General Biology 1 First Quarter Exam Reviewer PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 FIRST QUARTER EXAM REVIEWER Zacharias Janssen - invented the microscope. Anton van Leeuwenhoek - observed the movements of protist (a type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules”. Robert Hooke - coined the ter...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 FIRST QUARTER EXAM REVIEWER Zacharias Janssen - invented the microscope. Anton van Leeuwenhoek - observed the movements of protist (a type of single-celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules”. Robert Hooke - coined the term “cellulae” which was shortened to “cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann – studied on tissues and proposed the first postulates of the cell theory. Rudolf Virchow - made important contributions to the cell theory. The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are as follows: 1. The cell is the basic unit of life. 2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells. The Cell City represents an animal cell because it has both power plant and food processing plant. The cell structures or organelles perform a variety of functions like production of proteins, storage of important materials, harvesting energy, repairing cell parts, digestion of substances and maintaining the shape and structure of the cell, among others. Cell Structure and Functions 1. Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane – a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment. It also keeps cytoplasm from spilling out of a cell. 2. Cytoplasm - the entire region of a cell within the plasma membrane which is responsible for the fluid nature of the cell’s internal environment and allows organelles to suspend dynamically. 3. Nucleus - is the most prominent organelle in a cell. It houses the cell DNA (termed as chromatin strand) and directs the synthesis of ribosomes subunits and proteins. It also controls and regulates the activities of the cell. 4. Ribosomes - are the cellular organelles responsible for protein synthesis and are considered the protein factories of the cell. 5. Mitochondria ((mitochondrion) - are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy factories” of the cell because they are responsible in making Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). 6. Peroxisomes - detoxify many poisons that may enter the body. 7. Vesicles and vacuoles - are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. 8. Endoplasmic Reticulum - modify proteins and synthesize lipids. 9. Golgi Apparatus or Golgi bodies - are series of flattened membrane which is responsible for sorting, tagging, packaging and distribution of lipids and proteins to their proper destinations in the cell. 10. Lysosomes - the digestive component and organellerecycling facility of animal cells. 11. Cytoskeleton – a network of protein fibers that help maintain the shapes of the cell, secure some organelles in specific positions, allow cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cells, enable cell within multicellular organisms to move. Specialized Cell Structures 1. Centrosome - is a microtubuleorganizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. 2. Cell Wall - a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support and gives shape to the cell. 3. Chloroplasts - are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes. 4. Central vacuole - occupies most of the area of the cell which plays a key role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions.  Types of Animal Tissues A. Epithelial Tissue B. Muscle Tissue – Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth C. Connective Tissue – Blood, Connective Tissue Proper (CPT) like Adipose tissues, Cartilage, and Bone D. Nervous Tissue Types of Plant Tissues A. Meristematic Tissues - Apical, Lateral, and Intercalary Meristem B. Permanent Tissues 1. Simple Permanent Tissues – Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma 2. Complex Permanent Tissues – Xylem and Phloem Cell division is successful when all four stages of the CELL CYCLE are completed correctly. Cell modification - are specialized or modification reacquired by the cell after cell division that helps the cell in performing its specialized function. A. Apical - specialized to carry out functions that occur at these interfaces, including secretion, absorption, and movement of luminal contents. B. Basal - Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes allow for strong attachment between cells or to a basement membrane. C. Lateral - consist of protein complexes and induce connectivity between adjacent epithelial cells, between cell and ECM. Mitosis (apparent division) - is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus divides to produce two new nuclei. - results in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they came. Meiosis - reduces the amount of genetic information. - produces haploid gametes or spores with only one set of chromosomes. - involves two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus.  Possible Factors that Could Contribute on Chromosome Abnormalities: 1. arise from errors in meiosis, usually meiosis I 2. occur more often during egg formation (90% of the time) than during sperm formation 3. become more frequent as a woman ages Disorders and Diseases from the Malfunction of the Cell During the Cell Cycle A. Incorrect DNA Copy - Cancer B. Chromosome Abnormalities - Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21), Alzheimer's Disease, Leukemia, and Aneuploidy C. Mosaicism D. Turner Syndrome E. Trisomy 18 or Edwards Syndrome F. Huntington's Disease Transport Mechanisms A. Passive Transport - a naturally occurring phenomena in which the cell does not require energy for molecules to move. 1. Diffusion - process by which the molecules of a substance spread from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. 2. Osmosis- is a special term used for the diffusion of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. ✓ Requirements for osmosis to take place: a. A semi-permeable membrane must be present. b. There should be difference in concentration in diffusing molecules in two regions or sides that are separated by the semi-permeable membrane. c. Only water molecules diffuse. ✓ Types of Solution that Affect Osmosis in Cells: 3. Facilitated Diffusion - selective transport of materials is necessary to control the entrance and exit of particular molecules. It utilizes protein transmembrane channels or carrier proteins that are specific to certain molecules. ✓ Examples of substances which are commonly transported into cells are: lipids, glucose, glycerol and urea. B. Active Transport - process of moving substances into, out of, and between cells using energy. EX: Body cells must pump carbon dioxide out into the surrounding blood vessels to be carried to the lungs for exhale. 1. Bulk Transport a. Exocytosis b. Endocytosis - phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.  Enzymes - are large, complex protein that consists of one or more polypeptide chains. - act as biological catalyst to lower activation energies and change the rate of a chemical reactions, but they are themselves unchanged by the reaction. - are identified after their substrates. Substrates - the substance the enzyme acts upon. Active Site - is the specific part where the substrates bind to a site on the enzyme. Catalyst - a substance needed to speed up the rate of a chemical reaction. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity: 1. Temperature - the rate increases with increasing temperature. ✓ Temperature optimum - the temperature at which the enzyme functions most effectively. - If the temperature is raised higher than the optimum, the rate of enzyme action starts to decrease. The decrease in enzyme action happens because the higher temperature destroys the shape of the enzyme. 2. Denaturation - the process at which the shape of the enzyme’s active site is distorted so that it no longer matches the substrate. - starts at about 40⁰C and higher, disrupting the body’s homeostasis. ✓ pH - The pH scale is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a solution. Most enzymes have a pH optimum that usually ranges from pH 6 to 8. Every enzyme has a distinct pH at which it operates most effectively. 3. Enzyme and Substrate Concentrations - With a high concentration of enzyme and a low concentration of substrate, the rate of enzyme action increases as the substrate concentration increases.