GE 102 Reviewer - Global Cities and Education - PDF

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This document provides an overview of the concept of global cities, encompassing their definition, characteristics, and economic roles. It also discusses the global cities' significance to globalization, and explains the characteristics of global cities, considering the concepts introduced by Saskia Sassen. It delves into the historical and contemporary contexts of global cities.

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**MODULE 7: GLOBAL CITY AND GLOBAL EDUCATION** **Why study Global Cities?** - Globalization is spatial, occurring in physical spaces like cities and companies. - It is based in places, acting on and acting on globalization. - Cities act on globalization, shaping global forces like the...

**MODULE 7: GLOBAL CITY AND GLOBAL EDUCATION** **Why study Global Cities?** - Globalization is spatial, occurring in physical spaces like cities and companies. - It is based in places, acting on and acting on globalization. - Cities act on globalization, shaping global forces like the internet. **THE GLOBAL CITY** Sociologist **Saskia Sassen** popularized the term \"Global City\" in the 1990s.\ She identified three global cities: New York, London, and Tokyo.\ These cities are hubs of global finance and capitalism, with top stock exchanges for investors.\ Los Angeles, home to Hollywood, is considered a global city due to its cultural influence.\ San Francisco, home to powerful internet companies, is a global city.\ Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou are centers of trade and finance due to the growth of the Chinese economy.\ Melbourne is considered a \"global city\" due to its livability, good public transportation, and thriving cultural scene.\ The global economy has significantly changed since Sassen\'s book, necessitating an account of the economic power of cities today. **DEFINING THE GLOBAL CITY** **"When I first chose to use global city, "I did so knowingly - it was an attempt to name a difference: the specificity of the global as it gets structured in the contemporary period." -Saskia Sassen** **WORLD CITY** Refers to cities seen in Asia and European colonial centers.\ Most major global cities are world cities.\ Some cities may not be world cities in the full sense.\ The answer to this question may vary as the global economy expands.\ Miami\'s development of global city functions in the late 1980s does not make it a world city. **General Characteristics of Global Cities** - **Home to major stock exchanges and indexes** - **Influential in international political affairs** - **Home to world-renowned cultural institutions** - **Service a major media hub** - **Large mass transit networks** - **Home to a large international airport** - **Having a prominent skyline** **FOUR BASIC WAYS to identify a Global Cities** 1. **[Advanced producer services production node.]** Sassen\'s definition suggests that cities with specialized skills have a sustainable competitive advantage, especially in high value activities, generating significantly above-average economic output and income per worker. 2. **[Economic giants].**This view is a straightforward yet crucial one that gauges the size of cities based on metrics like GDP. 3. **[International Gateway].** This view measures a city\'s size based on metrics like GDP and its importance in international flows of people and goods, such as airport and cargo gateway figures. 4. **[Political and Cultural Hub].** Media hubs, such as the BBC, are significant international centers, whereas national or regional hubs, like many media centers, are primarily national or regional. **INDICATORS FOR GLOBALITY** **The foremost characteristic is economic power.** Tokyo has the most corporate headquarters, while Shanghai plays a crucial role in global economic supply chain. Silicon Valley\'s technology boom attracted programmers and engineers. **Economic Opportunities** The Economist Intelligence unit has added additional criteria to measure a city\'s economic competitiveness, including market size, purchasing power of citizens, middle class size, and potential growth. - **Market size** - **Purchasing power of citizen's** - **Size of the middle class and;** - **Potential for growth.** **Global cities are centers of authority.** Washington D.C., Canberra, and major international organizations like the UN, European Union, ASEAN, and the European Central Bank are centers of political influence. **Global cities are also centers of Authority** - **Capitol Building (congress)** - **Supreme Court** - **Lincoln Memorial** - **Washington Movement** - **White house** **Global cities are centers of high learning and culture and culturally diverse.** New York\'s New York Times, Harvard University, leading English-language universities in Australia, and Copenhagen are global culinary hubs. Berlin and Tokyo offer Turkish cuisine, while Singapore\'s 38% foreign population makes it a global city. A city\'s intellectual influence is evident through its publishing industry. - **Harvard University - the world's top university.** - **Education is the third largest export in Australia.** - **Copenhagen - considered one of the culinary capitals of the world.** **THE CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL CITIES**\ Global cities often depict fast-paced, cosmopolitan lifestyles, but they can also be sites of inequality, poverty, and violence.\ Density in cities can lead to sustainability, as populations are concentrated in smaller areas, reducing human encroachment on natural habitats.\ Cities like Los Angeles, Manila, Bangkok, and Mumbai are dense but lack public transportation and government regulation, leading to high population density.\ Urban areas consume 78% of global energy, making them targets for terrorists due to their high populations and symbolism of globalization.\ Examples include the 9/11 attacks and attacks in Paris by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. **The GLOBAL CITY AND THE POOR**\ African-Americans and immigrant families are moving to cheaper areas in cities like New York and San Francisco.\ This process, known as gentrification, drives out the poor for wealthier residents.\ In Australia, poor aboriginal Australians moved away from city centers offering more jobs, government services, and better transportation.\ In France, poor Muslim migrants clustered around ethnic enclaves in Banlieue.\ Globalization creates high-income jobs concentrated in global cities, thinning the middle class. **THE GLOBAL EDUCATION**\ Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and convergence of activities among diverse cultures.\ Education is the process of imparting general knowledge, developing reasoning and judgment powers, and preparing for mature life.\ Globalization requires education that enhances learners\' ability to access, assess, adopt, and apply knowledge, think independently, and exercise appropriate judgment. **CORPORATE TAKEOVER**\ Major shift in higher education involved restructuring courses and programs for marketing.\ New courses like MBAs were introduced, along with modulization for economies of scale.\ Part-time and distance learning programs were increased to target working individuals.\ The K to 12 curriculum, a 12-year education model, was adopted.\ The shift was aimed at meeting global standards in education.\ However, other educational institutions exploited the opportunity to expand and profit from the shift.\ The introduction of student loans and course fees increased costs and shifted people\'s orientation towards higher education.\ The increased costs induced a \"corporate takeover\" in education. **CHANGING TECHNOLOGIES**\ Increase in technology incorporation to compete globally.\ Aim to expose children to resources and prepare them for a technologically advanced world.\ Continued influence on teaching and instruction methods due to technological advancements. **BRANDING SCHOOLS**\ Increased use of technology and internet has led to school branding.\ Schools and districts use social media for increased visibility.\ Branding crucial for recruiting students from nearby schools. **GLOBALIZATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION** **Global Issues** The increasing global demand for higher education, the rise of ICTs, public funding shortages, and international trade agreements are key factors influencing global HE reforms. - **Increase in student demand.** The global enrollment has surged from 92 million in 1999 to 143.9 million in 2006, reaching a projected 200 million by now. - **Reduction in the role of the state and the emergence of the market.** The current situation has sparked intense competition among institutions for state and market resources, prompting universities to seek new markets. - **Emergence of private education and diversification of providers.** Overcrowded higher education institutions struggled to expand, leading to new private providers. These providers often lack commitment and capacity for research and service roles. - **Accreditation for quality assurance and rankings.** Academic fraud and corrupt practices in higher education systems are exacerbated by market forces and internationalization, influencing universities\' teaching and research strategies. - **The importance of traditional academic values are diminishing as competition among universities for scarce resources intensifies.** **Issues on Global Education** **Aims and Importance of Global Education** **PEACE EDUCATION (UNICEF)**\ Promotes knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values for behavior changes.\ Enables prevention of conflict and violence.\ Facilitates peaceful conflict resolution.\ Creates conditions conducive to peace at various levels. **Initiatives Related to Peace Education** **GLOBAL LEARNERS** **Characteristics of Global Learners** **GLOBAL TEACHER**\ Essential knowledge, critical dispositions, and performances for learners\' global competence development.\ Knowledge of global issues, their local impact, and learners\' cultural backgrounds.\ Manifestation of intercultural sensitivity and acceptance of difference.\ Incorporation of knowledge and sensitivity into classroom practice.\ Development of skills to foster dispositions, knowledge, and performances in learners.\ Modeling socially responsible action and creating opportunities for learners. **Characteristics of a Global Teacher** **CLASSROOM TEACHER, SCHOOL TEACHER, AND GLOBAL TEACHER** **A Classroom Teacher** is **someone that focuses on their classroom and students only** **School Teacher**. **They connected with every student in their classroom, as well as students and educators around the school**. **They see supervision as an opportunity to connect with others and build relationships with kids.** **A Global Teacher has the best elements of the classroom and school teacher, but their focus is on "what is best for kids", no matter if is their own kids, kids in the school across the street, or across the ocean.** **GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION** Globalization has significantly transformed the world economy, making it interconnected, interdependent, and competitive, particularly in developed Western countries, fostering a knowledge-based global economy. **The following are the impacts of Globalization to Education;** - Global education promotes environmental sustainability and industry strengthening, promoting global access to education from primary to university levels, preparing students for multinational leadership roles. - Education fosters multicultural awareness, integrating ideologies from diverse societies, promoting global stability and preparing young people for successful futures, influencing globalization and preparing nations for increased connectivity. - Globalization presents challenges in knowledge, education, and learning, allowing today\'s learners to become more familiar with abstract concepts and uncertain situations. - The information society and global economy necessitate a comprehensive comprehension of systems thinking, encompassing both the world system and the business ecosystem. - Globalization employs interdisciplinary research to understand complex global issues, enhancing students\' ability to manipulate symbols and acquire knowledge for productive employment in today\'s economy. - Globalization enhances learners\' capacity to access, assess, and apply knowledge, think independently, exercise judgment, and collaborate to understand new situations. - Globalization enhances learners\' knowledge acquisition, assessment, and application skills, promoting independent thinking, judgment, and collaboration in new situations. - The program encourages students to collaborate, fostering skills in group dynamics, negotiation, debate, persuasion, organization, leadership, and management. - Globalization utilizes advanced technologies to create a new system of knowledge, education, and learning that transcends space and time boundaries. - Globalization expands knowledge, education, and learning through advanced technologies, enabling synchronous and asynchronous activities to break space and time boundaries for teachers and students. - Globalization fosters the exchange of ideas and experiences in educational technologies, enabling information technologists, policymakers, and practitioners to rethink education and promote innovation. - Globalization promotes information technology exploration, knowledge sharing, and mutual support for development. It promotes international understanding, cultural diversity, and communication. However, it may create technological gaps and colonize developing countries. **MODULE 8: GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY**\ Demography studies human populations, their size, composition, and distribution across space.\ Population ecology principles are applied to study statistical changes in human population.\ The \'big three\' of demography are births, deaths, and migration.\ Rural communities often have more children for crop cultivation and small businesses.\ Urbanized, educated families with two incomes desire only one or two children.\ Rural families view multiple children and large kinship networks as critical investments.\ Urban families may not have the same kinship network or move out of farmlands.\ Less developed regions with agriculture-reliant regions maintain high levels of population growth.\ Urban populations have grown due to migration to cities and international migration. **What is Demography?** Demography studies changes in human populations over time. Couples often have children as a symbol of successful union, preserving kinship, and continuing the family\'s story. **The "Perils" of Overpopulation**\ Thomas Malthus warned in 1798 that population growth would exhaust world food supply.\ Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich revived this prediction in the late 1960s, arguing that overpopulation would lead to global environmental disasters and food shortages.\ Ehrlich proposed global population control to reduce the growth rate to zero, with various recommendations including chemical castration, policy-oriented measures, monetary incentives, and institutional building.\ The rate of global population increase was highest between 1955 and 1975, peaking at 2.06% annual growth rate between 1965 and 1970.\ Countries like the Philippines, China, and India sought to lower birth rates to prevent resource crises, widespread poverty, mass hunger, and political instability.\ Advocates of population control advocated for universal access to reproductive technologies and women\'s right to choose whether to have children.\ In Puerto Rico, reproductive health supporters viewed their work as transforming their \"poor country\" into a \"modern nation.\"\ In India, the government marked lower castes, working poor, and Muslims as hypersexual and hyper-fecund, leading to extreme policies like forced sterilization.\ Betsy Hartmann disagreed with the neo-Malthusian theory, accusing governments of using population control as a substitute for social justice and needed reforms.\ The greatest threat to mankind is the unchecked multiplication of species, especially in developing countries of Asia and Africa.\ Rapid population growth has severely affected the fragile ecological balance, leading to problems like unemployment, urbanization, and pollution.\ The unprecedented growth of population has adversely affected per capita income and standard of living, aggravated poverty and hunger in many countries.\ Population explosion is the biggest problem attracting attention, leading to several national and international policies and programs to tackle the situation. **Blaming the Babies for the Incompetence of the Economy** Critics argue population control prevents economic crises due to young working population, robust military force, and reduced infant mortality and fertility. Advances in agricultural production can prevent Malthusian nightmare. **Women and Reproductive Rights** Opponents argue reproductive rights are a false front for abortion, citing religious concerns and conservative attitudes in developing countries, such as Senegal, where abortion is only allowed when mother\'s life is threatened. **Feminist Outlook of the growing population** Feminists oppose population control, arguing it\'s unempowering and overlooks other factors like unequal wealth distribution, lack of public safety nets, and lack of evidence linking overpopulation to poverty and environmental degradation. **Population Growth threatened Food Security** The global population is projected to stabilize by 2050, but food production must increase by 70% to combat population growth, necessitating increased agricultural investments, poverty-fighting policies, and research.**\ Philippine Demographic Situation** The population of **the Philippines** is estimated at **100,096,496** as of July 1, 2014. Philippines\'s population is equivalent to **1.38% **of the **[[total world population]](http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/).** The Philippines ranks number **12** in the list of **[[countries by population]](http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/population-by-country/).** The **population density** in the Philippines is **334 people per Km^2^**. **50%** of the population is **urban** (49,643,960 people in 2014). The **median age** in the Philippines is **23.2 years**. Population situations vary, requiring different policy actions. Japan needs to increase its population, while the Philippines needs to limit it, doubling living standards in 30 years. **World Demographic Situation** The world\'s population grows rapidly, with Asia currently at 4,471,001,244 people, equivalent to 59.69% of the total world population. Asia ranks first among regions, with a population density of 144 per Km2. If growth continues, there will be 60 billion people by 900 years. **The Earth's Carrying Capacity** The world\'s population carrying capacity is estimated at fifty billion, projected to reach 2106 at a 2% annual growth rate, utilizing the earth\'s ecosystem resources. **Conclusion** Demography is a multifaceted field that integrates social scientific data to understand human growth and decline, impacting environment, politics, resources, and the interdisciplinary understanding of globalization. **MODULE 9: GLOBAL MIGRATION** **WHAT IS MIGRATION?** The term \"taking up residence\" refers to the movement of individuals for a minimum period of time across a political or administrative boundary. **TYPES OF MIGRATION** 1. Governments force migration for various reasons, such as genocide, slavery, and threats of genocide, such as Jews, Africans, Australians, and Asians, resulting in forced migrations. 2. No one is forced to migrate but due to some push factors such as war, hunger and other difficult conditions, people decide to leave. 3. Migrants often return to their original places after outliving their reasons, often retiring to spend their lives in their towns with old friends and family. 4. This refers to population movement within a country, say for example, within the borders of Germany. 5. This describes the movement of people between countries which involves greater distances than is the case with internal migration. 6. 7. **Family** reunification is a recognized reason for **immigration** in many countries because of the presence of one or more **family** members in a certain country, therefore, enables the rest of the **family** to immigrate to that country as well. **Migrant Transnationalism** Migrant Transnationalism is a social process characterized by bifocal consciousness and orientation, involving migrants living both \"here\" and \"there\" in significant social domains. **Transnational Migrants: When \"Home\" Means More Than One Country** Transnational migration in the 21st century challenges traditional assimilation theories, allowing individuals to belong to multiple societies simultaneously, challenging the assumption of one-size-fits-all national norms. **Drivers of Transnationalism** A. The **foremost driver** of transnationalism has been the **development of technologies** that have **made transportation and communication** infinitely **more accessible and affordable.** B. International migrations have **become integral to the demographic future** of many developed countries. - - C. Global political transformations and new international legal regimes have weakened the state as the only legitimate source of rights. **There are groups of migrants;** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. National development debates arise over migrants\' impact on destination countries, with anti-immigrant groups advocating for government control and illegal entry, despite weaker labor market effects and small fiscal impact. **Benefits and Detriments for the Sending Countries** Remittances improve migrants\' economic and social standing, enabling them to buy new homes and access consumer goods. However, they do not significantly influence consumption or spending on education or healthcare. Global migration, also known as \"brain drain,\" removes qualified personnel and professionals, negatively impacting home countries. **Migration impact on receiving country** **Positive aspects** \+ Increasing domestic demand \+ More opportunities for consumers: increasing variety of goods and services \+ Job creation, new talents \+ 3D (dirty, dangerous, difficult) jobs \+ More flexible labour force +/- Low skill versus high skill workers: effects on employment and wages **Negative aspects** **Impact of migration to country of origin** **+** Increasing internal mobility \+ Increasing human capital (commuting, temporary migration) \+ Remittances \+ Brain circulation \+ Diaspora (FDI, aid, political influence etc.) \+ Opportunity to reduce unemployment and alleviate the negative effects of sharply restructuring economic process **+/-** Labor shortage can cause the wage increase -- Brain drain, declining productivity -- Negative net migration will accelerate demographic problems, like ageing, low birth rate etc. -- Depopulated areas, deepening of regional discrepancies; -- Social problems with dependents remained at home (especially children); -- Inflationary pressure (due to remittances). **HUMAN TRAFFICKING** Human trafficking is a significant international issue involving recruitment, transportation, and exploitation of individuals through force, coercion, fraud, deception, abuse of power, and benefits. - Adults and children victims of trafficking around the world: **27 million** - Successful trafficking prosecutions in : **4,239 (7,206 cases)** - Successful prosecutions related to forced labor: **320 (508 cases)** - Victims identified: **41,210** - Prevalence of trafficking victims in Central and South Eastern Europe and Commonwealth of Independent States: **4.2 per 1,000 inhabitants** - Victims of State Imposed Labor: **2.2 million** - Victims of Sexual Exploitation; **4.5 million** - Victims of Labor Exploitation: **14.2 million** **THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING** Human trafficking, a lucrative criminal activity, is the third largest worldwide criminal activity, affecting 21 million people annually. Despite government, private sector, and civil society efforts, results remain uneven. **International Terrorism** Globalization focuses on the widespread migration of people, often reluctance among countries due to fear of cultural and job loss, but also necessary for economic growth. **Integration** Migrants\' economic integration varies, with Chinese, Indian, and Western European migrants succeeding more. Democratic states assimilate immigrants, but xenophobic groups accuse them of bringing in dominant culture. **MODULE 10: Environmental Crisis, Sustainable Development, and Food Security** Earth\'s ecosystem includes humans, plant life, mountains, glaciers, atmosphere, rocks, galaxy, oceans, seas, and resources. However, human activities like littering, smog, and uncollected garbage contribute to environmental issues. **What is meant by Environmental Crisis?** The Environmental Crisis is a consciousness crisis, affecting human welfare and the biosphere. The environmental movement, with over one million organizations, is the fastest growing global issue. **ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES THAT THE WORLD FACES TODAY:** **Pollution:** Over half of the human population understands pollution, but is largely unaware of its harmful effects, primarily caused by human activities like oil spills, urban runoff, and industrial waste. **Climate Change:** Climate change, caused by human activities like global warming, greenhouse effects, urban heat, and coal industry, is rapidly altering weather, melting polar regions, causing new diseases, and inhibiting plant growth. **Global Warming:** Global warming, caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, is a significant environmental issue causing Earth\'s temperature to rise by 0.8 degrees Celsius over the past century, causing climate change, droughts, and diseases. **Deforestation:** Population growth triples demand for food, shelter, and cloth, leading to deforestation, which results in 18 million acres lost annually, causing long-term environmental issues like floods, soil erosion, and climate imbalance. **Overpopulation:** Overpopulation causes environmental issues like water pollution, resource crisis, and gender imbalance, making it difficult to control at international level despite government efforts and subjective concerns. **Industrial and Household Waste:**Household waste production increases, leading to increased demand for goods and waste disposal. Large landfills pose environmental concerns, affecting human health, soil quality, wildlife, air pollution, and climate change. **Acid Rain:** Acid rain, caused by pollutants from cars, industrial processes, and natural disasters, can cause severe damage to aquatic life, forests, public health, and architecture. **Ozone Layer Depletion:** The ozone layer, a naturally occurring gas layer 25-30 km above Earth\'s surface, absorbs harmful UV radiation, but human and industrial activities have reduced its thickness due to excessive chlorine and bromine release. **Genetic Engineering:** Genetic modification of food, human, and animal organs has harmful effects, highlighting the need for limiting its use and addressing the controversy surrounding genetic engineering. **Urban Sprawl:** Overpopulation and urban sprawl in countries like India and China lead to land degradation, soil pollution, and habitat destruction, negatively impacting human survival and causing environmental issues. **MAN-MADE POLLUTION** Human activity is responsible for air and water pollution, exacerbated by waste from mines. Governments believe developing countries need industrialization, urbanization, and a middle class with modern amenities. The poor are most severely affected, and public transport, primarily diesel-powered, contributes to pollution. **Climate Change** Global warming is caused by the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other air pollutants, leading to recurring heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfall, and devastating hurricanes and typhoons. **Combating Global Warming** The Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997 by 192 countries, aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but the US, the world\'s largest polluter, is not participating. **ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATION** The industrial revolution accelerated economic development by enabling a cycle of efficiency, enabling faster production of goods, increased demand, and ultimately increased efficiency. **Example:** - **Destruction of coral reefs and marine biodiversity** - **Deforestation** - **Pollution** - **Climate change** **SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT** **What is Sustainable Development?** **Sustainable developmen**t is the development of our world today by using earth resources and the preservation of such sources for the future. **Examples of Sustainable Development** 1\. **Wind Energy** -- Wind energy harnessed from the motion of wind using wind turbine or windmills. 2\. **Solar Energy** -- This energy harnessed from the sun using solar panels. It's advantageous since its absolutely free and its supply infinite. These factors make it beneficial to consumers and good for Mother Nature because it doesn't contribute to emission of greenhouse gasses. 3**. Green spaces** -- are location where plants and animals are left to flourish. Parks also fall into the category of green spaces. Green spaces provide people remarkable opportunity to take pleasure recreation, more so in big cities, where resting space is hard to come by. 4\. **Crop rotation** --is the practice of planning different crops in the same farm to enhance soil fertility and assist control disease and insects. Crop rotation is beneficial in many ways; most importantly, its chemical free.This means using this farming practice maintains integrity of your soil, making it a sustainable development practice. **Importance of Sustainable Development** 1\. **Provides essential human needs** -- the explosion population means people will have to scramble for the limited life essentials like food, shelter, and water. 2\. **Agricultural requirement-** growing population means agriculture must catch up. Finding ways to feed more than 3 billion people can be staggering If same unsustainable cultivation, planting, irrigation, spraying, and harvesting techniques are utilized in the future, they might prove to be financially burdening considering fossils fuel resources are projected to run out. 3\. **Manage climate change** -- climate change can be mitigated by sustainable development practices. Sustainable development practices seek to reduce the use of fossils- based sources of fuel like oil, natural gas and coal. Fossil fuel sources of energy are unsustainable since they will deplete in the future and are responsible for the emission of greenhouse gasses. 4\. **Financial stability** -- Sustainable development practices have the ability to create more financially sustainable economics across the globe. Developing countries that can't access fossils fuels can leverage renewable forms of energy to power their economics. From the development of renewable energy technologies, these countries can be create sustainable jobs as opposed to finite jobs based on fossil fuel technologies. 5\. **Sustain Biodiversity** -- unsustainable development and overconsumption practices greatly impact biodiversity. Life ecosystem is designed in such a way that species depend on one another for survival. For instance, plants produce oxygen that humans need for respiration. Humans exhale carbon dioxide that plants need for growth and production. **FOOD SECURITY** Global food security is a global concern for the next 50 years, with declining crop yields, water scarcity, climate change, and HIV/AIDS affecting food security in many regions. Agro ecological approaches offer some promise for improving yields, but food security in developing countries could be significantly improved by increased investment and policy reforms. The United Nations Millennium Development Goals aim to halve the proportion of people suffering from hunger between 1990 and 2015. Despite predictions of a global food security catastrophe, many developing countries face challenges due to climate change, HIV/AIDS, and increased development into marginal lands. Achieving food security requires policy and investment reforms on human resources, agricultural research, rural infrastructure, water resources, and farm- and community-based agricultural and natural resources management. The World Summit on Food Security emphasized the importance of food security, focusing on its four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability over time. **Availability**. Food availability is determined by factors like land ownership, soil management, crop selection, breeding, livestock management, and harvesting, which can be influenced by changes in rainfall and temperature. **Access.** Food access, encompassing affordability, allocation, and individual preferences, is often the root cause of hunger and malnutrition, often exacerbated by poverty. **Utilization.**Food security involves food utilization, where individuals metabolism food to meet physiological requirements. Factors affect quantity and quality, ensuring food security. 1. **Stability.** Food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over time. Food security comprises several **different components**, including - - - - Food insecurity is a household-level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access to adequate food."  USDA, Food insecurity is part of a continuum that includes hunger and malnutrition. **What are the reasons behind lack of food access & food insecurity?** - **Food Distribution** - **Political-Agricultural Practices** - **Environmental Factors** - **Industrial Fishing** - **Biodiversity and Usable Farm land** - **decline of availability of fresh Water** - **Natural disaster** - **Other Economic and Political Reasons** - **Global Rise Of Prizes** Governments struggle to address environmental issues due to the belief that fully developed countries require industrialization, urbanization, a middle class, public transportation, and affordable food.

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