Readings in Philippine History PDF

Readings in Philippine History  Readings in Philippine History  Table of Contents  Content...

Readings in Philippine History  Readings in Philippine History  Table of Contents  Content Page List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………. iii Preface...………………………………………………………………………………………. v Unit 1 UNDERSTANDING HISTORY USING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES Lesson 1. Meaning and Relevance of History..............................................................................2 Lesson 2. Test of Authenticity and Credibility..............................................................................8 Lesson 3. Test of Authenticity and Credibility: The Tejeros Convention of 1897..................... 14 Unit 2 SPANISH COLONIZATION TO THE PRESENT Lesson 1. Chronicles about the 16th Century Filipinos: The First Voyage Around the World and the Customs of the Tagalogs................................... 35 Lesson 2. Kartilya ng Katipunan................................................................................................. 48 Lesson 3. The Declaration of Philippine Independence............................................................ 54 Lesson 4. The Malolos Constitution and the First Republic....................................................... 62 Lesson 5. Visual Sources in the Stud of History......................................................................... 72 Lesson 6. Raiders of the Sulu Sea: A Documentary Presentation............................................ 83 Unit 3 HISTORIC CONTROVERSIES Lesson 1. The Site of the First Mass.......................................................................................... 88 Lesson 2. The Cavite Mutiny...................................................................................................... 92 i  Readings in Philippine History Unit 4-A SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC and CULTURAL ISSUES A General Discussion Lesson 1. The Constitution of the Philippines.................................................................................... 113 Lesson 2. The Indigenous People: Some Notes................................................................................ 118 Lesson 3. History of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines....................................................... 124 Unit 4-B SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL ISSUES With Adaptations to the Disciplines of the Students Lesson 1. Bridges in the 19th Century Philippines Through Selected Photographs (For Engineering and Architecture Majors).......................................................... 128 Lesson 2. The “Moro” Problem (For Liberal Arts Majors)............................................................... 134 Lesson 3. Implementing Public Order through the Claveria Decree of 1849 (For Computer Science, Accountancy and Business Admin. Majors) ….................. 138 Lesson 4. The School Curriculum in the Philippines: Its Historical Development (For Education Majors) …........................................................................................ 144 Unit 5 APPRECIATING HISTORIC AND HERITAGE SITES Lesson 1. Dealing with Local History................................................................................................. 151 Lesson 2. Philippine Heritage and History.......................................................................................... 158 Appendices Appendix A. Dealing with Local History................................................................................................. 163 Appendix B. Philippine Heritage and History.......................................................................................... 164 ii  Readings in Philippine History  List of Figures  Figure Page Figure 1. Reseña Historica de la Inauguracion de la Iglesia de San Ignacio de Loyola de Manila en 1889............................................................ 1 Figure 2. The book Katipunan and the Revolution............................................................................. 16 Figure 3. The book Revolt of the Masses......................................................................................... 23 Figure 4. The Main Academic Building of PUP and its environs................................................. 34 Figure 5. Photo of Emilio Jacinto courtesy of Ambeth Ocampo................................................... 49 Figure 6. The Malolos Congress which convened at the Barasoain Church in September 1898.................................................................. 63 Figure 7. Equal Work, Unequal Salary, Why? and American Worker/Filipino Worker................................................................... 77 Figure 8. Tanong na Makahulugan.................................................................................................. 78 Figure 9. The painting Planting Rice (1951) by Fernando Amorsolo ……………………………81 Figure 10. Ambeth Ocampo’s picture of Jose Rizal’s alleged retraction document...................... 87 Figure 11. Photo of the Spanish arsenal in Cavite taken during the American Period................ 93 Figure 12. Map of Cavite Arsenal.................................................................................................... 104 Figure 13. Sergeant Fernando La Madrid, a mestizo who served as one of the leaders of the Cavite Mutiny................................................................... 108 Figure 14. An Indian carpenter of the Cavite Arsenal................................................................... 108 Figure 15. Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora, the martyrs of Filipinism............................... 110 Figure 16. The destruction of downtown Manila during the liberation campaign.................... 112 Figure 17. Manuel Roxas signing the constitution of the Philippines......................................... 115 Figure 18. History of Government Agencies on Indigenous People........................................... 119 Figure 19. Ethno-Linguistic Map of the Philippines...................................................................... 120 iii  Readings in Philippine History Figure 20. Four Bundles of Rights from Republic Act No. 8371................................................. 121 Figure 21. The Absence of regulatory measures on the consumption of tobacco made the children addicted to it.......................................................... 127 Figure 22. The Puente de Malagonlong in Tayabas, Quezon....................................................... 130 Figure 23. The Puente de España..................................................................................................... 131 Figure 24. The system of writing by the Pre-colonial Filipinos called Baybayin ……………….145 Figure 25. The transcript of records of Rizal at the Ateneo Municipal ………………………….146 Figure 26. The subjects taken Up by Rizal at UST ……………………………………………….147 Figure 27. The world heritage icon Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte.............................................. 150 Figure 28. The Ruins in Bacolod City.............................................................................................. 159 Figure 29. Heritage Cycle................................................................................................................... 160 Figure 30. Cultural Agencies and their role in heritage management in the Philippines........................................................................ 161 Figure 31. Categories of Cultural heritage in the Philippines...................................................... 161 iv  Readings in Philippine History  PREFACE  “The very concept of objective truth is fading out of the world. Lies will pass into history.” – George Orwell It is difficult to read history—dealing with it makes even worse. Yet, the faculty members of the Department of History of the University who kept these pieces together tried with ardor to respond to the challenge of the University in its call to write an instructional material for the online classes as a consequence of the dreadful pandemic. The task is tough and demanding because it seeks a thorough review and analysis of sources— something which cannot just be done in a given limited period of time. It is with great pleasure to write an instructional material for the benefit of the students of the University and, perhaps, as a contribution to the discipline. However, it is equally terrifying to succumb to inadvertent mistakes and criticisms that may arise from clerical errors, editing and haphazardness. This is because history is always enlightening and therefore inaccuracy is not permitted--there is no room for mistake, no room for doubt! Whatever inexactitude and lapses committed herein, the indulgence of the readers is earnestly sought—mea culpa. Those who prepared this material do not claim title to certain ideas, visuals and illustrations. In fact, they are also committed students of history. This material came up with the concerted effort of certain faculty members in the Department: Prof. Jasper Christian L. Gambito wrote Lesson 1 (The Meaning and Relevance of History) in Unit 1; Lesson 1 (Chronicles About the 16th Century Filipinos) and Lesson 6 (Raiders of the Sulu Sea) in Unit 2; Lesson 1 (The Site of the First Mass) in Unit 3; and, Lesson 2 (The ―Moro‖ Problem) in Unit 4-B. Prof. Mc Donald Domingo M. Pascual, the editor and chair for this module, dealt with Lesson 2 (Tests of Authenticity and Credibility) and Lesson 3 (The Tejeros Convention) in Unit 1; Lesson 2 (The Declaration of Philippine Independence) and Lesson 5 (Visual Sources in History) in Unit 2; Lesson 2 (The Cavite Mutiny) in Unit 3; Lesson 1 (Bridges in the 19th Century) and Lesson 3 (Implementing Public Order Through the Claveria Decree of 1849) in Unit 4-B; and, Lesson 1 (Dealing with Local History) in Unit 5. Atty. Melchor A. Pelleja, on the other hand, tackled Lesson 4 (The Malolos Constitution and the First Philippine Republic) in Unit 2; Lesson 1 (The Constitutions of the Philippines) and Lesson 3 (History of Agrarian Reform in the Philippines) in Unit 4-A; and, Lesson 4 (The School Curriculum in the Philippines: Its Historical Development) in Unit 4-B. Prof. Sherrenne R. De Amboy, the co-chair and layout in-charge of the team, presented Lesson 2 (The Indigenous Peoples: Some Notes) in Unit 4-A and Lesson 2 (Philippine Heritage and History) in Unit 5. Finally, Prof. Ma. Rhodora Agustin examined Lesson 2 (Kartilya ng Katipunan) in Unit 2. The team wishes to thank Prof. Marlon F. Agoy-Agoy, the chairperson of the Department of History, for his unfaltering support and understanding towards its members— he has never failed to remind them with great compassion; to Dr. Nicolas T. Mallari, the dean of the College of Social Sciences and Development for his usual considerations; to the v  Readings in Philippine History University Administration for this opportunity; to Ms. Angelica Sevilla for her cooperation and effort; to Mr. Lito S. Lacaba, Jr. for the cover design; and, to all of those who, in one way or another, helped in carrying out this task. ―To err is human, to forgive is divine.‖ It is hoped with great zeal that this humble material shall be used meaningfully by the students, less the shortcomings. It is anticipated that, from here, they will be able to learn the ideas and information they need in order to accomplish their pursuits in the course Readings in Philippine History (RIPH) and, of course, to satisfy the quest for the truth about the past in their attempt to understand the present and, perhaps, the future better. Be it like that, all the hardships and challenges in doing this piece will be paid off. Mabuhay ang Department of History, ang College of Social Sciences and Development at ang Polytechnic University of the Philippines! The RIPH Team  vi  Readings in Philippine History UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING HISTORY USING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES Figure 1. Reseña Historica de la Inauguracion de la Iglesia de San Ignacio de Loyola de Manila en 1889. (Reseña, 1890). 1  Readings in Philippine History  Lesson 1  MEANING AND RELEVANCE OF HISTORY Introduction History is a boring subject for many. Students find it dull due to certain reasons as previous techniques in teaching which tended to focus on memorizing the dates of historical events, as well as the names of historical figures and the places where these events took place. As such, it is the aim of this lesson to shed light on the meaning and relevance of History in the daily lives of the Filipinos. Without dismissing the necessity of knowing the answers to the basic questions of what, where, and when, studying history should be more concerned in answering questions like ―Why a certain event happened?‖ and ―How did it happen?‖ In the first place, why is it necessary to write history? Is it just a mere caprice of the academician for him to brag his technical expertise? Can the study of history be useful in understanding the different factors that led to the development of the present society? Notwithstanding the necessity of writing history, the knowledge of identifying sources and where to locate them are two of the basic lessons which a student of history should learn. Sources are the primary foundation of history, needless to say in dealing with it. Without the sources, the so-called historical narratives can be easily dismissed as historical fiction. This lesson aims to give the students a preliminary background on the various sources that could be employed in studying Readings in Philippine History, including certain information on the repositories of these sources--physical or digital—so that the students would know where to access them. Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Identify credible and authentic primary sources and know how to evaluate their provenance. 2. Determine the various repositories of historical sources where What is History? History originated as a derivation of historia, an ancient Greek term for learning through inquiry (Hoefferle, 2013). It is usually defined as the study of past events. Merriam Webster Dictionary denotes that history refers to a chronological record of significant events such as those affecting a nation or institution, often including an explanation of their causes. The American Historical Association, on the other hand, currently defines history as the never-ending process whereby people seek to understand the past and its many meanings. Therefore, history is not only a mere collection of narratives compiled or collated by authors, rather history employs a system to organize narratives. As what the Greek philosopher 2  Readings in Philippine History Aristotle once said, history is a systematic account of a set of natural phenomena. It is also an investigative work because people aim to satisfy their thirst for truth. History attempts to know the actions of human beings that were accomplished in the past (Collingwood, 1976). In the Philippine setting, the classic definition of history is given by Zeus Salazar, a notable historian and retired professor of the University of the Philippines. To him, Kasaysayan, the counterpart of history in the mother tongue, is an essential narrative with to a group of people that is characterized by uniqueness and identity. This uniqueness, as opined by Salazar, is largely based on their own language and heritage, hence ―Ang Kasaysayan ay salaysay na may saysay para sa isang grupo ng tao na may kakanyahan, identidad na nakasandig sa sariling wika at kalinangan (Sebastian and Rosales, 2008). Through this definition, Salazar reiterates that the essence of history depends on whose history is being narrated and who the intended audiences are. It is important to note that history is not the past, but rather a glimpse of the past. The entirety of the past cannot be narrated and included in all of the written histories for the main reason that not everything which happened in the past were recorded and/or documented. Therefore, history does not create narration of past events; rather a recreation of past events based on available materials. The Relevance of History Collingwood (1976) tells that history is valuable because it teaches people what they have done and thus what man is. Through history, the present generation could assess the feats and defeats of the previous generations and can learn not only from their errors but also from their victories. The following relevance of history were enumerated by Peter Stearns (1998).  History contributes to Moral Understanding  History helps us understand people and societies  History provides Identity  History is essential for Good Citizenship. The Repositories of Historical Sources Philippine Depositories. The foremost depository where students of history can go to is the National Library of the Philippines (NLP). Holding a wide array of general and rare collections on Philippine history, it includes the following units: (1) Filipiniana Division and (2) Microfilm Section. These units, indeed, are very helpful to students in their academic pursuits and research endeavors. Important documents such as the Historical Data Papers and the Philippine Revolutionary Records are housed in this library. The Archives of the University of Santo Tomas contains rich Spanish-era collection, especially with regards to education-related records during the Spanish Period. The National Archives of the Philippines (NAP) also contains rich Spanish-era collection, more particularly when it comes to government-related records of the Spanish regime. If the students wish to conduct researches on ecclesiastical-related topics, they can go and visit the Archdiocesan Archives of Manila which is located in Arzobispado, Intramuros. This depository contains vast information on Church affairs. It is also here where the infamous Retraction Letter of Rizal was found. Moreover, the Manila Observatory Archives contains 3  Readings in Philippine History pertinent data regarding the various weather disturbances and conditions. This is due to the fact that the Observatorio served as the weather forecasting bureau of the Spanish colonial government. Other institutions of higher learning boast their rich collections of both primary and secondary sources. Among them are the University of the Philippines Main Library in Diliman Quezon City; the Ateneo de Manila University‘s Rizal Library and Historical Collection of the United States Embassy in Loyola Heights, Quezon City; and, the De La Salle University Libraries in Ermita, Manila. Students who wish to conduct researches on ethnic groups can visit the SIL Philippines in Horseshoe Drive, Quezon City. The said archives offer almost 2,000 titles relating to the languages of the Philippines. The archives of the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (CICM), also in Quezon City, offers collections on documents written by CICM missionaries who were posted in the northern parts of Luzon. Other depositories are the centers established by local historical networks. These centers provide helpful sources about the history of their towns or provinces, thus the study of local history becomes easier. Spanish Depositories. The following are the principal Spanish depositories which contain tons of collections pertaining to the Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines: 1. Archivo General de Indias (Seville) 2. ArchivoHistorico Nacional (Madrid) 3. Museo Naval de la Ministerio de Marina (Madrid) 4. Real Academia de la Historia (Madrid) 5. Biblioteca Nacional de Espana (Madrid) 6. Archivo de Ministerio de AsuntosExteriores (Madrid) The Spanish government through the Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte launched the Portal de Archivos Españoles (PARES) which offers free access to digitized copies of documents and other sources that can be found in Spanish Archives. Through this initiative, students of history in the Philippines can freely access digitized documents and other sources online. Mexican Depository. The Philippines was a part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the capital of which was situated in Mexico. The ties between the two Spanish territories ended when Mexico gained its independence in 1821. Because of this, a multitude number of sources could possibly be sitting in the Archivo General de la Nacion de Mexico which can be very useful to students. British Depository. For a brief period of time, that is from 1762–1764, the British occupied Manila. It was through this invasion that some historical sources written during the Spanish period made its way to the British Museum. As a matter of fact, Jose Rizal took some time to research inside this facility in an attempt to annotate the Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas of Antonio de Morga. American Depositories. Among the main depositories in the United States of America include the following: 1. National Archives and Records Service (NARS) 2. Library of Congress (Washington D.C.) 4  Readings in Philippine History 3. Ayer Collection of the Newberry Library (Chicago, Illinois) 4. Lily Library (Bloomington, Indiana) 5. Harvard University 6. Stanford University 7. University of Michigan The proliferation of online archives is also beneficial to researchers who do not have the capacity to conduct research in any of the above-mentioned depositories. Although many of their collections are yet to be digitized, archive.org and Project Gutenberg offer a wide array of scanned sources which are available for download. Classification and Types of Historical Sources Sources are defined as artifacts that have been left by the past. They exist either as (1) relics, (2) what we can call as remains, or (3) as the testimonies of witnesses of the past (Howell and Prevenier, 2001). Based on this definition, the students can infer that historical sources are not only confined to written documents but also to artifacts and ecofacts. A basic definition from Collins English Dictionary relates artifact as ‗something made or given shape by humans such as a tool or a work of art. On the other hand, Merriam Webster Dictionary denotes artifact as a simple object showing workmanship or modification as distinguished from a natural object. Basically, it is an object remaining from a particular period. Examples are tools and ornaments. It is easy to say that an artifact does not only refer to antiquated objects which are usually associated with archaeological finds but to any object which were modified by humans for their own purpose or consumption. Also, an artifact is a mute witness of the period of its existence. On the other hand, ecofact, according to the Oxford Dictionary pertains to an excavated piece of evidence consisting natural remains, as opposed to an objects of human workmanship. To make it simple then, an ecofact is the direct opposite of an artifact. Main Types of Written Sources Primary Source A good definition of primary source is provided by Louis Gottschalk (1950) in his book Understanding History. According to him, a primary source is ―the testimony of an eyewitness, or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a mechanical device like the Dictaphone–that is, of one who or that which was present at the events of which he or it tells.‖ Based on this definition, a myriad of examples include the following: diaries, audio recordings, artifacts, letters, newspaper articles and documents such as birth certificates, marriage contracts, and death certificates. Visual sources like works of arts, photographs and videos are also included in this category. Secondary Source Gottschalk (1950) defines a secondary source as ―the testimony of anyone who is not an eyewitness–that is, one who was not present at the events of which he tells.‖ Thus, the main difference between it and a primary source is the presence of the writer or author or observer to the event being described. Secondary sources may include sources as 5  Readings in Philippine History bibliographies, commentaries, annotations, dictionaries, encyclopedias, journal articles, magazines, monographs, and textbooks. Unwritten Sources. Unwritten sources include the following: (1) archaeological evidence; (2) oral evidence; and (3) material evidence. Types of Unwritten Sources Archaeological Evidence. Archaeological evidence refers to remains such as artifacts and ecofacts which help a historian in determining the culture of the area where the evidence was found. Similarly, the ways of life of the people, including their artistic expressions, have been etched in these materials. Archaeological pieces of evidence include tools, ornaments, fixtures, etc. Oral Evidence. Oral evidence pertains to folk tales, myths, legends, folk songs and popular rituals. These sources might contain information pertaining to the culture of the people who created them. These pieces of evidence can also give a glimpse of the people economic activities at a given time, especially their socio-political organization and social condition. Material Evidence. Material evidence includes photographs, art works, videos, and sound recordings. Activity Propose a title for a possible research and come up with at least three (3) statements of the problem or arguments. Prepare an outline which would determine the flow of your research. Using digital archives, prepare a bibliography of the sources which you can use in your research. Classify your sources according to type.  References Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding history. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Hoefferle, C. (2013). The essential historiography reader (1st Ed.). Pearson. 6  Readings in Philippine History Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001) From reliable sources: An introduction to historical methods. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Rosales, A., & Sebastian, R. R. (2008) Historia: Pag-usbong, pakikipagtagpo at pagbubuo. Manila: Mary Jo Publishing House. Stearns, P. N. (1998). Why study history? Retrieved from https://www.historians.org/ about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-archives/why-study- history-(1998). 7  Readings in Philippine History  Lesson 2  TESTS OF AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY Introduction The usual mistake committed by a researcher, especially a budding one, is when he considers any apparent authentic record as credible source of information. When there is no regard for examining and establishing the originality and the competence of the source, make no mistake that the readers of the account shall be misled or worse misinformed and live through with it for the rest of their lives. As such, sources must be examined and should be dealt with high regard in order to ascertain the accuracy of information for the greater benefit of the readers. Sources are said to be worthless if they are not used by historians. The accounts of historians are insignificant likewise if they are not read by readers, especially the students of history. This is the reason why every information to be used must be accurate, hence the importance of internal and external criticisms. These criticisms are parts and parcels of the so-called methods of history. Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Discern the significance of External and Internal Criticisms 2. Apply External and Internal Criticisms in the scrutiny of sources. What is the Difference between Method [of History] and Historiography? Method pertains to the process of thoroughly examining and critically analyzing the records and survivals of the past. Likewise, it means the accumulation of data about the past to be thoroughly examined and critically analyzed by a set of scientific rules so that a certain past that is attempted to reconstruct can be determined whether it actually happened or not. On the other hand, Historiography refers the process of reconstructing historical data that have already been tested by the method. Also, it means the synthesizing of historical data into a narrative or discourse. The writing of history books, researches such as theses and dissertations or articles for publications or for lectures in conferences and seminars undergo historiography. 8  Readings in Philippine History External Criticism: The Test of Authenticity Authenticity means originality. In history, it is more important to use original sources than secondary sources because they provide raw data that have not been subjected to the interpretation of historians. They also lead directly the researcher or historian to the perception and milieu of the eyewitness in relation to the event being studied. Genuine sources are usually the sources from which secondary materials derived their data. Why the Test of Authenticity is done? It is done in order to determine the genuineness of sources. It is necessary to determine real accounts from hoax stories or those that were fabricated covertly by persons who wanted to have false claims on documents that allegedly prove certain phenomena in the very remote past. An example to this is the alleged Maragtas which was purported by Pedro Monteclaro. William Henry Scott (1984) argued in his book Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History that Maragtas was made by Monteclaro based on suspicious oral and fabricated written sources. Sources are likewise fabricated in order to justify the supposed occurrence of events. A classic case on this matter is Negative Revisionism which, in anyway, attempts to alter history or its course by means of trying to moderate or restrain the impact of history to a person, institution or groups. Another reason in performing the Test of Authenticity is for the historian to detect misleading sources. Sources that mislead purposively can misinform and, therefore, miseducate people because they divert the value or real meaning of events. Moreover, identifying the authorship of a source, the time of an event, including the time when the source was written, and the space of an event are equally important. The authorship of the source provides strong authenticity and credibility to it while time and space, together with the prevailing practices of that period, become the bases of the context of an event, the building blocks of a historical process. It must be noted that an event being studied must be situated in its proper context in order to adequately comprehend, analyze and interpret its historical value. Internal Criticism: The Test of Credibility After ascertaining the genuineness or originality of sources, the historian has to perform internal criticism in order to determine their credibility. What then makes the credibility of a source important? It is important because it tells whether the source is worthy to use by the historian in his study. For a source to be regarded credible, the historian must be able to discern the following: 1. Competence of the source in telling the truth 2. Willingness of the source in telling the truth 3. Adequacy of data relayed by the source 4. Reliability of the source when corroborated by other independent sources. According to Gottschalk (1950), in examining the credibility of a source, the historian or the skilled history researcher plays the role of a ―prosecutor, attorney for the defense, judge, and jury all in one. But as a judge, he rules out no evidence whatever if it is relevant. To him, any single detail of testimony is credible—even if it is contained in a document 9  Readings in Philippine History obtained by force or fraud, or is otherwise impeachable, or is based on necessary evidence, or is from an interested witness—provided it can pass the four tests‖ enumerated above. An independent source, even when it states certain pieces of information claimed by another source, is a kind of source that derived its information from the occurrence of the event itself. In other words, its author was there both in time and space and that he was mentally mature and conscious to absorb the building blocks of an event as they happened before his eyes. This means that an independent source is an account that did not rely on some extrinsic informants. Certainly, secondary sources cannot be considered independent sources because of their reliance to primary sources. In order to adequately establish the credibility of a source, two other independent sources—written or unwritten—must corroborate its claims. In History, there is no such thing as objectivity or judgment-free account. Even primary sources contain biases. Biases can be seen in the author‘s [or eyewitness‘] perspective, affiliation, acclamation or appreciation of certain individuals and institutions, preferences, manner of description and worse, one-sided view, etc. But biases must be minimized in order that the account would not be considered a product of what is known as yellow journalism. Basic Assumptions with Sources Here are some assumptions which can guide historians or researchers in examining primary sources: 1. Sources like relics, artifacts, remains, documents, and witnesses are accurate when proven to be authentic and credible. Relics, artifacts, and remains, though, are more reliable while documents (or narratives) and witnesses are more detailed and specific. 2. The authenticity of a source increases the credibility of that source. 3. A primary source is more reliable than a secondary one. 4. The credibility of a source is increased if it is corroborated by independent sources. 5. Sources would tend to be bias, especially to its provenance or to the one who made it or held its custody. 6. If sources like witnesses or their testimonies do not have immediate interest or direct involvement to the event, they become more credible than those who have interest or direct involvement. 7. If all independent sources agree to a certain event, then the event becomes usually acceptable or factual. 8. Testimonies of witnesses are credible if the witnesses are mentally and emotionally fit at the time of the interview or declaration. 9. The source that does not conform to its milieu is considered a fabricated source. 10  Readings in Philippine History What to Consider with Disagreeing or Hostile Sources? Disagreeing or hostile sources are difficult to deal with, particularly when there is no enough evidence that deal with the event being studied. Here are some tips that a historian needs to consider when dealing with them: 1. If two sources disagree with each other and there is no way wherein one could be examined over the other and vice-versa, the source with more logical reasoning and which accords common sense would be considered. 2. If sources or witnesses do not agree on certain points, the source that gives more proofs to its authenticity and credibility becomes more reliable. 3. If the source or witness is hostile, it becomes less credible. Corroboration to other independent and types of sources would be more necessary. 4. A source or witness that holds orientation from one school of thought or philosophy— e.g., Marxism—is usually argumentative or hostile with other sources. Thus, the milieu of the source or the events tackled must be examined by looking at other sources that convey the same theme and that do not hold orientation from any school of thought. Ethics in Historical Research There are certain values that must be observed in doing historical writing or research. It is expected that a historian should exude the following:  Conscious as to where he is coming from (biases, e.g., point of view, presuppositions, personal values, prior knowledge, etc.)  Objective and accurate in examining and analyzing his sources.  Impartial and rational in interpreting his data and in synthesizing his work.  Open to the use of all available and relevant sources, including those that contradict his arguments.  Free from the influence and subjection of others; he must subject himself only to the truth.  Conscientious in properly citing his sources.  Thankful to those who helped him in pursuing his research in one way or another.  Adhere himself to the highest integrity of scholarship by avoiding academic or intellectual dishonesty such as plagiarism, fabrication, deception, cheating or sabotage.  Engage himself in a scientific scholarship through the proper application of the established methods of the discipline. 11  Readings in Philippine History  Establish a serious and rational familiarity with sources and a critical dialogue with other historians and the reading public.  Secure all forms of sources and allow them to be used by other historians.  Offer authentic pieces of evidence to any serious claims or arguments.  Refrain from duplicating what has been done before.  Acknowledge indebtedness from other historians or those who extended assistance.  Exude respect for criticisms from peers and other historians.  Abstain from unreasonable interpretation of his data in order to achieve his intended purpose.  Show respect to other viewpoints.  Avoid irresponsible use of sources in order to deliberately mislead readers, conceal incidents in the past or modify history for one‘s benefit. It must always be borne in mind that History is a relevant and moralizing discipline that is why it must always be objective and accurate. Activity Get the original copy of your birth certificate issued by the Philippine Statistics Authority (formerly National Statistics Office) and discuss its (1) competence and impartiality in telling the truth, (2) willingness in telling the truth and (3) adequacy of data that it conveys. What other sources do you have at home do you think you can corroborate with your birth certificate? What corroboration did you establish?   References Block, M. (1953). The historian‘s craft. Alfred A. Knopf. Gottschalk, L. (1950). Understanding History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 12  Readings in Philippine History Gripaldo, E. M., Boquiren, R. R., Miranda, E. A., Jose, R. T., Ignacio, V. S., Ambrosio, D. L. … Mata, R. C. (2009). Kasaysayan ng Filipinas at mga institusyong Filipino. Sentro ng Wikang Filipino. Unibersidad ng Pilipinas. Howell, M., & Prevenier, W. (2001). From reliable sources: An introduction to historical methods. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Pascual, M. (n.d.) Ethics in historical research [PowerPoint Slides]. Scott, W. H. (1984). Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history. New Day Publishers. 13  Readings in Philippine History  Lesson 3  TESTS OF AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY: THE TEJEROS CONVENTION OF 1897 Introduction The Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or simply the Katipunan suffered a debacle when its factions, Magdiwang and Magdalo could not resolve their conflict. These factions, each which started as Sanguniang Balangay¸ were eventually elevated into the rank of Sangguiniang Bayan because of the rapid growth of membership, emanating from the repugnance of the Filipinos to the colonial system and conditions. The Kataas-taasang Sanggunian subsequently allowed these factions to establish their respective balangays that would be beneficial to their expansion. With Mariano Alvarez as its leader, the Magdiwang established itself in Noveleta while the Magdalo, led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, was founded in Kawit (Richardson, 2013). A rift began between the two factions when differences between Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo regarding the strategy of confronting Spain became obvious. Bonifacio, the Supremo, based his decisions on the consensus of prominent katipuneros while Aguinaldo believed on a centralized institution in effectively carrying out plans (May, 2017). This, and the series of defeats he suffered against the Spaniards, caused his reputation as leader of the Katipunan to dwindle in favor of Aguinaldo, apart from the continuing suspicion and jealousy that would characterize the members of the Magdiwang and Magdalo. His engagements with the Spaniards, no matter how extraordinary and perilous the battles were, considering the armaments they had, spawned the gradual loss of esteem and confidence as evidenced by the disrespect of certain members of the Magdalo Council in his attempt to solve their predicament. Though the conflict was limited in Cavite and certain parts of Batangas, it affected the solidarity of the Katipunan until the demise of Bonifacio and his brother in May 1897. Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Apply External and Internal Criticisms in the scrutiny of sources. 2. Distinguish the varying claims of sources and determine which claim becomes more credible. The Books and Their Authors The sources to be used in discussing the Tejeros Convention are the books Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago V. Alvarrez (1992) and The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan by the late historian Teodoro Agoncillo (2005). 14  Readings in Philippine History Santiago V. Alvarez and His Background Born in Cavite in 1872, Santiago Alvarez was a member of the Magdiwan Council by serving as Captain-General of its forces. Because of his unfaltering courage and tenacity, he valiantly fought the Spaniards in the Battle of Noveleta in 1896 with his father, General Mariano Alvarez, and cousin, General Pascual Alvarez. This led to the death of two Spanish officers and the capture of the civil guards and their weapons. He likewise participated in various assaults in Maragondon, Magallanes, Alfonso, Silang, Imus, San Francisco de Malabon and the coastal towns of Naic and Tanza. He earned the nom de guerre Kidlat ng Apoy or Kapitan Apoy among the revolutionary forces due to his extraordinary bravery in the Battle of Dalahican where he decisively defeated the Spaniards. Although discriminated by Emilio Aguinaldo, Alvarez continued to support the revolutionary cause until his retirement from the battlefield when the Americans finally defeated the Filipino insurgents. Alvarez enrolled at the University of Santo Tomas yet he later transferred to San Juan de Letran where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree. Subsequently, he took up law at the Liceo de Manila. He took part in the reorganization of the Nacionalista Party which aimed at securing independence from the United States of America in its appropriate time (Filipinos in History, 1995). In the Preface of his book, he said the following about his participation in the Katipunan and the Revolution. 15  Readings in Philippine History The Book and Its Content The book Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago V. Alvarez was published by the Ateneo de Manila University in 1992 and reprinted in 1996. With the original Tagalog text, the book contains the English translation by Paula Carolina Malay. The Tagalog text was initially published in the 1920s by the Tagalog weekly Sampagita. The book relates what other Filipino and American historians have disregarded without deprecating the struggle for independence (Alvarez, 1996). The book narrates the personal experiences and observations of its author as a general during the Philippine Revolution of which both Katipunan and the government that succeeded it championed with great vigor. He narrated the events that took place prior to the outbreak of the revolution, the activities of the Katipunan, the election at Tejeros and the events that culminated the revolution after the untimely death of Andres Bonifacio, the Supremo of the Sons of the People, using authentic and credible. Below is an excerpt (pp. 82-88) taken from the book for your reading convenience. Figure 2. The book Katipunan and the Revolution. Photo by M. Pascual Excerpt from the Katipunan and the Revolution by Santiago V. Alvarez. 16 Readings in Philippine History 17 Readings in Philippine History 18 Readings in Philippine History 19 Readings in Philippine History 20 Readings in Philippine History 21  Readings in Philippine History Teodoro A. Agoncillo and His Background The late Teodoro Agoncillo was an eminent Filipino historian who authored numerous books and articles on Philippine history and literature. He is known for his History of the Filipino People (8 editions, 1960, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1977, 1984, 1986, 1990), Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic, The Fateful Years: Japan‘s Adventures in the Philippines (2 Vols., 1965), The Burden of Proof: The Vargas-Laurel Collaboration Case (1984) and more. His Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan which is regarded as a classic work in Philippine historiography gained him prominence. The book initially espoused the idea of a nationalist historiography by contending that the writing of Philippine must be in the Filipino point-of-view (Quibuyen, 2008). He regarded that the masses made the revolution successful while the Ilustrados were forced to join it upon seeing its imminence to success. As such, the book has made an impact among scholars when it comes to studying the revolution as a product of the collective struggle of the masses (Aguilar, 2020). Agoncillo earned his Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at the University of the Philippines in 1934 and obtained a master‘s arts degree the year after. He taught at Far Eastern University, then at Manuel L. Quezon University, before he accepted the invitation of Dean Tomas Fonacier to teach at the Department of History of the University of the Philippines where he also served as chairman (Ocampo, 2016). In 1985, he was named National Scientist of the Philippines by the late President Ferdinand Marcos for his outstanding contributions in history. The Book and Its Content The book Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan was initially published by the College of Liberal Arts of the University of the Philippines in 1956. 22  Readings in Philippine History Then the second edition and printing were respectively printed in 2002 and 2005. The book is an in-depth discussion on the Katipunan and the life history of its Supremo Andres Bonifacio through the use of pertinent primary sources concerning the Philippine Revolution against Spain. Between the two, however, Agoncillo gave more emphasis on the Katipunan because of his belief that ―Bonifacio can best be seen and appreciated against the backdrop of the revolutionary society‖, apart from the scarcity of materials about the life of the Supremo (Agoncillo, 2005). Just like its sequel, the book began as notes and was a project initiated outside the University of the Philippines (Ocampo, 2016). Below is an excerpt (pp. 206-217) taken from the chapter of the book titled Seeds of Discontent for your reading convenience. Figure 3. The book Revolt of the Masses. Photo by M. Pascual. Excerpt from the Katipunan and the Revolution by Santiago V. Alvarez. 23 Readings in Philippine History 24 Readings in Philippine History 25 Readings in Philippine History 26 Readings in Philippine History 27 Readings in Philippine History 28 Readings in Philippine History 29 Readings in Philippine History 30 Readings in Philippine History 31  Readings in Philippine History Activity Read the Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago Alvarez and The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan by Teodoro Agoncillo and examine their respective claims about the Tejeros Convention. Your answers should be written comprehensively in the matrix below. A. Test of Authenticity Brief Description of Date of the The Competence of Origin of the SOURCE the Source Information and the Author Information Narrated Milieu Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan 32  Readings in Philippine History B. Test of Credibility Similarities and Objectives of the Persons involved in Difference with SOURCE Biases of the Author Event the Event Other Independent Testimonies Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General The Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan C. Finding/Conclusion In your examination of the sources, what did you find out?  References Agoncillo, T. A. (2005). Revolt of the masses: The story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. Alvarez, S. V. (1996). Katipunan and the revolution: Memoirs of a general (P.C. Malay, Trans.). Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Filipinos in History. (1995). National Historical Institute. May, G. A. (2007). Warfare by "pulong" Bonifacio, Aguinaldo, and the Philippine revolution against Spain. In Philippine studies (Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 449-477). Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42633930. Ocampo, A. R. (2016). Talking history: Conversations with Teodoro A. Agoncillo. University of Santo Tomas Publishing House. Quibuyen, F. C. (2008). A nation aborted: Rizal, American hegemony and Philippine nationalism (Rev. Ed.). Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Richardson, J. (2013) Light of Liberty: Documents and Studies on the Katipunan, 1892- 1897. Manila: Ateneo de Manila. 33  Readings in Philippine History UNIT 2 SPANISH COLONIZATION TO THE PRESENT Figure 4. The Main Academic Building of PUP and its environs. (PUP Memorabilia). 34  Readings in Philippine History  Lesson 1  CHRONICLES ABOUT THE 16TH CENTURY FILIPINOS: THE FIRST VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD AND THE CUSTOMS OF THE TAGALOGS Introduction The so-called Age of Exploration and Discovery which commenced between the 15 th th and 16 centuries is considered by most historians as the turning point in the development of Philippine history. In 1521, Magellan accidentally reached the Philippines which marked the succeeding expeditions by subsequent explorers and by the conquest of the Philippines by Adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. The arrival of Legaspi in 1564 and his effective occupation of Cebu in 1565 started the 333-year rule of the Spaniards in the Philippines. This lesson hopes to give the students an overview on the various events and turning points which helped in shaping the course of the history the country. This unit and its lessons include certain discussions on the expeditions commenced by Spanish navigators, initial impressions made by the Spaniards towards the natives, the resistance of the Filipinos against colonial rule, and the eventual foundation of the present- day Republic of the Philippines. The flow of discussion is somewhat peculiar. Unlike the usual method of teaching history which is based solely on chronology of events, the sequencing of the topics is thematic and shall challenge the critical thinking ability of the students. This lesson which is focused on the Magellan Expedition and the Customs of the Tagalogs will look into the state of the Philippines through the narratives made by the chroniclers in the 16th century. Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Determine the importance of the Philippines for the economic gains of Spain. 2. Develop concepts on the state of the Philippines during the initial East-West encounter in the first quarter of the 16th century. 3. Evaluate the authenticity and credibility of sources based on provenance and critical evaluation of content. THE FIRST VOYAGE AROUND THE WORLD Antonio Pigafetta and His Background The author of the account for this topic is Antonio Pigafetta who lived sometime between 1491 and 1531. Hailed from Vicenza, he was an Italian scholar and explorer who belonged to a rich family. This allowed him to have the means to study astronomy, geography and cartography. Being a member of a rich and influential family, Pigafetta was 35  Readings in Philippine History able to make his way and become the chronicler of the Magellan Expedition. He was among the 18 crew members who were able to return to Spain out of the approximately 270 crew members of the ill-fated expedition. Apart from de Moluccis Indicis of Maximilianus Transylavanus, Pigafetta‘s account is the main source for most of the knowledge we have about Magellan and Elcano‘s voyage. The difference between the two sources is that Pigafetta‘s account is a primary source because he was with Magellan during the expedition while Transylavanus‘ account is primarily a compilation of interviews from some of the surviving crew of the same voyage. However, what makes Pigafetta strange is that his name is nowhere to be found in any official document in the Casa de Contratacion in Seville, Spain. The Casa is significant because prior to the establishment of the Council of Indies in 1524, all matters pertaining to overseas expeditions was handled by this crown agency. Historian Martin Fernandez de Navarrete in his Coleccion de los Viages y Descubrimientos que Hicieron por mar los Espanoles, Volumen IV tells of the name Antonio Lombardo. The volume suggests that Pigafetta was referred to as the person Antonio who came from Lombardy, the neighboring state of Vicenza. Vicenza, where Pigafetta is said to have come from, was a dominion of Venice from 1404 until the end of the eighteenth century. Background of Pigafetta’s Account What is written in Pigafetta‘s account? The account narrated Magellan‘s expedition from its launching until its return to Spain. Apart from the description of the various groups of peoples which the expedition encountered, as well as the hardships and struggles they encountered during the voyage, the account narrated Magellan‘s arrival in the Philippines, his initial exploits, the friendships he established with the natives and his eventual death. The account also includes the subsequent trials that the surviving crew endured before they were able to return to Spain. To scholars, Pigafetta‘s account serves as an important eye- witness account on the first circumnavigation of the globe. How was the account written? There are four known manuscripts or versions of Pigafetta‘s account. One version which is located at the Ambrosiana Library in Milan is written in Italian. Three other versions were written in French. The first French version titled Le Voyage et Navigation was found in Paris sometime in 1525. This version was translated into Italian in 1536 with the title Il Viaggio fatto dagli Spagnivoli. Subsequently, it was included in the first volume of Navigationi et Viaggi published in 1550 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio. This French version had been the basis of subsequent translations to different languages. According to Giovanni Battista Ramusion, ‗the traditional understanding has been that Pigafetta first wrote a brief summary of events in Italian, which he presented to Louise de Savoy, the mother of King Francis I of France, at the behest of whom Jacques Antoine Fabre prepared a translation to French, which was published as a translation of French, which was published as the c. 1525 first edition. According to this tradition, Pigafetta later composed a more complete version, in either French or Italian (McCarl, 2019). 36  Readings in Philippine History Summary and Highlights of the Account Ferdinand Magellan‘s expedition left Seville, Spain on August 10, 1519, although their actual voyage started on September 20, 1519. There were five ships that comprised his fleet. These were the Victoria, Concepcion, San Antonio, Santiago, and Trinidad along with some 270 crew members. The expedition was able to reach the West African coast prior to the crossing of the Atlantic. They then reached Brazil and other parts of the South America in the Atlantic. While exploring the southern portion of the South American continent, the Spanish captains who had resentment towards their Portuguese leader made a mutiny. The mutiny, though, was quickly crushed later. On October 21, 1520, after more than a year of naval voyage, Magellan was able to discover a passage which connects two great bodies of water, the Atlantic and the newly- discovered Pacific Ocean. This passage was named as the Strait of Magellan. During this time, however, only three out of the five original ships were able to cross the passage because the ship San Antonio deserted the voyage by reversing its course while the ship Santiago was wrecked by a strong squall in the Brazilian coast. The crew members of the expedition experienced horrible conditions while crossing the Pacific Ocean. It was even described that some of the men were forced to eat the leathers of their gears and garments and ropes, mice and saw dusts just to keep them alive. Their agony ended when they were able to replenish their stocks in Guam on March 6, 1521. They initially called the island as the Island of Sails but later changed it to Isla de Ladrones when natives stole a boat from the ship Trinindad. Ladrones, a Spanish term, means thief in English. On March 16, 1521 they were able to land in the island of Zamal (Samar). Their arrival coincided with the day of the Feast of St. Lazarus that is why Magellan named the islands that he and his men saw as the Archipelago of St. Lazarus. They then went to Humunu (Homonhon) where they met the rulers of Butuan and Caraga, Rajah Siagu and Rajah Colambu. On March 27, 1521, they left Homonhon and reached Masao (Mazaua?) in Butuan on the following day. Magellan and Rajah Colambu made a blood compact as a sign of their friendship. On March 31, 1521, Fr. Pedro de Valderrama offered a mass. The crew later installed a cross on the mountains, signifying the conquest of the land. From Homonhon, the expedition through the assistance of Colambu sailed to Cebu where they met Rajah Humabon on April 7, 1521. Although reluctant at first, Humabon welcomed Magellan and their friendship was cemented through a blood compact. On April 14, 1521, a mass was officiated in Cebu and a cross was once again erected as a sign of conquest of the land. Magellan invited the natives to be baptized, an invitation they gladly accepted. Along with Humabon and his wife were the more than 800 natives who were baptized. Humabon was christened Fernando while his wife was christened Juana. As a gesture of friendship, an image of the child Jesus (Santo Nino) was given as a gift by Magellan to Juana. This image is revered in Cebu by multitudes of devotees until the present time. Not all of the chieftains in Cebu wanted to establish friendship with Magellan. Lapu- lapu, the chief of Mactan refused to accept the Spaniards. Apart from Lapu-lapu, another chief in Mactan named Zula wanted to defeat the former. Zula sought the assistance of Magellan, who without hesitation agreed to fight Lapu-lapu. Magellan was too confident that they could defeat Lapu-lapu to the point that he refused the offer of Humabon for help. A group of sixty men arrived in Mactan on April 27, 1521. Out of this number, eleven were left behind to man the ships while fourty-nine waded towards the shore. Magellan and his men were overwhelmed by Lapu-lapu‘s warriors. The Mactan warriors totaling to more than 37  Readings in Philippine History 1,050 formed three divisions to repel the Spaniards. The foreigners where shot with arrows, bamboo lances and stones. A poisoned arrow hit Magellan on his leg. It was only then when he ordered a retreat. A bamboo lance then hit his arms while a javelin struck his back, causing him to fall facing downwards. Upon seeing the death of their leader, the Spaniards soon retreated to their ships. The surviving crew of the voyage requested that the body of Magellan be handed to them which, unfortunately, the natives denied. For them, the body was an accolade and a symbol of their valor and victory. The horrors experienced by the Spaniards did not end there. Humabon was quite disenchanted with the defeat of the Spaniards that he connived with Enrique, the slave of Magellan who was abused by Duarte Barbossa, the successor of Magellan as the leader of the expedition, to kill the remaining Spaniards. He invited the remaining Spaniards to have a dinner with him in his palace. Twenty-six Spaniards went to feast, and while they were eating, they were treacherously killed by the natives. Out of this number, twenty-four were killed, including Duarte Barbossa, Juan Serrano, and Pedro de Valderrama, the priest who baptized them. The remaining crew members quickly left Cebu and started their voyage to return home. On their way southwards, they were able to reach Palawan, Brunei, Mindanao, and Moluccas. They then decided that the two remaining ships–Trinidad and Victoria would take two different routes. The Trinidad which was commanded by Gomez de Espirera would cross again the Pacific in the hope of reaching Mexico while the Victoria which was commanded by Sebastian de Elcano would sail to Spain by crossing the Indian Ocean and the African coast. The Trinidad was not able to complete its goal for it was captured by the Portuguese in Moluccas. The Victoria, on the other hand, was able to return to Spain on September 6 1522, after 2 years, 11 months and 16 days. Out of the 270 original crew members of the expedition, only eighteen, along with four Indians survived the journey. CUSTOMS OF THE TAGALOGS Juan de Plasencia and His Background The author of the Customs of the Tagalogs is Juan de Plasencia, a Franciscan friar who came from Extremadura, Spain. As a religious missionary, he adopted the life of poverty and the life offered for the purpose of preaching and helping the poor. He is among the first batch of missionaries who came to the Philippines in 1578. He was assigned to different mission areas in Luzon, particularly in Laguna and the present-day provinces of Quezon, Bulacan and Rizal. He became the custos or superior of the Franciscans in the Philippines from May 23, 1584 until 1588. He later died in Laguna in 1590. Background of the Document Written in Nagcarlan, Laguna and finished on October 21, 1589, the Costumbres de los Tagalos (Customs of the Tagalogs) was among the series of accounts written by various friar-missionaries and colonial officials during the early years of Spanish occupation in the Philippines. These accounts were attempts to know and describe their new subjects more. 38  Readings in Philippine History Plasencia was ordered by the king of Spain to write an account that described the natives in the areas assigned to his Order. As Plasencia was not able to primarily witness all of the events he would describe, he collected information from old men and individuals whom he thought as most able—all of whom were known to him. Thereafter, he weeded out much foolishness in order to obtain the simple truth regarding native practices on government, administration of justice, inheritances, slaves and dowries. It became clear that Plasencia was tasked to account his observations of the natives so that the colonizers would have a basis in effectively dealing with the former. Excerpts Taken from the Document On Government and Social Organization. The Tagalogs were ruled by their chiefs called by them as datos (spelling in the account). They governed and served them as their captains in times of war. They were obeyed and revered to a point that any offense committed against their person or word spoken against their wives and children were severely punished. Plasencia likened the datos to the knights of the Spaniards. Their communities were referred to as barangay, a term which was drawn from the boat they used to reach these islands. Barangays were small communities composed of thirty up to one hundred families. Next to the datos were the Maharlicas (nobles) who were required to accompany the dato especially in times of war. This was their main duty, especially because they were not required to pay taxes or tributes. Apart from accompanying the dato in his exploits, the maharlicas had to pay their own expenses such as food, clothing, armor and their boat to be used in war. Next were the commoners which Plasencia referred to as the Aliping Namamahay. Although they lived in their own houses while serving their masters, one privilege they could enjoy was their immunity from being sold to anyone. Moreover, they could also be inherited by their master‘s son although they could not be brought with him should the son wish to transfer to another barangay. The last level belonged to the slaves. Plasencia identified them as Aliping Sa Guiguilir/Guiguilid who were usually the captives in war and enslaved together with their children. They lived with their master and served as farmers in their master‘s field. Since they were slaves, they could be sold, including their children. If any of the Sa Guiguilir happened to possess gold beyond the sum of his value as slave and could pay it to his master, then he could ransom himself and become a Namamahay or a commoner. The price for ransom could not go below five taels. If the agreement with his master went beyond the minimum ransom price or ten taels for that matter, then he could be totally free. The difference between the Aliping Namamahay and the Aliping Sa Guiguilir should be noted because in page 168 of the book, a confusion between the two terms was encountered. Many were classed as slaves even when they were really not. The Indians, seeing that the alcalde mayor did not understand this, adopted the custom of taking away the children of the Aliping Namamahay, making use of them as Aliping Sa Guiguilir, as servants in their households which was considered illegal. If the Aliping Namamahay would appeal to justice, it would be proven that he was an alipin like his father and mother before him. And whether or not he was indeed an Aliping Namamahay, his status would be taken in the context of Aliping Sa Guiguilir. Without further declaration, he would be considered as an alipin at once, thus becoming a Sa Guiguilir who could also be sold elsewhere. The Aliping Sa Guiguilir, together with their master, could be transferred to another barangay by virtue of inheritance, provided that he and his master would remain in the same village. 39  Readings in Philippine History On Marriage. These are the different situations concerning marriage among the Maharlicas, Aliping Namamahay and Aliping Sa Guiguilir. Situation 1: Those who were considered Maharlicas both on their paternal and maternal sides could continue to enjoy their status forever. If, for instance they became slaves, it happened because of marriage. Situation 2: If the Maharlicas had children among their slaves, the children and their mothers would be considered freemen. Situation 3: If the Maharlicas had children with the female slaves of another Maharlica, the female slave would be compelled, when pregnant, to give her master half of a gold tael because of her risk of death, and for her inability to work during pregnancy. In this case, the child would be considered half-free due to his father. If his father would not supply him with food and hence would not recognize him, the child would be considered totally as slave. Situation 4: If a free woman had children by a slave, the children would be regarded as freemen, provided that he was not the free woman‘s husband. Situation 5: If a Maharlica and a slave—whether Namamahay or Sa Guiguilir—married, their children would be classified according to birth order: odd birth order (first, third, fifth, etc.) would inherit the status of the father while the even birth order (second, fourth, sixth, etc.) would inherit the status of the slave mother. If the child was the only offspring, he would be regarded as half-free, half-slave. The classification of the children was irrespective of their sex. What was evident was those who inherited the status of the mother would work as slaves. If, in case, the last child were an odd birth, the child would consider as half free and half slave. After marriage, the Maharlicas could not move from one barangay to another without paying a certain amount of fine in gold. The fine ranged from one to three taels and also a banquet sponsored for the entire barangay. This fine was larger or smaller according to the inclination of the different villages. Failure to pay the fine might result to a war between the barangays, the one where he left and the other where he would live anew. This tradition was equally applied to men and women, except that when a man from a certain barangay would marry a woman from another, their children would later on be divided equally between the two barangays. On Loans. The debtors were condemned to a life of toil because of the excessive interest added to their debts. As a result, debtors were plunged into difficulty until they became slaves, together with their children. In order to earn a living, sometimes their debt was sold to other people, so the debtor had to pay more debt and had to experience an increasingly pitiful state. On Inheritance. Though legitimate children could inherit equally, there were some situations wherein the mother or father showed favoritism by bestowing more gold or gifts to a child. The dowry they gave to a son in order to marry the dato‘s daughter was not included in the partition of the inheritance. In like manner, the property that was provided by the parents to their child could not be considered inheritance, unless it was declared a necessity and not for accumulating a wealth. If a man had a child by one of his slaves, their children would not inherit anything. Instead, his legitimate child would be bound to free the 40  Readings in Philippine History slave and must give her a tael or a slave. A man‘s child from another woman would inherit everything when there was no legitimate child with the wife. However, if it happened that the man died without an heir—legitimate or natural, the inheritance could be acquired by his parents, grandparents or the closest relative in their absence. On Inheritance of Adopted Children. The adopted child could inherit twice of the amount paid in his adoption. For example, if one tael of gold was paid upon a child‘s adoption, he should be given two taels of inheritance by the adopting parents thereafter. Children whose fathers died before their adoption could not inherit anything from the adopting parents. The rule was simple: the arrangement on inheritance stopped at the death of their biological fathers. On Investigations and Punishments. Investigations made and sentences passed by the dato should take place in the presence of the people of the barangay. If any of the litigants felt aggrieved, an arbiter would be unanimously chosen from another village or barangay, be he a dato or not. The arbiter must be known of his integrity as fair and just by rendering rational judgment according to their customs. If the controversy was between two chiefs, they had to convoke judges who would serve as arbiters in order to avoid going into war. The same procedure would be applied if the disputants came from two different barangays. This convocation would always involve the serving of wine by the complainant to the individuals present. The account of Plasencia proved the adherence of the Filipinos to moral standards. They had laws by which they could condemn a man of low birth to death if he insulted the daughter or wife of a chief. They condemned no one to slavery, unless the person merited the penalty of death. They also killed witches after they had made some recompense to the injured persons. The children of the witches and their accomplices would become the slaves of the chief. All other offenses were punished by fines in gold which, if not paid with promptness, the offender would be compelled to serve the aggrieved until payment would be made. The payment of fine had to be done on the following day, so the offender had to surrender half of his cultivated lands and that of his produce to his master in exchange for money. The master, in turn, would provide him and his children with food and clothing, thus remaining him and the children to servitude until such time that he could compensate the debt. If he could pay his debt, his master would claim that he fed and clothed his children and should also be paid thereof. In this way, he would keep possession of the children if the additional payment could not be met promptly. The last scenario became an unsettled problem usually on the part of the debtor, the reason why he and his children would remain as slaves. If the debtor had some relatives or friends who could pay for him, he would be obliged to render half of his services to them until he could settle his payment. The services to be rendered would not be in the context of being an Aliping Sa Guiguilir but within that of Aliping Namamahay. If the creditor could not or refused to serve his creditor then he would have to pay twice the amount of what was previously lent to him. In this way, slaves were made by debt by being a Sa Guiguilir if they served the master who was favored by the judgment or by being an Aliping Namamahay when they served the person who lent them money to pay the value of their offense. On Marriage Dowries. Dowries were given by the men to the women's parents. If the parents were still alive, they could enjoy the dowry given to them. If the dowry was not consumed by the parents because of death of the parents, the wife and her siblings would 41  Readings in Philippine History equally inherit it in addition to the rest of the estate. If the wife, at the time of her marriage, did not have a living father, mother or grandparents, she would enjoy the dowry by herself. As regards to unmarried women, their customs would not allow them to own a property—be it an estate or a dowry. This is because their labors were usually considered as devotion to their parents. When the sons were about to get married, their fathers would bestow instantly upon them the half of the dowries that they should give to the parents of their brides. Failure to provide dowries would require a certain sum which varied according to the practice of the barangays or the individual‘s affluence. The fine was at its heaviest when the groom or the bride would withdraw from the marriage because the nuptial was a pre-arranged affair by their parents who previously died. In this scenario, the dowry had to be returned by the family of the bride. If the parents of the bride were alive, the fine was heavier because it was thought that her parents wanted her to marry for the sake of financial gains alone. On Divorce. The pre-colonial Filipinos practiced divorce, contrary to what the present Filipinos have. Until the coming of the Spaniards, divorce was practiced due to certain grounds. For instance, when the wife left the husband before giving birth to a child for the purpose of marrying another, the entire dowry would go to the husband. But when the wife left him and would not marry another man, the dowry would be returned. When the husband left his wife, he would lose his half of the dowry. When the husband and wife had a child, the entire dowry and fine would go to the child. The dowry for the children would be taken cared by the grandparents or close relatives. If they were childless and the wife died, the parents would return half of the dowry to the husband. If the husband was the one who died, half of the dowry would be returned to his relatives. The Worship of the Tagalogs, their Gods, their Burials and Superstitions On the Worship Practices of the Tagalogs. Plasencia noted the absence of temples consecrated for the performance of sacrifices, the adoration of native idols and the general practice of idolatry in all the villages or in other parts of the archipelago. Although the Tagalogs used the term Simbahan which meant a temple or place of adoration, in reality festivals referred to as pandot or worship were celebrated not in the Simbahan but in the large house of the chief. There, they constructed a temporary shed on each side of the house, with a roof called sibi for the purpose of sheltering the assembled people, and to protect them from the rain. They also constructed the house in a manner that could accommodate many people, dividing it into three compartments following the fashion of ships. On the posts of the house, they set small lamps called sorihile. At the center of the house was placed a large lamp which was adorned with leaves of the white palm wrought into many designs. They also brought together many drums, large and small, which they beat successively while the feast lasted for four days. During this time, the whole barangay or family would unite and join in the worship which they called nagaanitos. The house, for the above-mentioned period of time, was called a temple. On the Tagalog Deities. Among their many idols, there was one called Badhala (Bathala) whom they especially worshiped. The title seems to signify ―all powerful‖ or ―maker of all things‖. They also worshiped the sun which, on account of its beauty, was almost 42  Readings in Philippine History universally respected and honored by infidels. They worshiped also the moon, especially when it was a new moon. At which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome. Some of them also adored the stars, although they did not know them by their names with the exception of the morning star which they called Tala. They knew, too, the seven little goats (the Pleiades) and, consequently, the change of seasons, which they called Mapolon and Balatic. They possessed many idols called lic-ha which were images with different shapes. At times they worshiped some particular dead men who were brave in war and endowed with special faculties, to whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribulations. They had another idol called Dian Masalanta, who was the patron of lovers and of generation. The idols called Lacapati and Idianale were the patrons of the cultivated lands and of husbandry. They paid reverence to water lizards called by them as buaya or crocodiles due to fear of being harmed by them. They were even in the habit of offering these animals a portion of what they carried in their boats, by throwing it into the water or placing it upon the bank. On their superstitious beliefs. If they left their house and met on the way a serpent or rat, or a bird called Tigmamanuguin which was singing on a tree, or if they chanced upon anyone who sneezed, they returned at once to their houses. This is because they considered the incident as an augury that some evil might befall them if they should continue their journey, especially when the above-mentioned bird sang. This song had two different forms: one was considered as an evil omen while the other one was a good omen. They also practiced divination to see whether weapons such as a dagger or knife would be useful and lucky for their possessor whenever occasions would offer. Young girls who first had their monthly courses, their eyes were blindfolded for four days and four nights. In the meantime, their friends and relatives were all invited to share food and drink. At the end of this period, the catolonan took the young girl to the water, bathed her and washed her head and removed the bandage from her eyes. The old men claimed that they did this in order that the girls would bear children and have fortune in finding husbands whom they liked and who would not leave them widows in their youth. There were also ghosts, which they called vibit and phantoms which they called tigbalaang. They had another superstition. If there were any woman died in childbirth, it was believed that she and the child suffered punishment. At night, she could be heard lamenting. This was called patianac. On their Knowledge of Time. The natives had no established division of years, months, and days. These were determined by the cultivation of the soil, their counting by the moons, and the different effect produced upon the trees when yielding flowers, fruits, and leaves. All this helped them in making up the year. The dry and wet seasons were distinguished as sun-time and water-time. Plasencia noted that since the Tagalogs became Christians, the seasons were not really the same all throughout the year for he observed that at ―Christmas‖ would be colder. The Spaniards, since their advent in the country, had determined the seasons, introduced the months which were divided into weeks. On their Sacrifices and Other Forms of Idolatries. Their manner of offering a sacrifice was to proclaim a feast and offer to the devil what they had to eat. This was done in front of the idol which they anointed with fragrant perfumes such as musk and civet or gum of the storax-tree and other odoriferous woods. They praise their idol with poetic songs sung by the officiating priest, male or female, who is called catolonan. The participants made 43  Readings in Philippine History responses to the song, beseeching the idol to favor them with those things of which they were in need, and generally, by offering repeated health, they all became intoxicated. In some of their idolatries they were accustomed to place a good piece of cloth, doubled, over the idol, and over the cloth a chain or large, gold ring, thus worshiping the devil without having a sight of him. The devil was sometimes liable to enter into the body of the catolonan, and, assuming her shape and appearance, filled her with so great arrogance. The devil, being the cause of it, would seem to influence the catalonan that she seemed to shoot flames from her eyes. Her hair stood on end, a fearful sight to those beholding and she uttered words of arrogance and superiority. In some districts, especially in the mountains, when in those idolatries that the devil incarnated himself and took on the form of his minister, the latter had to be tied to a tree by his companions, to prevent the devil in his infernal fury from destroying him. The objects of sacrifice were goats, fowls, and swine, which were flayed, decapitated, and laid before the idol. They performed another ceremony by cooking a jar of rice until the water was evaporated, after which they broke the jar, and the rice was left as an intact mass which was set before the idol; and all about it, at intervals, were placed a few buyos—which was a small fruit wrapped in a leaf with some lime, a food generally eaten in these regions—as well as fried food and fruits. All of the above-mentioned articles were eaten by the guests at the feast; the heads [of the animals], after being offered, as they expressed it, were cooked and eaten also. The reasons for offering this sacrifice and adoration were, in addition to whatever personal matters there might be, the recovery of a sick person, the prosperous voyage of those embarking on the sea, a good harvest in the sowed lands, a propitious result in wars, a successful delivery in childbirth, and a happy outcome in married life. If this took place among people of rank, the festivities lasted thirty days. On the Priests of the Devil. The first was called catolonan who was either a man or a woman. This office was an honorable one among the natives and was held ordinarily by people of rank. This rule was general in all the islands. The second was called mangagauay or witches who deceived by pretending to heal the sick. These priests even induced maladies by their charms, which in proportion to the strength and efficacy of the witchcraft, were capable of causing death. In this way, if they wished to kill at once they did so; or they could prolong life for a year by binding to the waist a live serpent, which was believed to be the devil, or at least his substance. This office was general throughout the land. The third was called manyisalat, which was the same as the magagauay. These priests had the power of applying such remedies to lovers that they would abandon and despise their own wives, and in fact could prevent them from having intercourse with the latter. If the woman, constrained by these means, were abandoned, it would bring sickness upon her; and on account of the desertion she would discharge blood and matter. This office was also general throughout the land. The fourth was called mancocolam, whose duty was to emit fire from himself at night, once or often each month. This fire could not be extinguished except as the priest wallowed in the ordure and filth which fell from the houses. And he who lived in the house where the 44  Readings in Philippine History priest was wallowing in order to emit this fire from himself fell ill and died. This office was general in the islands. The fifth was called hocloban which was another kind of witch, of greater efficacy than the mangagauay. Without the use of medicine, and by simply saluting or raising the hand, they killed whom they chose. But if they desired to heal those whom they had made ill by their charms, they did so by using other charms. Moreover, if they wished to destroy the house of some Indian hostile to them, they were able to do so without instruments. This was in Catanduanes, an island off the upper part of Luzon. The sixth was called silagan who was clothed in white, to tear out his liver and eat it, thus causing the victim‘s death. This, like the preceding, was in the island of Catanduanes. Let no one consider this a fable because, in Calavan, they tore out in this way through the anus all the intestines of a Spanish notary, who was buried in Calilaya by father Fray Juan de Mérida. The seventh was called magtatangal whose purpose was to show himself at night to many persons without his head or entrails. In such wise, the devil walked about and carried, or pretended to carry his head to different places. In the morning, he would return to his body and remained alive as before. This seemed to me to be a fable, although the natives affirmed that they saw it because the devil probably caused them so to believe. This occurred also in Catanduanes. The eighth they called osuang which was the equivalent of a sorcerer. They said that they saw him flew and that he murdered men and ate their flesh. This was among the Visayas Islands and not from the Tagalogs. The ninth was another class of witch called mangagayoma. This witch could make charms for lovers out of herbs, stones, and wood which would infuse the heart with love. The tenth was known as sonat which was the equivalent of a preacher. It was his task to help a person to die. Likewise, he could predict the salvation or condemnation of the soul. It was not lawful for the functions of this priest to be fulfilled by others than people of high standing, on account of the esteem in which he was held. This priest was general throughout the islands. The eleventh was the pangatahojan who was a soothsayer and a predictor of the future. This type of priest was also general in all the islands. The twelfth was the bayoguin who was signified a cotquean. A cotquean was a man whose nature inclined toward that of a woman. All the various kinds of infernal ministers were, therefore, as was stated: catolonan, sonat (who was a sort of bishop who ordained priestesses and received their reverence, for they knelt before him as before one who could pardon sins, and expected salvation through him) mangagauay, manyisalat, mancocolam, hocloban, silagan, magtatangal, osuang, mangagayoma and pangatahojan. On the Belief on Death and Other Associated Rituals. Their manner of burying the dead was as follow