. Assume we had to determine whether A and B or B and C are more closely related. In order to do this, we have to go backward in the tree, following the lines of both pairs of species. We can assume that A and B are more related than B and C since A and B converge at a common ancestor first as we step backwards, and B only converges with C after its junction point with A. Figure 3 Image Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-evolution/hsphylogeny/a/phylogenetic-trees  Another important consideration is that we can't compare the relatedness of some species using the phylogenetic tree. We can't tell if A and B are closer than C and D, for example. That's because the tree's horizontal axis doesn't reflect time directly. As a result, we can only compare the timing of branching events that happen on the same lineage (the same direct line from the tree's root), not those that happen on different lineages. Determine the Evolutionary Relationship of Human to Other Primates and Vertebrates using a Phylogenetic Tree Figure 4 Image Source: https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/media_colorbox/2967/media_original/en In the figure above, the phylogenetic tree shows evolutionary relationships between humans and other living primates. In this figure, it is very useful to identify a monophyletic group. Monophyletic (“one-tribe-origin”) or monophylogeny describes a group of organisms that are classified in the same taxon (group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms forming a unit) and share the most common recent ancestor (MCRA). Moreover, a monophyletic taxon is also commonly known as a “clade”. A sample monophyletic group of monkeys, apes, humans, and their last common ancestor (red dot) is highlighted in yellow. However, a second potential monophyletic group could include those in yellow as well as the tarsiers and the last common ancestor of this larger group (blue dot). Figure 5 Diagram showing a clade Image source: Clades (1 of 2) Definition (berkeley.edu)  Figure 5 shows the clade in a phylogenetic tree. A clade is a group who shares a common ancestor and all of their descendants (both living and extinct). It's simple to say whether a group of lineages forms a clade using a phylogeny. Consider excluding a single branch from the phylogeny; the species on that branch form a clade. It is well established that siblings are more alike than cousins, which is due to the fact that siblings have a more recent shared ancestor (parents) than cousins (grandparents). Similarly, the greater resemblance between humans and chimpanzees than between humans and plants is interpreted as proof that humans and chimpanzees share a shared ancestor that is much more recent than humans and plants. In this sense, morphological features such as eyes and skeletal structure are considered similar. Figure 6 Image Source: https://www.genengnews.com/topics/omics/the-naked-apes-unique-micrornas-may-have- contributed-to-human-evolution/ Figure 6 shows the phylogenetic tree of the Hominidae family indicating that chimpanzees, as well as bonobos are our closest living relatives based on the analysis of miRNAs (microRNA) from the family of great apes. The number of species-specific nucleotide substitutions in the precursor (dark grey), mature (light grey), and seed (white) miRNA regions along the great ape phylogeny since the break with humans (or with chimpanzees in the case of humans) are shown in boxes. In parentheses, the cumulative number of miRNAs in which these changes occur. Due to data quality issues, no species-specific nucleotide substitutions for bonobos (Pan paniscus) or gorillas (Gorilla beringei) were considered (as cited by Gallego and colleagues).  Figure 7 Image Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/determining-evolutionary-relationships/ Another example of phylogenetic tree that shows evolutionary relationship of humans to other vertebrate organisms is depicted in Figure 7. The phylogenetic tree in Figure 7 presents the common ancestors of vertebrates having an amniotic egg. It shows that lizards, rabbits, and humans all descend from a common ancestor that had an amniotic egg. Therefore, lizards, rabbits, and humans all belong to the clade Amniota. In contrast, Vertebrata is a larger clade that also includes fish and lamprey. ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 1 “My Unique Family Tree” Our closest extinct human relatives are the Neanderthals (or Neandertals). It's unclear whether they were a separate species of Homo genus (Homo neanderthalensis) or a subspecies of Homo sapiens. In the Pleistocene Epoch, 200,000 to 30,000 years ago, our well-known but frequently misunderstood fossil ancestors lived in Eurasia. In this activity, you are tasked to determine the evolutionary relationship of humans, Neanderthals, and other members of the Great Apes and monkeys using a simplified phylogenetic tree. You can use the information listed in Table 1 such as the hypothetical evolutionary hierarchy of organisms and the conservation status in constructing a phylogenetic tree.  Table 1 Selected Species of the Great Apes and Monkeys Evolutionary Hierarchy Common Name Scientific Name Conservation Status 8 Baboon Papio hamadryas Extant – Least Concern 7 Gibbon Nomascus leucogenys Extant – Critically endangered 6 Orangutan Pongo pygmaeus Extant – Critically endangered 5 Gorilla Gorilla gorilla Extant – Critically endangered 4 Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Extant – Endangered 3 Bonobo Pan paniscus Extant – Endangered 2 Neanderthal Homo neanderthalensis Extinct 1 Human Homo sapiens Extant – Least Concern ACTIVITY 2 Simple Molecular Analysis and the Phylogenetic Tree Phylogenetic research using molecular data such as DNA sequences for genes and amino acid sequences for proteins is popular not only in evolutionary biology but also in a broad range of molecular biology disciplines. The explanation for this is that DNA sequencing has become very common nowadays, and a large number of gene and protein sequence data is now available in a public online database. Since there are so many molecules (genes or proteins) with different evolutionary frequencies, it's crucial to choose the right one for a given lineage's phylogenetic study. In this simple activity, we hypothetically selected five (5) known enzymes which are commonly used by humans and other vertebrates for cellular metabolism. Analyze the data presented in Table 2 and determine the evolutionary relationships of humans and other vertebrates using a phylogenetic tree. Table 2 Hypothetical Enzymes Present in Various Species Species Enzyme 1 Enzyme 2 Enzyme 3 Enzyme 4 Enzyme 5 Human present present present present present Opossum present present present present absent Platypus present present present absent absent Chicken present present absent absent absent Shark present absent absent absent absent  ACTIVITY 3 Evolutionary Relationships of Humans to Invertebrates The transformation from invertebrates to vertebrates was a pivotal moment in animal evolution. There are some significant morphological transitions between vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone or spinal column, while invertebrates don't. Aside from the morpho-anatomical factors, whole-genome replication (WGD) has been discovered at the molecular level during the transition from invertebrates to vertebrates. More studies were conducted to find a link between invertebrate and vertebrate evolution and some evolutionary relationships between organisms from various species. One particular study found out that the genome of a sea urchin, a common echinoderm yielded striking similarities and surprising differences to the genome of human. This simply means that sea urchins remind us of the underlying principle of the unity of all life on earth. In this regard, the variety of living forms is created by a common collection of genes and proteins being reused in various ways, in different amounts, and at different times during the life cycle. In this activity, you are tasked to search for other representative invertebrate species aside from the sea urchins with significant similarities to human genome. Briefly describe the identical genome that is present in both species. Write your answers in Table 3. Table 3 Invertebrate Species Similarities to Human Genome and Its Function 1 2 3 4 5 WRAP-UP GUIDE POST FOR YOUR UNDERSTANDING Briefly answer the following questions. 1. Describe the parts of a phylogenetic tree and cite important techniques on how to use it. 2. Why do we need to build a phylogenetic tree in order to trace the evolutionary relationships between species? 3. Give at least two important points to consider in building a phylogenetic tree. 4. What are the limitations of using phylogenetic tree in identifying evolutionary relationships?  VALUING Based on the analysis of evolutionary relationships, it vividly shows that humans have a special and distinct place in the phylogenetic tree. Deliberately, we can securely assume that humans are placed on top of the hierarchy among other extant primate species. Indeed, in the book of Genesis, God commanded us to be stewards of our planet and expects us to exercise responsible stewardship over all the earth – encompassing all the living and non-living things. We are declared as the leader, agent, concierge, nurturer of the earth’s resources, it is our shared responsibility to respect and protect God’s precious creations – non-living entities, microorganisms, plants, and animals, specifically our close relatives in terms of evolution. Some scientists claim humans are somehow endangering vertebrate evolution’s processes so we need to act immediately in order to mitigate and reverse the potential risk of this relentless destruction brought by egotistical human activities. POSTTEST Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text below? In items 1 to 5, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information and write False if the statement contradicts the given information. _____1. In a phylogenetic tree, the less recent common ancestor of all the groups or species descended from the branch point is found at each branch point in the tree. _____2. The majority of modern classification systems are focused on evolutionary relationships between species in order to show understanding of how they descended from common ancestors. _____3. Based on the phylogenetic trees presented earlier (Figure 6), it is safe to say that humans are more related to gorillas than to chimpanzees and bonobos. _____4. In Figure 7, it clearly shows that lampreys, lizards, rabbits, and humans all descend from a common ancestor that had an amniotic egg. _____5. In the previous phylogenetic tree (Figure 4), a monophyletic group can be observed consisting of lemurs, monkeys, apes, humans, and their last common ancestor.  KEY TO CORRECTION Pretest Recap Post Test 1. C 1. E 1. FALSE 2. F 2. B 2. TRUE 3. E 3. A 3. FALSE 4. B 4. C 4. FALSE 5. D 5. D 5. FALSE 6. F References Reference Books Javier, Mark Archei O. (2017) General Biology 2. Makati City: DIWA Learning Systems, Inc. Rea, Maria Angelica D. and Nikki Heherson A. Dagamac (2017) General Biology 2. Quezon City: Rex Book Store, Inc. Electronic References https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-evolution/hs- phylogeny/a/phylogenetic-trees https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/media_colorbox/2967/media_original/en Clades (1 of 2) Definition (berkeley.edu) https://www.genengnews.com/topics/omics/the-naked-apes-unique-micrornas-may-have-contributed- to-human-evolution/ https://biologydictionary.net/monophyletic/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/determining-evolutionary-relationships/ https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-closely-related-are-h/ https://www.pnas.org/content/107/Supplement_2/8918 https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0134- 3#:~:text=Vertebrates%20are%20a%20clade%2C%20meaning,ancestor%20that%20they%20all%20share.&text=Mercifully%2C%20there%20is%20now%20much,thought%20of%20as%20being%20ancestral. https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-009-0134- 3#:~:text=Vertebrates%20are%20a%20clade%2C%20meaning,ancestor%20that%20they%20all%20share.&text=Mercifully%2C%20there%20is%20now%20much,thought%20of%20as%20being%20ancestral. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=108174 Human Activity and Vertebrate Evolutionary History | The Institute for Creation Research (icr.org) Neanderthals: Facts About Our Extinct Human Relatives | Live Science (PDF) AN INTRODUCTION TO MOLECULAR PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS (researchgate.net) https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/6/5/993/5498319