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PCZO101 Mammalogy → study of mammals Ichthyology → study of fish General Zoology Lec PCZO101-1-04 Ornithology → study of birds 2nd Semester Prelims | Pro...
PCZO101 Mammalogy → study of mammals Ichthyology → study of fish General Zoology Lec PCZO101-1-04 Ornithology → study of birds 2nd Semester Prelims | Prof. Tayag DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS Characteristics of Plants and Animals MODULE 1 PLANTS ANIMALS 01/08 & 01/10 Discussions It has green No green pigment. Branches of Science pigment Heterotrophs (chlorophyll). (cannot make 3 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS: Can make their their own food.) 1. Animals own food through Can move from ❖ Humans are classified as mammals. Photosynthesis one place to 2. Plants (Autotrophs). another. 3. Microbes Stationary Can produce Cannot produce sound. sound. Can engage in Does not engage mating. in mating. Can find prey. Cannot find prey. Releases carbon Releases oxygen dioxide. Absorbs carbon Absorbs oxygen. dioxide. Can digest solid Zoology → study of animals Cannot digest food. Anatomy - is concerned with the internal (because they Needs opposite features of animals, so this is with the cannot eat solid sex to reproduce involvement of dissection. food). (there are Cytology – is everything about the cell. Need pollinators exceptions). to reproduce. Has a definite size. Embryology – is the study of the No definite size. An animal cell has development of the embryo. A plant cell has a a cell membrane. Ethology – is the study of animal behaviour. cell wall. ○ Thin and Genetics – is a field about heredity and ○ Thick and elastic. variations. rigid. Animals have a Histology – is about tissues. Plants do not have nervous system. Morphology – is about the forms or a nervous system. Animals are external features of animals. Plants are venomous. Organology – is about the different organs poisonous. Animals have of the body. Plants do not have survival skills. Paleontology – is the study of fossils. survival skills. Animals have Paleozoology – is specifically for the study Plants do not have muscles. muscles. Has a complex of animal fossils. Does not have 5 behavior (5 Pathology – is concerned with the diseases. senses. senses). Physiology – is the study of the functions of Does not have Have emotions. the different structures of the body; emotions. Proportion ang Taxonomy – is involved with the Hindi proportion pag-increase ng classifications of organisms. ang paglaki. size (lahat ng Slow response to parts lumalaki). Botany → study of plants stimuli. Has a faster Biology → study of living organisms sensitivity/rapid response to Entomology → study of insects stimuli. ji ♡ ➔ Hence, he is considered as the Father of SIMILARITIES: Zoology. ★ Both react to stimuli (but animals react faster.) Roman Times ★ Both are made up of cells. ★ Both need food and water. Pliny the Elder (a.d. 23 – 79) ➔ wrote Historia naturalis (Natural History) an 2 Main Branches of Science encyclopedic compilation of myths and 1. Pure Science – needs basic research and is facts about celestial bodies, geography, applied to applied science. animals and plants, metals, and stone. a. Social Science ◆ The said material consists of 37 volumes b. Natural Science where Volumes VII to XI are about i. Physical Science Zoology in which Volume VIII deals with ii. Biological Science – life/living land animals. organisms. 2. Applied Science Galen (129 – 199?) ➔ dissected animals for his studies in human anatomy, and his works became the Historical Background of the Development of standard for use in medicine throughout the Zoology Middle Ages. CANVAS Middle Ages HISTORY ❖ Zoology continued in the Aristotelian Zoology tradition by the Middle Ages. ➔ Animal science ❖ Gradually, naturalists became more critical ➔ This is one of the fields of biological sciences as they based their works from directly that deals with animals. observing animal life, so that mechanistic ➔ It studies about the morphological, views of life processes provided a hopeful anatomical and physiological method of analyzing animal functions, such characteristics of animals, from their as: microscopic to their macroscopic structures. ➔ It also includes the evolutionary, taxonomical Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) and ecological perspectives on animal life. ➔ introduced modern Western medicine with ❖ The history on the development of zoology as his human anatomy treatise, De humani a science traces the study of animal kingdom corporis fabrica. from ancient to modern times. ➔ He was considered as a great anatomist and illustrator, and used animal parts to Ancient Greeks show structures such as the kidney. ❖ In the Ancient Greeks, the systematic study of Conrad Gessner (1516 – 1565) animals became rational, which was ➔ was known for his great zoological work, encouraged by the extensive descriptions of Historiae animalium, which was considered living things. as the starting-point of modern zoology. Aristotle (384 – 322 b.c.) ➔ Hence, he is regarded as the Father of ➔ who created the science of biology, Modern Zoology. attempted a comprehensive classification of animals and established some type of William Harvey (1578 – 1657) hierarchy of animals based on the logic of ➔ in his book, “Anatomical dissertation structure in his zoological works, History of concerning the motion of the heart and Animals, Parts of Animals, and Generation of blood”, he demonstrated the circulation of Animals. blood and functions of the heart, arteries and veins. ji ♡ 16th Century 18th Century ❖ In the late 16th century (late 1500s and early ❖ In the 18th century, zoology passed through 1600s), the Dutch father-and-son team, Hans reforms provided by the system of and Zaccharias Janssen was said to be the nomenclature of Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – ones who invented the first simple and 1778), the Binomial System of Nomenclature, compound microscope with 3x and 9x introduced in his Systema naturae (1735), magnifications, but they were not given the that marked the beginning of the modern proper recognition, because they never system of classification and still in practice all published their work. over the world. 17th Century 19th Century ❖ However, improvements to microscopy ❖ Zoology in the 19th century was dominated by paved way for many discoveries in the 17th Comparative morphology. century (late 1600s) Georges Cuvier (1769 – 1832) Robert Hooke (1535 – 1703) ➔ did not only establish many of the ➔ in his published book, Micrographia (1665), fundamental taxonomic groups used by presented the first published depiction of a modern zoologists, but together with J. B. microorganism, the microfungus Mucor., and Lamarck studied invertebrates and included his observation on cork of plant, vertebrates, respectively, and established describing it as composed of tiny boxes the relationships of fossils to recent forms. resembling the rooms of monastery, which we now know as cells. Botanist Matthias Schleiden (1804 – 1881) & ➔ Thus, he became the Father of Cellular Zoologist Theodore Schwann (1810 – 1882) Biology. ➔ formulated the first unifying principle of biology, the Cell Theory, stating that, “The cell John Ray (1627 – 1705) is the structural unit of all living things”. ➔ sought to understand and classify all known animals based on internal physical Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (1821 – 1902) characteristics like anatomy, and divided ➔ formulated the other component of the Cell birds into land and waterfowl in which he Theory, which states that “Cell came from included whales and dolphins as a special pre-existing cell”. Along with the discovery of group among fishes. the nucleus in plant cells by Robert Brown (1831). Marcello Malpighi (1628 – 1694) and Jan Swammerdam (1637 – 1680) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829) ➔ discovered the role of capillaries, added to ➔ best known for his Lamarckism, a theory of the body of information about animals. evolution which says that acquired characteristics are inheritable. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723) ➔ with the use of his own simple microscope that had 25x to 250x magnification, reported Although Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) is his discovery on bacteria and protozoa, associated with exotic animals in his studies which he called as “little animals”. on the HMS Beagle (Her/His Majesty Ship), together with A. R. Wallace, he is also known with the Theory of Evolution by Natural ❖ Microscopy then became the backbone of Selection, a significant mark in zoology and identifying and understanding the considered as the second unifying principle of microscopic structures of both macroscopic biology. and microscopic organisms. 20th Century ji ♡ ❖ In the 20th century, zoology became a laboratory science. Technological advances allowed scientists to have direct observations on biological processes. Molecular and cellular works in zoology were established in most of the researches done. Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907 – 1988), ➔ one of the founders of ethology, used field experiments by altering the surroundings of Cro-Magnon the wasp’s burrows to observe how they go ➔ Etchings and cave sketches of animals as back to them after hunting. documentations. ➔ E.g. deer, fish, reindeer Stone Age The ability to compare the DNA of different ➔ 1,8 million years to 18000 years BC species improved the knowledge of ➔ Wall paints; engraved bones evolutionary relationships. Desmond Morris ➔ E.g. deer reproduction (1928 - ) applied ethological techniques to Medieval Time humanity in his bestseller "The Naked Ape". ❖ Early to late middle ages (1200s) ❖ Important time period for the field of science Edward O. Wilson (1929 - ) ❖ No zoological application ➔ American sociobiologist and entomologist ❖ Used mythology and folklore to describe ➔ Worked and wrote the preservation of natural history natural habitats and creatures. ❖ Emphasized the works of Sir Albert the Great Albertus Magnus ❖ But one of the challenges now to modern ➔ Albert the Great (1193-1280) zoology is the destruction of vast of the animal ➔ Cited animals according to their genus, habitats, and the extinction of many animal dwelling places, and motion species where much of their natural behavior ➔ Translated the version of “On Animals, a cannot be observed. Medieval Summa Zoology,” continuation of Aristotle’s observation in De Animalibus. Historical Background of the Development of ➔ Gave attention to both terrestrial and Zoology aquatic animals. PPT ➔ Used dissection to connect behavior functions to internal structures. Ancient Science Physiologus ❖ Hellenic Period (400-330 BC) ➔ Medieval literature associated with specific ❖ Focused on the work of Aristotle animal and character trait Aristotle Pliny the Elder ➔ Father of biology ➔ Combined fact and fantasy for his studies of ➔ Collected facts about 500 animals. Natural History. ➔ Devised the 1st Classification System of Animals Early Modern Era ◆ Proposed that animals can be grouped into blooded and non-blooded. ❖ 15th to 17th centuries ➔ Works: ❖ Many notable scientists have contributed to ◆ De Generatione Animalium the development of zoology. ◆ Historia Animalium (History of Animals) Pierre Belon ◆ De Partibus Animalium ➔ Noted anatomical similarities between the human skeleton and that of birds. ji ♡ ➔ Published La Nature and Diversite Les ➔ Advocated the Theory of Inheritance of Poisions (1551) that contained illustrations of Acquired Characters along with the tree of his observations on fishes, marine mammals life. and birds. ➔ Controversial figure in the study of evolution. ➔ Predecessor of Schwann and Schleiden Edward Topsell concerning the cell theory. ➔ Famous natural historian ➔ Published Historie of Four-Footed Beastes Alfred Russel Wallace (1823 - 1931) (1607) and Historie of Serpents (1608), ➔ He came up with his Theory of Natural contained mythological and observational Selection before Darwin. combinations of animals primarily serve the ➔ He defined a line, the Wallace Line, that religious context in the Bible. separates the Indonesian archipelago in areas containing species of Australiain origin Conrad Gesner and those of Indian origin. ➔ Contributed to the 16th century progression ➔ Father of Biogeography due to his research of Zoology. on the basin of the river of Amazon. ➔ History Animalum is a 5 volume bibliography of his knowledge of plants and animals. Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882) ➔ He used the same method of classification ➔ On the origin of species: Natural Selection as Aristotle by ordering data and Theory (published 19th century) observations on fish, insects, birds, etc. ◆ All species have come from a common ancestor and have evolved through the Robert Hooke (1665) process of natural selection. ➔ Improved the compound microscope. ➔ Father of Biology ➔ Observed the cork of plant and saw tiny boxes which he called cell. MODULE 2 Cell Structures and Functions Cell ➔ smallest functional unit of the body. ➔ Carriers all biological processes in the body. Antoine can Leeuwenhoek (1600s - 1700s) ➔ The body is made up of cells. ➔ Made the 1st simplest microscope (single ★ Tissue: group of cells. lens, 200x-300x) ★ Most cells are microscopic ◆ One of the 1st scientists to observe ★ Example of a macroscopic cell: egg microorganisms. ◆ Introduced the term “animalcules” Cytology which means tiny creatures. ➔ Science about the cell. ➔ 1st to see live bacteria and protozoa. ➔ Father of Microbiology, Bacteriology, and Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Protozoology. ➔ Made a simple and single-lens microscope with magnification of about 275x. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) ➔ Father of Modern Taxonomy Robert Hook (1665) ◆ Introduced the “Binomial System of ➔ Discovered the cell when he studied corks of Nomenclature” plants and observed those tiny boxes or Scientific names contain the genus pores that look like the rooms in monastery, and species. where he got the term “cell”. ➔ Systema Naturae ◆ Introduced his taxonomy, published in Theodor Schwann (zoologist) and Matthias Netherland. Schleiden (botanist) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1774-1829) ➔ proposed that cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. ji ♡ ➔ Basic cell parts that perform the Rudolf Virchow physiological activities of the cell. ➔ observed that cells produced new cells through cell division, and proposed that 1. Cell Membrane living cells arise only from other living cells. ➔ Also known as plasma membrane. ➔ Covers and protects the cell. The ideas of the three scientists, Schwann, ➔ A semi-permeable membrane that Schleiden, and Virchow, led to the formulation of controls the moving of materials into and one of the fundamental theories unifying biology, out the cell. the Cell Theory, which states that: ➔ Separates the cell from its external The cell is the structural and functional unit environment. of living things. ❖ Envelope All organisms are composed of one or more Covers and protects the cell. cells. Gives shape to the cell. All cells came from pre-existing cells. ❖ Bilayer Phospholipid Phosphate layers: polar heads CELL ATOM (hydrophilic) Lipid layers: non-polar tails Basic unit of life. Basic unit of (hydrophobic) Nasa body matter. ❖ Semi-permeable Wala sa body. Selects materials that pass through Smaller sa cell. it. Regulates the movement of 2 Types of Cell materials. ❖ Fluid Mosaic Model Plant Cell Contains various materials or Animal Cell molecules Differences: Phospholipids ★ Size/shape Cholesterol ★ Cell wall proteins ★ Centriole 2. Cell Wall ★ Chloroplast ➔ None in animal cells. ★ Color ➔ Freely Permeable ◆ Porous Wala sa animal cell: cell wall, chloroplast, large ◆ No direct effect on the movement of central vacuole materials in and out the cell. ◆ Components depends on the Parts and Functions of the Cell organism: Plants: with cellulose What are the 3 Basic Parts of the Cell: Fungi: with chitin Plasma Membrane ➔ Rigidity Cytoplasm ◆ Gives support and protection. Nucleus 3. Cytoplasm Organelles ji ♡ ➔ System of membranous tubules and ➔ Also called protoplasm. sacs. ➔ Inside of the cell. ➔ “Circulatory system” of the cell. ➔ Jelly-like substance. ◆ Internal transport system ➔ Holds/suspends all cell organelles. ◆ Allows molecules in the cell to move ➔ “Living Substance” from one part to another. ◆ Contains the organelles that ➔ Has two types: perform all the physiological ◆ Rough ER (rER) properties of the cell. ➔ is with membrane lined with ➔ Gel-like Material ribosomes, so that it is for the ◆ Sol: semi-liquid distribution of proteins. ◆ Gel: semi-liquid ➔ Lined with ribosomes. ➔ Cytosol ➔ For protein synthesis and ◆ 70% of the cytoplasm transport. ◆ Mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, ◆ Smooth ER (sER) dissolved materials and water. ➔ is for the transportation of ➔ considered as the living substance of the materials other than proteins, cell containing the chemical elements, like carbohydrates and lipids. and tiny structures, the organelles, that ➔ No ribosomes. are responsible in performing the 6. Golgi Apparatus metabolic activities of the cell. These organelles are: 4. Centrioles ➔ Also called Golgi complex or Golgi body. ➔ The packaging and secretory vesicle of the cell. ➔ It collects materials from the organelles ➔ in centrosomes play a role in the that are needed to be disposed through production of microtubules that serve as secretory vesicles formed at the cell the skeletal system of the cell. membrane. ➔ These are also responsible in the ➔ Cisternae formation of spindle fibers which are ◆ Fused flattened sacs or folds. important in cell division. ◆ Also called dictyosome. ➔ Organizing centers for microtubule ➔ Protein Collector & Dispatcher ➔ Contain 2 bundles of microtubules at ◆ Protein synthesized in the ER packed right angle to each other. into the vesicles and fused with the ➔ Cell Division Golgi body for secretion via ◆ Form the spindle fibers for the exocytosis. separation of chromosomes. ➔ Transport Agent ➔ Centrosomes ◆ Involved in the distribution of of ◆ House the centrioles. lipids around the cell. 5. Endoplasmic Reticulum ji ♡ ➔ Lysosome Builder ◆ Mitochondria act like a digestive ◆ Lysosomes are vesicles with protein system to breakdown nutrients to enzymes pinched off by Golgi body produce energy rich molecules. to the cytoplasm. ➔ Double-membrane Organelles 7. Lysosomes ◆ Smooth outer membrane. ◆ Folded inner membrane ◆ Cristae: infoldings 9. Ribosomes ➔ They secrete enzymes, called lysozymes which are for digestion. ➔ “Suicide-sacs” of the cell. ➔ Most common organelles in almost all ◆ When the cell is damaged, the cells. lysosome bursts, releases enzyme ➔ Not surrounded by a membrane. and digests own cell. ➔ spherical, non-membranous organelle ➔ Tiny sac produced by Golgi body. for protein synthesis. ➔ Digestive Plant ➔ Protein micro-machines ◆ Contains digestive enzyme to help in ◆ Sites for protein synthesis the process of digestion. ➔ Free ribosomes ➔ Keeps the cell clean ◆ Floating in the cytoplasm ◆ Also digests excess and worn out ◆ Size 70S organelles, and engulfed bacteria or ◆ In prokaryotes viruses. ➔ Polysome/polyribosome 8. Mitochondria ◆ Group of 80s ribosomes working together translating mRNA to polypeptides. ➔ Attached ribosomes ◆ Line the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum ◆ Size 80S ◆ In eukaryotes 10. Vacuoles ➔ The “powerhouse of the cell.” ➔ Large organelles second to nucleus and chloroplasts. ➔ is responsible in the production of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as the energy source. ➔ ATP Manufacturer ◆ Manufacture energy in the form of ATP. ◆ Metabolize carbohydrate and fatty ➔ For the storage of materials. acid to generate energy. ➔ Storage bubbles found in cells. ➔ Semi-autonomous Organelles ➔ Membrane bound fluid sac. ◆ Have own DNA, so can produce by ➔ Storage Sac itself by dividing. ◆ Stores large amount of various ➔ Aerobic Respiration materials, like organic and inorganic molecules. ji ♡ ➔ Subordinate Role ◆ Assisting in exocytosis and endocytosis. ➔ Transporting Agent ◆ Transports needed materials into the cell via endocytosis, and waste materials out of the cell via exocytosis. ➔ Formerly known as a microbody. 11. Nucleus ➔ Oxidative Organelle ◆ Contains enzymes that oxidized fatty acids and amino acids. ◆ Byproduct is hydrogen peroxide. ➔ Chemical Detoxification ◆ Oversees reactions that neutralize free radicals, which cause cellular damage and cell death. ➔ Normally the largest organelle. 13. Cytoskeleton ➔ considered as the “brain of the cell”, which controls all the metabolic activities of the cell. ➔ Nuclear Envelope ◆ Double membrane with many pores. ◆ Controls the movement of material in and out the nucleus. ➔ Chromosomes ◆ Houses the genes (DNA). ◆ Hereditary material: contains ➔ Complex network of interlinking filaments instructions for traits and or tubules. characteristics. ➔ “Cell Skeleton” ➔ Nucleolus ➔ 3 Structures: ◆ Spherical body in the nucleus for the ◆ Microfilaments synthesis of protein. Contractile: made of actin ➔ Its cytoplasmic content is the For cell movement and nucleoplasm, which is enclosed by a cytokinesis double membrane lining, called the ◆ Microtubules nuclear membrane. Rigid, hollow tubes: made of ➔ It is where the chromosomes, containing tubulin the genetic materials, the DNA, are Maintain cell shape located. Form the centrioles (spindle ➔ The nucleolus, which is a spherical fibers) structure for the formation of ribosomes ◆ Intermediate Filaments is also found in the nucleus. Provide strength and support. ❖ All eukaryotic cells have nucleus, except 14. Chloroplasts for the RBC or Erythrocytes that lose their ➔ None in animal cells nuclei as they mature. ➔ Sites of photosynthesis ➔ Thylakoids 12. Peroxisome ◆ Flattened membranous sacs that contain chlorophyll. ➔ Stroma ◆ Spaces in grana for the exchange of materials. ➔ Grana ◆ Pile of thylakoids. ji ♡ 15. Flagella and Cilia ➔ For cell movement. Shapes of Cell ➔ Cilia ◆ Short 1. Squamous Cells ◆ Hair-like ➔ These are tile-like cells usually for ◆ Numerous in number protection, found at the outer layer of ➔ Flagella the skin and used as lining of other ◆ Long organs. ◆ Thread-like 2. Cuboidal Cells ◆ Fewer in number ➔ These are cells with equal sides; they are usually observed in kidney tubules. 3. Columnar Cells ➔ Described as tube-like cells found lining the digestive tract (intestine and stomach) for absorption. 4. Polygonal ➔ They are the many-sided liver cells. 5. Stellate Cells ➔ These are star-like cells for nerve 2 Basic Kinds of Cell impulse conduction. ➔ Brain and spinal cord. 1. Prokaryotic 6. Amorphous Cells ➔ These are irregularly shaped cells of WBC due to amoebic and phagocytic action. ➔ White blood cells. 7. Oval Cells ➔ These are nearly rounded cells of the ➔ “False” nucleus RBC of the frog. ➔ Hindi maintindihan kung ano nucleus 8. Spider-like kasi walang membrane. ➔ These are the cells found in the bones ➔ Found in one-celled (unicellular) (called osteocytes). organisms (Virus, bacteria, protozoa) 9. Fusiform 2. Eukaryotic Cell ➔ They are cells of the smooth muscles of visceral organs. 10. Thread-like ➔ These are represented by the sperm cells. Types of Tissues ➔ “True” nucleus ➔ Membrane-bound & Non-membrane Cell > tissue > organ > system > organism (animal) bound organelles ➔ Found in multicellular organisms (plants Tissues & animals) ➔ Group of cells. Histology ji ♡ ➔ Science which deals with the structure and Collagenous → These are functions of the tissues. white, wavy, unbranched bundle of fibers. 1. Epithelial tissue Elastic → These are yellow, ➔ These are tissues mainly used to cover straight, or bent, branching the entire body as well as internal fibers. structures and cavities. ◆ Adipose. This consists of large, ➔ For absorption, transportation, excretion, rounded cells containing fats. The secretion, protection, sensation. nuclei of adipose cells are observed at one side because the fat content Types of Epithelial Tissue is occupying almost the whole cytoplasm. 1. Simple Epithelium ◆ Cartilage. This is commonly, ➔ With only one layer of cells. although erroneously, called a soft a. Simple squamous. This consists of a bone. It contains intercellular single layer of flattened scale-like substance or matrix called chondrin cells. with cells known as condrocytes. The b. Simple cuboidal. This consists of a membrance covering with fibers is layer of cube-like cells. These are the perichondrium. cells having similar width and length Hyaline Cartilage → as ice-cubes. translucent connective tissue c. Simple columnar. This is a layer of without fibers. columnar cells described as Elastic Cartilage → contains elongated cells. This may be found yellow branching fibers. with cilia of flagella. Fibrocartilage → collagenous 2. Stratified Epithelium unbranched fibers observed ➔ This consists of more than one layer to be occupying the tissue. of cells. ◆ Bone or osseous tissue. This a. Stratified squamous. With several contains calcified intercellular layers of squamous cells. substances. The bone cell is b. Stratified cuboidal. With many identified as osteocyte. The layers of cuboidal cells. Haversian System which is the c. Stratified columnar. With two or functional unit of the bone is more layers of columnar cells. covered by a membrane called periosteum. The Haversian System 3 layers of the skin: epidermis (squamous), consists of the Haversian canal with dermis, hypodermis nerves and blood vessels. The cells Ciliated - pag may hair-like areas yung cell are observed occupying cavities, the lacunae, which are connected to 2. Connective tissues one another by canals called ➔ These are tissues, the function of which is canaliculi. The marrow cavity of the to bind and support other tissues and bone is lined by membrane, the organs together. endosteum. ➔ Connective, Arcolar CT, Adipose, Osseous, Fibrous CT, Hyaline cartilage 3. Muscular tissue ➔ Types: ➔ Contain fibers surrounded by a ◆ Reticular Connective Tissue. This membrane called sarcolemma. These tissue is composed of cells and muscle fibers have minute fibers called interconnected fibrils. myofibrils. ◆ Fibrous Connective Tissue. These ➔ Gives shape or form to the body, are cells and fibers observed to be important for locomotion and occupying the intercellular spaces. movement, contracts the heart. Fibers may be: ➔ Classified as to: ji ♡ ◆ Location ○ Basophil – (.5%) with one Skeletal – attached to the bone “S” - shaped lobe. Visceral – smooth muscle. Agranulocytes. These do not found in the internal organs. contain granules. Cardiac – muscles of the heart. ○ Lymphocytes – (20% - ◆ Function 25%) small spherical WBC Voluntary – can be controlled with large nucleus by the will. occupying almost the Involuntary – cannot be entire cytoplasm. This is controlled by the will. capable of producing ◆ Form and Structure antibodies. Striated - with the alternate ○ Monocytes – (2.6%) big dark and light bands. cells with bean shaped Unstriated or smooth – without nucleus. It is capable of striations. phagocytic action and is motile. 4. Vascular tissue ◆ Thrombocytes or blood platelets. ➔ In some textbooks, hindi ‘to kasama kasi These are important in blood under na ng connective tissue. clotting. ➔ Blood 5. Nervous tissue ➔ Erythrocyte, basophil, neutrophil, ➔ This tissue receiving and transmitting lymphocyte, eosinophil, monocyte. impulses. It has cells called neurons and ➔ Mas marami RBC, Mas malaki WBC extensions, the dendrite and the axon. ➔ This is a fluid or liquid tissue with cells ➔ The dendrite is a short branching used to distribute body materials such as extension transmitting impulses toward food, hormones, gases, and wastes. The the neuron; the axon is either a short or fluid content is the plasma and the cells long unbranched extension transmitting are the following: impulse from the neuron. ◆ Red blood cells/corpuscles (RBC) or erythrocytes → the red pigment of Cell Cycle the cells is hemoglobin. These cells PPT transport oxygenated blood. ◆ White blood cells (WBC) or Cell Cycle leucocytes → they are the soldiers of ➔ Series of events that take place in a cell the body because they fight leading to its division and DNA replication. infections. They are capable of ➔ Maintains the life of the cell by following a phagocytoses, pseudopodia, and cycle. diapedesis. ➔ Has two main processes: Granulocytes. This consists of ◆ the Interphase cytoplasmic granules. ➔ Period of the cell between cell Classified according to divisions. number of lobes. ➔ Preparatory stage for cell division. ○ Neutrophil – (65-75 per ◆ the M-Phase. cubic millimeter of blood) ➔ Cell Division: Mitosis, Meiosis It has three more lobes joined by a threadlike structure against bacterial attack. ○ Eosinophil – (25%) with two lobes. This is necessary for inflammation prevention. ji ♡ The Interphase: ◆ Keeps the genomic information consistent between generations. 1. G1 ➔ Cell multiplication The organelles are busy performing their ◆ Increase in the number of cells for metabolic activities, and at the same time growth, development and repair. duplicating or increasing in number, so that the cell is also increasing in size. 2 kinds of cell division: Between Mitosis and DNA synthesis 1. Mitosis Growing cell: organelles are duplication 2. Meiosis Metabolically active cell TYPES OF CELL Lasts up to 11 hours. 2. G0 Quiescent stage Metabolically active cell Not dividing cell 3. S phase In this phase, there is DNA synthesis where the genetic materials replicate. Hence, Whereas, the M-Phase which refers to as the Cell each chromosomes consist of two(2) Division has 4 Main Stages, these are: sister chromatids. DNA replication 1. Prophase Increase in DNA content Centrioles separate and move to Last up to 8 hrs. opposite poles 4. G2 Spindle fibers are formed by the This is a checkpoint to determine if the centrioles cell is ready for the next process, which is Nuclear envelope disintegrates and cell division, either mitosis or meiosis. nucleus disappears Protein synthesis is also done in Chromosomes become visible preparation for cell division. 2. Metaphase Protein synthesis Chromosomes are arranged at the Check point: damaged DNA, unreplicated equator of the cell DNA Each sister chromatids are attached to Lasts up to 4 hrs. the spindle fibers 3. Anaphase Chromosomes separate and move to M-Phase opposite poles Cell division: Mitosis, Meiosis 4. Telophase Lasts for 1 hr. Chromosomes reached the opposite poles Spindle fibers break Nuclear envelope begin to appear and form the nucleus Cytokinesis In animal cells, invagination at the cell membrane starts to appear, this is the cleavage furrow, which eventually forms the two(2) daughter cells Cell division In plant cells, the cell plate is formed to ➔ Biological basis of life separate the two(2) daughter cells ◆ Reproduction: to produce new individual of the same kind. ➔ Maintains the genome. ji ♡ Chromatids - duplicated chromosomes (hati na) The Chromosome In mitosis, two(2) daughter cells are produced, each with diploid chromosomes. Whereas, meiosis produced four(4), haploid cells. Meiosis is for the development of gametes, with the same stages as mitosis, but has two(2) main divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. What are Haploid and Diploid Chromosomes? Haploid Chromosomes Meiosis I has the following stages: 1. Prophase I Aside from the Leptotene is the beginning of the condensation of chromosomes Zygotene is when homologous chromosomes pair ➔ one copy of genetic material subdivided into Pachytene is observed with the chromosomes complete condensation of chromosomes Diploid Chromosomes Diplotene is the completion of the crossing-over of chromosomes Diakinesis is with the formation of the four(4) sister chromatids 2. Metaphase I is with tetrad chromosomes attached to the spindle fibers, and aligned at the ➔ two copies of genetic material subdivided equator into chromosomes 3. Anaphase I is the separation of homologous !! COMPLETE PPT IN CANVAS !! chromosomes Prophase 4. Telophase I is the formation of two(2) diploid daughter cells Meiosis II is exactly the same as mitosis, where both the two(2) daughter cells produced in Meiosis I divide and each forms (two)2 haploid daughter cells. So that, total of four(4) cells are produced in the entire Meiosis. ji ♡ Chromosomes are duplicated. Centrosomes begin moving apart; nuclear envelope is fragmenting and nucleolus will disappear. Metaphase Different Organs and Functions Chromosomes (each consisting of two sister Organs chromatids) are at the metaphase plate ➔ Made up of different types of tissues. (center of fully formed spindle). ★ Example: skin Anaphase ○ Epithelial tissue ○ Nerve tissue ○ Vascular tissue ○ Connective tissue Examples of Organs Stomach ➔ For initial digestion. ➔ Temporary storage of food. ➔ For the production/secretion of digestive Daughter chromosomes (each consisting of enzymes (gastric juice). one chromatid) are moving toward the poles Brain of the spindle. ➔ Controls everything in the body. Heart Telophase ➔ Pumps blood throughout the body. Small intestine ➔ Final digestion. ➔ Produces digestive enzymes. ➔ Absorption of nutrients from food. Lungs ➔ Allows us to breath. ➔ Gas exchange Kidney ➔ Filters blood and separates nitrogenous Daughter cells are forming as nuclear wastes (urine). envelopes and nucleoli appear. Large intestine Chromosomes will become indistinct ➔ Absorbs water and nutrients from chromatin. undigested food, and removes waste !! COMPLETE PPT IN CANVAS !! from the body. ❖ *The small intestine is involved in the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. The large intestine is involved in the absorption of water and in the production of vitamins. Tongue ➔ Aids in digestion. ji ♡ Eyes ➔ 2 types: Urinary and Gallbladder (storage ➔ Allows us to see. of bile) Liver Diaphragm ➔ Produces bile. ➔ For breathing, swallowing, coughing, and ➔ Largest gland. stabilizing the spine. Ear Anus ➔ For hearing. ➔ For excretion Ovary Neck ➔ Produces and holds egg cells. ➔ Connects head to the body. Arteries Uterus ➔ Transports oxygenated blood from the ➔ Receives a fertilized egg and protects the heart. fetus (baby) while it grows and develops. Urinary bladder Skin ➔ Temporary storage of urine. ➔ Largest organ Spinal cord ➔ Connects brain to body. Pancreas Femur ➔ Produces enzyme that regulates blood ➔ Thigh bone. sugar. ➔ Longest bone in the human body. Vein ➔ Transports unoxygenated blood. Pattern of Inheritance Testes ➔ Male gonad. Genetics ➔ Produces sperm cell. ➔ Study of heredity (namamana) and Fallopian tube variations (differences). ➔ Transport eggs from the ovaries to the ➔ Study of genes. uterus, and allow sperm to reach the egg for fertilization. Inherited traits Capillaries ★ Eye color ➔ Connect arteries and veins (for the ★ Hair color exchange of fluids and gases between ★ Skin color blood and tissues). ★ Height Esophagus ★ Disease/s ➔ Connects the pharynx (throat) to the ★ Body Shape stomach Nostrils DOMINANT RECESSIVE ➔ Filters air. ➔ Openings in the nose that allow air to Stable natatakpan ng dominant ang pass in and out of the nasal cavities. recessive Breasts ➔ Production of milk for women (mammary Traits na hindi mababago: gland). ★ Ear lobe (Free and attached) Vagina ★ Ability to roll the tongue ➔ For menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, and sexual pleasure. 46 chromosomes Feet 23 are equally inherited sa both parents ➔ For standing. Vas deferens Example: ➔ A coiled tube that carries the sperm out ❖ Father (black hair) = AA of the testes. ❖ Mother (white hair) = aa Hands Offsprings = Aa, Aa, Aa, Aa ➔ Allows us to grasps and move objects. Bladder ji ♡ ❖ Father = Aa AA - black hair ❖ Mother = Aa aa - white hair Offsprings = AA, Aa, Aa, aa BB - long Phenotypic Ratio = 3:1 bb - short DD - curly HETEROZYGOUS HOMOZYGOUS dd - smooth Different copies of Identical copies of a gene. a gene. AaBbDd x AaBbDd F1 generation. Example: AaBb x AaBb AA - black hair aa - white hair BB - long bb - short Make a combination for each Bring down/combine in the table AB Ab aB ab AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb Black + long + curly = 27 Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb Black + short + curly = 9 aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb Black + short + smooth = 3 ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb Black + long + smooth = 9 White + long + smooth = 3 Black + long = 9 White + long + curly = 9 Black + short = 3 White + short + curly = 3 White + long = 3 White + short + smooth = 1 White + short = 1 (recessive) Phenotypic ratio - 27:9:3:9:3:9:3:1 phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1 There is a pattern (odd, can be divided) Gregor Mendel ➔ Father of genetics Phenotype ➔ Study of pea plant (mixed smooth leaf and ➔ Visible/expressed characteristics rough leaf through cross pollination) ★ i.e., height Punnet Square Genotype ➔ Table used to determine a specific trait. ➔ Genetic makeup Pedigree Chart ➔ Used to trace a trait na pinanggalingan ng Example abnormalities. ji ♡
