Agriculture Grade 12 Student Textbook PDF

AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 12 STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 12 STUDENT TEXTBOOK...

AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 12 STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 12 STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 12 2023 2023 Take Good Care of This Textbook This textbook is the property of your school. Take good care not to damage or lose it. Here are 10 ideas to help take care of the book: 1. Cover the book with protective material, such as plastic, old newspaper or magazine 2. Always keep the book in a clean dry place. 3. Be sure your hands are clean when you use the book. 4. Do not write-on the cover or inside pages. 5. Use a piece of paper or cardboard as a bookmark. 6. Never tear or cut out any pictures or pages. 7. Repair any torn pages with paste or tape. 8. Pack the book carefully when you place it in your school bag. 9. Handle the book with care when passing it to another person. 10. When using a new book for the first time, lay it on its back. Open only a few pages at a time. Press lightly along the bound edge as you turn the pages. This will keep the cover in good condition. AGRICULTURE STUDENT TEXTBOOK GRADE 12 Writers: Yohannes Batiso (MSc), Hawassa University Haile Welearegay (PhD), Hawassa University Editors: Bimrew Asmare (PhD) (Content Editor) Fetene Regassa (PhD) (Curriculum and Instruction Editor) Tamene Kitila (PhD) (Language Editor) Illustrator Yonas Azene (MSc) Designer: Ephrem Alamrew (MSc) Reviewers: Taye Tolemariam (Professor, PhD) Teramage Tesfaye (PhD) Evaluators: Daniel Taddesse (PhD) Serawit Handiso (PhD) FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY MINISTRY OF EDUCATION First Published August 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education, under the General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (GEQIP-E) supported by the World Bank, UK’s Department for International Development/DFID-now merged with the Foreign, Common wealth and Development Office/FCDO, Finland Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the Royal Norwegian Embassy, United Nations Children’s Fund/UNICEF), the Global Partnership for Education (GPE), and Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, through a Multi Donor Trust Fund. © 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education. All rights reserved. The moral rights of the author have been asserted. No part of this textbook reproduced, copied in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means in-cluding electronic, mechanical, magnetic, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Ministry of Education or licensing in accordance with the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia as expressed in the Federal Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No. 410/2004 - Copyright and Neighboring Rights Protection. The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and other bodies involved – directly or indirectly – in publishing this Textbook. Special thanks are due to Hawassa University for their huge contribution in the development of this textbook in collaboration with Addis Ababa University, Bahir Dar University and Jimma University. Copyrighted materials used by permission of their owners. If you are the owner of copy-righted material not cited or improperly cited, please contact the Ministry of Education, Head Office, Arat Kilo, (P.O.Box 1367), Addis Ababa Ethiopia. 978-99990-0-077-2 Agriculture Grade 12 Contents Unit 1 Vegetable Crops Production and Management 1 1.1.Importance, problems and prospects of 2 vegetable crop production in Ethiopia 1.2.Environmental factors influencing vegetable 6 production 1.3 Classifications of vegetable crops 11 1.4.Types of vegetable crop production System 14 1.5.Principles of vegetable crops managemen 15 Unit 2 Fruit Crops Production and Management 22 2.1.Deﬁnition of some common terms 23 2.2. Importance, problems and prospect of fruit crops production in Ethiopia 23 2.3 Classiﬁcation of fruit crops 25 2.4.Principles and techniques of fruit propagation 28 2.5. Establishing a nursery 34 2.6.Management of Orchards 35 2.7.Factors inﬂuencing the quality of fruit crops during harvest and post-harvest 38 Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management 45 Unit 3 3.1. Deﬁnition of terms 46 3.2. Classiﬁcation of root and tuber crops 48 3.3.Importance of root and tuber crops 51 3.4.Prospects of root and tuber crops production in Ethiopia 52 3.5. Problems of root and tuber crops production 53 in Ethiopia 3.6.Root and tuber crops managements and protection 55 3.7.Harvesting and post-harvest handling of root 57 and tuber crops CONTENTS I Agriculture Grade 12 Unit 4 Coffee, Tea And Spices Production and Management 62 4.1. History, origin, production status and e conomic importance of coﬀee, tea and spices 63 4.2. Ecological and soil requirements for coﬀee, tea and spices production 67 4.3. Propagation, nursery establishment and management of coﬀee, tea and spices seedling crops 69 4.4. Field establishment and management practices of coﬀee, tea and spices 75 4.5. Harvesting and processing coﬀee and tea 78 Introduction to Plant Biotechnology 96 Unit 5 5.1. Introduction to tissue culture 97 5.2. Types of crops produced by tissue 98 5.3. Beneﬁts of tissue culture 100 5.4 Introduction to genetic engineering 100 5.5. Application of genetic engineering in crop 102 production Unit 6 Beef Cattle Production and Management 106 6.1. Beef cattle breeds and methods of selection 107 6.2. Beef cattle feeds and feeding methods 116 6.3. Beef cattle housing 117 6.4. Major disease of beef cattle and control methods 119 6.5. Meat production and processing 120 Unit 7 Sheep and Goat Production and Management 128 7.1. Sheep and goat breeds and selection 129 7.2. Sheep and goat feeds and feeding 137 7.3. Sheep and goat housing 140 7.4. Major diseases of sheep and goat and methods of controlling the diseases 142 7.5. Sheep and goat meat and milk production and processing 145 II CONTENTS Agriculture Grade 12 Unit 8 Camel Production and Management 150 8.1. Camel breeds and selections 151 8.2. Camel feeds and feeding 155 8.3. Camel housing 157 8.4. Major disease of camel and methods of their control 158 8.5. Camel meat and milk production and 159 processing Poultry Production and Management 166 Unit 9 9.1. Poultry breeds, classiﬁcation and selection 167 9.2. Poultry feeds and feeding 170 9.3. Poultry housing 171 9.4. Poultry incubation and hatchery 173 management 174 9.5. Poultry brooding and rearing 9.6. Layers and broilers management 175 9.7. Major diseases of poultry and controlling 178 methods Unit 10 Fishery Production and Management 182 10.1. Basic terms in aquaculture and farmed ﬁsh 183 species in Ethiopia 185 10.2. Basic anatomy of bony ﬁshers 10.3. Fish feeds and feeding practices 187 10.4. Fish culture techniques 189 10.5. Fish rearing 191 10.6. Fishing methods 192 10.7. Handling ﬁsh and ﬁsh products 193 10.8. Diseases in aquaculture 196 10.9. Indigenous knowledge in ﬁsh processing 197 CONTENTS III Agriculture Grade 12 Unit 11 Apiculture 201 11.1. Introduction to honey bee management 202 11.2. Bee biology and behavior 203 11.3. Types of honey bee colony 205 11.4. Management of honey bees 207 11.5. Colony management and queen rearing 208 11.6. Hive products and processing 211 11.7. Bee diseases, pests and predators 212 11.8. Indigenous knowledge in apiculture 213 Unit 12 Nursery and Plantation Technology 217 12.1.Nursery establishment and management 218 12.2 Design and layout of the nursery 220 12.3. Producing plants from seeds 221 12.4. Plantationestablishment and management 223 Unit 13 Basics of Agro-Forestry Systems and Practices 226 13.1. Deﬁnition of agro-forestry, agro forestry systems, practices and technologies 227 13.2. Signiﬁcance of agro forestry 232 13.3. Classiﬁcation of agro forestry systems 233 13.4. Agro forestry species, their establishment 235 and management methods Unit 14 Soil and Water Conservation 243 14.1. Soil properties 244 14.2. Soil erosion 245 14.3. Major causes of soil erosion 245 14.4 Negative impacts of soil erosion 248 14.5. Types of soil and water conservation practices 248 14.6. Need of soil and water conservation 14.7.Indigenous Knowledge in Soil and water 252 conservation 253 Unit 15 Gender and Human Nutrition 257 15.1. Basic gender-related terminologies 258 15.2. Gender role in food production and consumption 259 15.3. Empowering women in food production and consumption 261 IV CONTENTS Agriculture Grade 12 Unit 16 Safe Food Production and Postharvest Handling 268 16.1. Food safety hazards and health risks 269 16.2. Source of food contaminants 272 16.3. Food safety and nutrition linkage 273 16.4. Indigenous knowledge in safe food production and postharvest handling 274 Application of Information and Communication Unit 17 Technologies (ICT) in Agriculture 281 17.1. Roles of ICT in agriculture 282 17.2. Major application of ICT in agriculture 284 17.3. Drawbacks and solutions of ICT in 288 agriculture CONTENTS V Agriculture Grade 12 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Contents Learning Outcomes 1.1.Importance, problems and At the end of this unit, you will be prospects of vegetable crop able to: production in Ethiopia Elaborate the importance, 1.2.Environmental factors inﬂuencing vegetable production problems and prospect of 1.3 Classiﬁcations of vegetable vegetable crops production crops classify of vegetable crops 1.4.Types of vegetable crop list environmental factors production System that inﬂuence vegetable crops 1.5.Principles of vegetable crops production management describe types of vegetable crops production system state the principles of vegetable crops management Vegetable Crops Production and Management 1 Agriculture Grade 12 1.1. Importance, problems and prospect of vegetable crops production in Ethiopia Brainstorming 1.1 Discuss the following questions in pairs in the classroom  What are vegetables? What vegetable crops are produced in your locality?  List some characteristics of vegetables.  Explain the major beneﬁts of vegetable crops. Vegetables Vegetables are plants whose fruit, seeds, roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, or ﬂower parts are used as food.Vegetables are diverse in their growth cycles. Some are annuals. Others are biennials. Still others are perennials. Key term Herbaceous are plants that that have no persistent woody stems above the ground. Vegetables constitute diﬀerent types of plants including viny, shrubby, or tree in their growth habits. Vegetables are usually harvested fresh - when their moisture contents are high. This distinguishes them from ﬁeld grain crops which are often harvested at mature stage. Vegetables are seasonal, perishable, and bulky in relation to their volume. They require intensive management. They are vulnerable to damage and cannot be stored for a long time. 1.1.1 Importance The most important vegetable crops in Ethiopia include: pepper, Ethiopian mustard/kale, onion, tomato, potato, chili, carrot, garlic and cabbage. Others such as green beans, asparagus, broccoli, celery and cucumbers are also important. The major vegetables produced for domestic consumption are cabbages, tomatoes and garlic. Green beans and peas are mainly produced for export purposes. In Ethiopia, vegetable crop production includes various important economic activities. Many smallholder farmers and large-scale commercial producers are engaged in vegetable production. 2 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Key term Smallholder farmers: are farmers that own an average landhold- ing size of 0.9 hectare They smallholders mainly produce vegetable crops for own consumption. Commercial private farms produce solely for the market. It was estimated in 2018 that over 6.7 million households make their livelihood from vegetable production in the country. In addition, the country earns hundreds of millions of dollars every year from export of vegetables. Vegetables are mainly exported to the Middle East, to Europe and to the neighbouring countries like Djibouti and Somalia. Vegetables like tomato and chilli are among the major vegetables exported. This contributes to the national economy. Smallholder farmers choose to grow vegetables due to the relatively shorter growth cycle of the crops. Compared to cereals, vegetables have a relatively higher value. Vegetable production has a higher potential to increase employment and household income. It is generally a proﬁtable activity. Productivity of vegetables is often higher than that of cereal crops. Compared to cereal crops, vegetables are often intensively managed. Vegetables usually require special care after harvest. Vegetables are highly perishable and need to be stored and transported carefully in order to preserve their fresh quality. Public awareness about nutritional and health beneﬁts of vegetables has been increasing recently. Public health advocacy on the role of vegetables in human nutrition and health has signiﬁcantly raised public awareness about the place of vegetables in health. An increased consumption of vegetables reduces hidden hunger (i.e., micronutrient deﬁciency) in children. Micronutrient deﬁciency is associated with the deﬁciency of essential vitamins and minerals. Vegetables such as spinach, tomato, etc. are often good sources of iron, zinc, and iodine. Vegetables are rich sources of vitamin A, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), thiamine, niacin, folic acid and beta carotene. Beta carotene is responsible Vegetable Crops Production and Management 3 Agriculture Grade 12 for the normal functioning of the visual process and the structure of the eye. Prolonged deﬁciency of Beta carotene leads to blindness. Leguminous and leafy vegetables are rich sources of proteins. Another reason for an increasing demand for vegetables is the increasing prices of animal products like meat, milk and eggs. Vegetables are also raw materials for local processing industries. Local processing industries produce products like tomato paste and diﬀerent juice types. Increased demand for vegetables has encouraged investment in the sector both by national and international commercial producers. 1.1.2 Potentials and opportunities Vegetable production has enormous potential to contribute to the national economy and the livelihood of the farmers in the country. Ethiopia has  favourable climate for production of various vegetable crops,  abundant labour,  vast land and water resources  suitable regions for production of various types of vegetables Ethiopia has diverse climate zones as indicated by altitudes ranging from 126 metres below sea level to 4620 metres above sea level. The altitude gives the country a wide range of climatic diversity. The climate varies from humid tropics to Alpine climates. These are suitable climates for vegetable production. Key terms Agro ecology: relationships organisms have among themselves and with the surrounding physical environment in agriculture. Alpine Climate: Climate of high mountain regions/highlands. Humid tropics: Regions with relatively high temperature throughout the year and where rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration for 75% of the year. 4 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 The land currently used for vegetable production is extremely small, given the huge potential for vegetable production in Ethiopia. However, vegetable production yields per unit area, as well as the amount of land used for production of the crops, is increasing. This is because of:  an increase in public awareness about health beneﬁts of vegetables,  small scale irrigation  the government support for investors  incentives in the form of tax exemptions and other related beneﬁts  local demand for vegetables  export of vegetables In addition, vegetable production and management is intensive. This creates a remarkable size of employment opportunity. The income per hectare obtained from vegetable crops is higher than that obtained from cereals like teﬀ or maize is more promising. 1.1.3 Constraints Brainstorming 1.2 Think about the following questions independently and share your thoughts with the students sitting next to you  What are the potentials for vegetable crops production in Ethiopia?  Mention the major problems related to vegetable crops production in Ethiopia.  Which of the problems are observed in your locality? Ethiopia has a high potential for vegetable production. However, compared to cereal crop production, vegetable production and consumption in the country is low The major constraints are:  inadequate knowledge of improved methods of production and marketing,  low consumption of vegetables  high cost of production inputs like fertilizers, improved seeds and pesticides  poor management of vegetables,  small size of vegetable processing facilities, Vegetable Crops Production and Management 5 Agriculture Grade 12  poor soil fertility  pests  drought,  postharvest losses,  high price of fuel for pumping water for irrigation 1.2 Environmental factors influencing vegetable production Brainstorming 1.3 Discuss the following questions in groups of 2 or 3 students  What environmental factors inﬂuence vegetable crops production?  How do the factors aﬀect vegetable crops production? Various environmental factors inﬂuence vegetable production. These factors are climatic (temperature, light, precipitation, etc.) and soil which include the chemical, physical and nutritional status of the soil and topographic factors. Biotic factors aﬀecting crop production include insects, diseases and weeds. 1.2.1 Temperature Temperature is an important environmental variable that aﬀects various processes during plant growth and development. Among the processes aﬀected by temperature are photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, germination and ﬂowering. Photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration increase with increasing temperature up to a certain point. Temperature also inﬂuences the shift from vegetative growth to reproductive growth stage. The eﬀect of temperature on transition from vegetative to reproductive growth stages depends on the speciﬁc types of vegetable crops grown. Temperature determines the types of crops that grow successfully in a given location and their yield levels. Vegetables have their minimum, maximum and optimum temperature ranges. Crops that originate in temperate regions have lower temperature requirements. Crops originating in tropical regions require warmer temperatures. Soil temperature directly aﬀects seed germination, root development and absorption of nutrients and water by the roots. Warmer soil temperature generally increases the rates of these processes. The size, shape and quality of harvestable parts of vegetable crops are also aﬀected by soil temperature. Tropical and sub-tropical vegetables may be damaged at temperatures below 10 0C. This is called chilling injury. 6 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Some vegetable crops require exposure to low temperature before moving from vegetative to reproductive growth stages. This process is known as vernalization. The Biennials and some of the cool season vegetables (e.g., onion, carrot, etc.) initiate ﬂower formation after extended exposure to low temperature. 1.2.2 Water Fresh vegetables contain a high level of water – often between 80% and 90% of their weight is made up of water. Also, for production of each kilogram of vegetable dry matter, about 322 litres of water is required. The following points demonstrate the roles of water in crop production:  germination and growth of crops start only when water is available  organic and inorganic compounds absorbed by plants are dissolved in water  water is required in the process of photosynthesis  water is important in cell division, enlargement and turgidity  too little or too much water is harmful for plant growth  water shortage during critical growth stages directly aﬀects yields  insuﬃcient water supply during early plant growth stages results in the stunted growth of plants, and signiﬁcantly reduces yield. In addition, temporary shortage of water during critical growth stages (e.g., ﬂowering, seed setting or germination) is damaging. For example, excess moisture from rainfall or irrigation can damage vegetable seedlings. It can also wash away plant nutrients from the soils. Excess moisture can erode soils and cause ﬂooding. Floods can damage harvested vegetable crops and causes crop diseases and loss of yield. 1.2.3 Light Key term Succulent: a plant such as a cactus in which the leaves and stem are thick and can store a lot of water Light is the key element in photosynthesis. Plants grown in full light develop vigorously with high chlorophyll amount and high photosynthetic activity. Plants grown in reduced light have lower chlorophyll amounts Vegetable Crops Production and Management 7 Agriculture Grade 12 and are often succulent. Flowering and seed production by the length of the night is an example. The length of the light period (also called day length) and its quality varies according to the season of the year, altitude and latitude. Some plants change their growth in response to day length. Long-day plants ﬂower when the night is short (usually less than 12 hours). Short day plants ﬂower when the night is long (usually more than 12 hours). Plants that are not aﬀected by day length are called day-neutral plant. These plants can ﬂower under any light period. Table1.1. day length of some vegetable crops. Short day Day neutral Long day Sweet potato Cucumber Spinach Tomato Onion Pepper Cabbage Eggplant Carrot Artichoke Potato 1.2.4 Humidity Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. High levels of atmospheric humidity is often associated with incidence of crop diseases and pests. Humidity aﬀects plant growth and development through its eﬀect on plant transpiration from leaves. In humid atmosphere, the stomata open and allow diﬀusion of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour. This allows active photosynthesis and nutrient absorption. Very high humidity could cause increased germination of certain fungal species. This damages the plants. Excessive humidity could also close stomata which would mean overheating of plants as it limits evaporative cooling. Low humidity is also harmful for the plant. It may result in increased transpiration and this may attract some pest types. Green plants convert water absorbed through root and carbon dioxide absorbed through the leaf into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight through photosynthesis and produce oxygen (See Figure 1.1.). 8 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Table 1.2. Vegetables that require high or low Humidity Vegetables that require High Vegetables that require Low humidity Humidity Cabbage Peppers Carrots Sweet potatoes Lettuce Watermelon Onion Cucumber Spinach Squash broccoli Tomato pumpkin potatoes Source: Jeannie Nichols (2014) and Jim Myers (2011) Figure 1.1.The process of photosynthesis in plants 1.2.5 Altitude Temperature and rainfall of an area are determined by the altitude of the area in relative to sea level. With 100m increase in altitude, there is 0.6 0C decrease in temperature. This aﬀects vegetable production. Vegetables vary in their temperature and water requirements. In Ethiopia, the highlands have high rainfall and low temperature. This is often suitable for vegetable production. The lowlands have lower rainfall, but higher temperature and are less suitable for vegetable production. 1.2.6 Soil Soil type, soil fertility and soil structure contribute to the growth and yield levels of crops. The type of soil determines whether or not it stores suﬃcient water for plants to grow. It also determines if soil compaction or Vegetable Crops Production and Management 9 Agriculture Grade 12 water lodging may be a problem. Slow emergence and seedling growth in compacted soils increases a time a vegetable plant is vulnerable to disease, insects and weeds. The soil provides nutrients, water and physical support for roots of plants. Soil texture refers to the particle size the soil contains. The relevant particles are: sand, silt and clay. Sand has the biggest size of the three. Silt is of medium size. Clay is the smallest size particle. Sandy soils have predominantly high level of pore space. This allows the availability of air and free drainage. It does not however, store much water for plants. Clay- dominated soils drain very slowly and can cause excess water accumulation. This, in turn, causes shortage of air for roots and soil organisms.. Key terms Compaction: is process in which soil is pressed down, (e.g., by heavy loads) and becomes very ﬁrm with little space between its particles. Pore space: refers to the space between soil particles. It is used for air circulation and water storage. Roots grow into the soil through the pore space. 1.2.7 Biotic factors Biotic factors refer to organisms like bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses, weeds and animals. The presence of these harmful organisms in the environment limits crop productivity. Vegetable crop selection should consider the adaptability of the crop to a given environment and resistance to common diseases and pests. 1.3 Classification of vegetable crops Brainstorming 1.4 Answer the following question independently and share your answers with your classmates  What types of vegetable crop do you know?  List the criteria for classifying vegetable crops. Vegetables can be classiﬁed into diﬀerent groups.. Root vegetables: These are vegetables whose roots are consumed as food. These include: carrot, garlic, radish, cassava, sweet potato and beet.. 10 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Leafy Vegetables: These are vegetables grown for their leaves or stems. Cabbage, Swiss chard, celery, lettuce and asparagus are some examples of this vegetable type. Flower Vegetables: The ﬂowers of ‘ﬂower vegetables’ are consumed. Cauliﬂower and broccoli are examples of ﬂower vegetables. Vegetables can also be classiﬁed based on temperatures that produce optimum yields. The ability of the vegetable to ﬂower, to set fruit and to produce seeds in diﬀerent climatic region is important to consider. Vegetables can also be classiﬁed into warm season and cool season vegetable crops. Warm season vegetable crops are tropical and sub-tropical region vegetable crops while cool season vegetable crops are vegetable crops of the temperate region.. Figure 1.2 Major vegetable crops in Ethiopia Warm season (tropical and sub-tropical) vegetables Warm season vegetables are adapted to temperatures ranging from 18 to 29oC. These vegetables grow well only in warm areas. They cannot tolerate frosts. They are sometimes called tender plants. Cucumber, eggplant, pepper, snap bean, sweet potato, tomato and water melon are warm season vegetables. Cool season (temperate) vegetables These grow well in relatively cooler regions. Examples of such vegetables include broccoli, celery, cabbage, garlic, kale, onion, pea, radish and spinach. These crops require cool season to ﬂower and to produce seeds. Cool season vegetables are referred to as ‘hardy plants’, as they can tolerate frost without injury. Vegetable Crops Production and Management 11 Agriculture Grade 12 The sizes of cool season (temperate) vegetables are often small. They are shallow rooted. They respond more readily to nitrogen fertilizer than do warm season crops. Table 1.2 classify some vegetables based on temperature requirement Table 1.2.Classiﬁcation of vegetables based on temperature requirement Cool season crops Hardy Asparagus, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, collards, garlic, Kale, Leek, onion, parsley, pea radish, rhubarb, spinach, turnip Semi-hardy Beet root, Carrot, Cauliﬂower, celery, globe artichoke, lettuce, potato Warm season crops Tender Southern pea, snap bean, sweet corn, tomato Very Tender Cucumber, eggplant, lima bean, muskmelon, okra, pepper, Pumpkin, squash, sweet potato, watermelon Vegetables can also be classiﬁed on the basis of their life cycle (phenology) or time they need to complete their life cycle. Annuals: these are vegetable crops that complete their life cycle in a single year. Most vegetables are annuals, including spinach, lettuce and beans. Most vegetable crops are annuals. Biennials: vegetable crops that require two growing seasons to complete their life cycle are called biennials. Examples include carrot, cabbage and beet. In the ﬁrst growing season, biennials produce their vegetative parts, and during the second season, they grow their reproductive parts. Many biennials are sensitive to temperature, particularly for ﬂowering. Perennials: Perennial vegetables grow for more than two growing seasons. These vegetables can stay in production as long as ten years. Such crops include asparagus and artichoke. Activity 1.1. Form a group of 3 to 5 students: visit a nearby vegetable crops market and list the vegetable crops available. classify the vegetable crops into categories based on the edible parts and growth cycles *prepare a summary report and submit it to your teacher. 12 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 1.4 Types of vegetable production systems Vegetable production has evolved from primitive gathering of wild vegetables to more advanced and specialized types of vegetable production systems. There are several types of vegetable production systems. 1.4.1 Gathering of wild vegetables This involves collection of edible parts from wild vegetable crops. Such crops include shola, wild mango tree, leaves of moringa(shiferaw) tree, sama (Urticapilulifera), water berry or ‘Dokma’, ‘Agam’ (Carissa edulis), ‘Kega’ (wild Ethiopian rose) and others. Several weeds are also consumed as vegetables including Amaranthus. 1.4.2 Vegetables grown mixed with cereal crops Ethiopian mustard grows mixed with maize crop. Taro and kale can grow mixed with coﬀee plants. Vegetables are most of the times is grown in places that cannot be used for growing cereals. The amount of vegetables grown in cereal ﬁelds is small. 1.4.3 Home gardening Home gardening is the practice of allocating land close to the homestead for vegetable production. This system supplies much of the vegetable demand of the household. Home gardening can also be a source of income for the household. Various vegetables including fruit, seed, leafy and root vegetables are grown together. Such home gardens are very common in the Ethiopian smallholder farming systems. Household organic wastes can be used to fertilize the plots close to the house. 1.4.4 Commercial vegetable production Commercial vegetable production is mainly market-oriented production that is dependent on market demand. This is common around urban centres. It supplies vegetables for the urban population. Such systems are usually intensively managed with generous use of agricultural inputs. Fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and machinery are examples of such inputs. Commercial vegetable production centres are often located close to urban areas. This makes transporting vegetable crops to the market easy. Vegetable Crops Production and Management 13 Agriculture Grade 12 Activity 1.2. Group work What vegetables(or products) do you and your family consume in a week? Compare your results with your classmates Are all these vegetables grown locally? *Prepare a summary report and present it to the class. 1.5 Principles of vegetable crops management Brainstorming 1.5 Discuss the following questions with your classmate  What are the factors that determine the success of vegetable crops production in your communities?  Which of the factors can we change and which ones can we not? 1.5.1 Site selection and management for vegetable crops Selection and management of site for vegetable production involves taking into account the history of the site and soil properties. This includes land use history, soil pollution issues, availability and quality of water resources, etc. Site selection should also consider possible eﬀects of adjacent crop production. During site selection, the topography of the area should be taken into account. Gentle slopes are suitable for vegetable production. Steepness of the slope accelerates soil erosion. Conservation practices like terraces can also be implemented before using the area for vegetable production. 1.5.2 Sustainability management Ensuring the sustainability of a farm can be assisted by recording reliable information. The following should be accurately recorded:  the level of yield,  crop varieties grown,  quantity and type of fertilizer applied,  quantity and type of pesticides applied,  irrigation applied and other inputs used, 14 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12  soil analysis results,  agricultural techniques used  information about market, sales, market demand, prices, etc. 1.5.3 Planting material When selecting the planting material to be used, factors that should be carefully considered include:  adaptation to local conditions,  resistance to pests and diseases,  whether it meets the consumer demand in terms of product quality The selected crop variety should be planted at suitable time of the season. The quality of tubers, bulbs and tubers is usually checked before use. 1.5.4 Integrated crop management Crop rotation could be practiced in annual vegetable production to improve disease and pest control. Diverse crop rotations are eﬀective in reducing pest/disease development. Over dependence on chemicals for crop pest and disease control should be avoided as much as possible. Planning of crop should consider previous crop protection practices used. Whether crop rotation is working or not could be checked by regularly recording information on:  Whether yield is stable or increasing  Whether pesticide use is decreasing or stable  Stable or increasing organic matter levels  Whether soil nutrient levels are stable Chopping and incorporating of crop residues or organic fertilizer, like compost, could be used to improve the fertility status of the soil. This also improves nutrient and water storage capacities of the soil. During integrated crop management, a balanced nutrient supply for the crop is needed. A balanced supply produces quality vegetable crop with minimal nutrient losses. In planning fertilizer application, it is necessary to consider nutrients coming from organic matter decay. Organic fertilizers and soil analysis show soil nutrient content and soil properties. The use of fertilizer should Vegetable Crops Production and Management 15 Agriculture Grade 12 be limited to the intended crop area. 1.5.5 Water It is important to use water in vegetable production economically. Soil moisture conservation practices should also be implemented to increase availability of water in dry areas. Irrigation with groundwater should be started only after assessment of the groundwater resources. If irrigation is used, the amount and timing should be in accordance with the crop requirement. The quality of irrigation water is very important and should be monitored closely. Besides, fertilizers should be stored in dry and clean location. This avoids water contamination in the vegetable production area. Profitability of Vegetable crop production Marketing is one of the most important factors that determine the success of any crop production including vegetable. Marketing starts with the de- cisions made by producers including choosing the crop types and their varieties to be produced and deciding how the produces are delivered to the consumers with acceptable proﬁts. Marketing does not begin after the crops have been produced, rather before their production. Diﬀerent mar- keting alternatives need to be considered before the production of vegeta- ble crops. Vegetable crops can be grown as sole crop or mixed cropping system.Whatever the cropping system is used, the economics of their production should take care of. In this regard, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and labor to perform diﬀerent ﬁeld operations including cultivation, management, harvesting, postharvest handling, marketing and etc. should be taken in to account during the production of a particular commodity. Pricing of a particular commodity should therefore balance the establishment of the market share of the produce and earning of an acceptable return. In this re- gard, the present chapter will make the students familiar with various steps involved in the calculation of cost of production and marketing of various vegetable crops so as to make the vegetable production successful. 16 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 A vegetable crop profit analysis (Indicative only) Assume a farmer having 1 hectare of land and produced tomato crop. He harvested about 45 quintal or 4500kg in one cropping season. In most of the towns, a kilogram of tomato is sold at 25 birr on av- erage. This sums up a gross income of 112,500 Birr in one cropping sea- son. Estimated one season farm expenses (i.e., the cost of seeds, fertiliz- er, chemical, transportation, labor and other expenses) = 51,300 Birr Net proﬁt per month: 112,500 - 51,300 Birr = 61,200 birr per one cropping season. Vegetable Crops Production and Management 17 Agriculture Grade 12 Unit Summary In this unit, you have learned that:  vegetables are edible portions of plants excluding fruits and seeds., consumed as part of the main course of a meal, often eaten fresh or cooked  vegetable crops can be classiﬁed based on edible parts, temperature requirement or growth cycles  vegetables are rich sources of essential vitamins, minerals and plant proteins  Ethiopia has diverse climates vast land and water resources and a large work force. These make possible the production of various types of vegetable crop.  the high potential for vegetable crop production in the country should be exploited to enhance the national economy as well as improve food and nutritional security  temperature, light, water, humidity, soil and altitude are important environmental factors aﬀecting vegetable production  Vegetable production systems vary from simple gathering of wild vegetables to a more sophisticated commercial production. 18 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Review Exercise Part I. Match items under column A (examples of vegetable crops) with items under column B (types of vegetables) and write the letter of your choice on the space provided A B ________1. Carrot and Cassava A. Flower vegetables ________2. Celery and asparagus B. Immature fruit vegetables ________3. Cauliﬂower and broccoli C. Leafy vegetables ________4. Cucumber and eggplant D. Mature fruit vegetables ________5. Pumpkin and tomato E. Root vegetables Part II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives. 1. One of the following makes vegetables diﬀerent from cereal grains A. Vegetables are mainly consumed fresh B. Vegetables have moisture contents up to 90% when consumed C. Often, the vegetative parts of vegetables are consumed as food D. All are correct answers 2. Vegetables are usually rich sources of A. Vitamins C. Carbohydrates B. Minerals D. A and B 3. Vegetable production by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia is important because they: A. are high value crops and increase household income B. create employment opportunities C. contribute to the national economy D. all are correct 4. The edible part of which of the following vegetables is their ﬂower? A. Broccoli C. Carrot B. Cabbage D. Pepper Vegetable Crops Production and Management 19 Agriculture Grade 12 5. One of the following vegetables is a good source of proteins. Which one is it? A. Sweet potato C. Green beans B. Carrot D. A and B 6. Which one of the following is a warm season vegetable crop? A. Carrot C. Tomato B. Celery D. Cauliﬂower 7. One of the following environmental factors aﬀects vegetable crop production. Which one is it? A. Temperature and Water C. Topography B. Soil D. All Part III. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. What are the diﬀerent types of vegetable crops production systems? Which of the systems is commonly practiced in Ethiopia? 2. List the major principles that should be followed during vegetable production and management? 3. How does altitude of an area aﬀect vegetable crops production? 4. Does integrated crop management aﬀect vegetable production? How? 5. What are the major constraints to vegetable production in Ethiopia? Can you suggest possible solutions to the problems? 20 Vegetable Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Fruit Crops Production and Management Contents Learning Outcomes 2.1.Deﬁnition of some At the end of this unit, you will be able common terms to: 2.2. Importance, problems deﬁne common terms in fruit crops and prospect of fruit crops list the importance, problems and production in Ethiopia prospect of fruit crops production in 2.3 Classiﬁcation of fruit Ethiopia crops classify fruit crops 2.4.Principles and techniques explain the principles and techniques of fruit propagation of fruit propagation describe the importance of planning 2.5. Establishing a nursery to establish fruit crops nursery site and the management of orchards 2.6.Management of Orchards produce and manage some fruit 2.7.Factors inﬂuencing the crops in their school and/or home quality of fruit crops during garden harvest and post-harvest 2.8. Floriculture and Landscaping Fruit Crops Production and Management 21 Agriculture Grade 12 2.1 Key terms in fruit production Fruit crop: is a perennial, edible plant cultivated for its true botanical fruit or products derived there from. Fruit set: refers to the persistence and development of an ovary after ﬂowering. Orchard: a farm land allocated for growing fruit crops Asexual propagation: is a vegetative reproduction or propagation where fertilization is not involved in the production of the crop. Chilling injury: injury from prolonged exposure to low, non-freezing temperatures. Chilling injury aﬀects tropical fruits. The injury results in discoloration, pitting, and ﬂesh breakdown in susceptible species. Chilling requirement: The time of exposure to cool, nonfreezing temperatures during winter. This allows normal bud break and development to take place the following spring. 2.2. Importance, problems and potential of fruit crops production in Ethiopia Brainstorming 2.1 Do the activities below individually.  What are fruit crops?  List some of the importance of fruit crops production in your area.  Mention some problems of producing fruit crops in your surroundings. * Share your answers with the whole class. 2.2.1. Importance of Fruit crop production in Ethiopia Fruits are inexpensive source of energy. They contain nutrients, minerals and vitamins. Their nutritional value is highest when consumed fresh. Fruit crops can be produced for both domestic consumption and selling. This improves the household food security and income. The purpose of large-scale production of fruit crops goes beyond the local consumption. Fruit crops can be exported abroad. When exported, they are a good source of foreign currency for a country. 22 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Fruit production is an important component of agriculture. Fruit production has a vital role to play in the farmers’ livelihood. The activity can contribute to the food and nutritional security of the producing communities. Fruit production is automatically proﬁtable and good for the environment. Fruit production enhances natural resource conservation and maintenance. The activity is also vital in diversifying the national economy. Fruit crops production is the basis for establishing agro processing industries. Agro processing industries markedly reduce unemployment. There is an increasing public awareness about the nutritional and health beneﬁts of fruits in Ethiopia today. This has resulted in an increase in the market demand. Major fruit crops produced in the country include pineapples, passion fruits, bananas, avocados and, mangoes. Similarly, citrus fruits, mandarin, papaya, guava and grapes are among the major fruit crops in the country. 2.2.2. Problems of Fruit crops production in Ethiopia Fruit production is relatively new to Ethiopian agricultural system. The introduction of a commercial fruit production were introduced in the late 1960s and the early 1970s (Godfrey-Sam-Aggery and Bereke Tsehai, 1987). Most indigenous fruits are wild. Most fruits produced in the household gardens and on commercial farms are recent introductions into the country. Their management is also new to producers, merchants and consumers. Fruit production and utilization have many technical, economic and social problems that must be identiﬁed and tackled to make the industry viable and sustainable. This needs the eﬀort of producers, processors, merchants and researchers. Very few small-scale commercial farms produce fruits primarily for local consumption. Some farmers produce fruits for local markets, particularly in the areas most suitable for fruit production. About four decades ago, fruits used to be sold only at hospital gates even in Addis Ababa. Over the last few years, however, some changes have been observed in the production, marketing and consumption of fruits in Ethiopia. This has given rise to an encouraging increase in the number of fruit shops in big cities. Fruit production is very low in the Ethiopian highlands. In such places, Fruit Crops Production and Management 23 Agriculture Grade 12 there is an acute shortage of fruits. Children in places like this collect and consume indigenous fruits such as ‘Agam’, ‘Kega’, ‘Shola’ and ‘Koshim’. Success in modern fruit production depends on knowledge, skill and technical competences of the producers. Technical knowledge in proper production, management and storage is lacking among most small scale producers. This limits productivity of the fruit sector. 2.2.3. Prospects of fruit crop production in Ethiopia In recent years, the nutritional beneﬁts of fruits have been recognized. This has fairly increased the demand for fruit consumption. Ethiopia has diverse agro-ecologies, ample water resources and cheap labor. These can enhance fruit production in the country. Also, Ethiopia is located close to the Middle East and European markets. The government has introduced and implemented attractive policies to enhance the contribution of the fruit production sector to the overall economy. Given all these, the sector has a huge potential to improving the livelihood of fruit-producing communities. If fully exploited with proper production and management systems, the sector has a promising potential to markedly support the national economy. 2.3 Classification of fruit crops Fruits are classiﬁed into groups based on certain criteria. They can be classiﬁed on the basis of structure, temperature requirement, and plant characteristic, ripening response or response to ethylene. 2.3.1 Classification based on structure All fruits may be classiﬁed into three major groups on the basis of the number of ovaries and ﬂowers involved in their formation. Simple fruit, aggregate fruit, and multiple fruit are the classiﬁcations. Simple Fruits Simple fruits develop from a single mature ovary in a single ﬂower. Examples: apple, grape and citrus fruits. Simple fruits can further be classiﬁed into the following: 1. Fleshy Fruits: pericarp ﬂeshy at maturity. Example: grapes, bananas 2. Dry Fruits: pericarp dry at maturity. Example: coconut, peanut 24 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 3. Dehiscent fruits: These are examples of fruits that dehisce or split open when fully mature. Example: silique 4. Indehiscent fruits: Indehiscent fruits do not split open; they do not release seeds at maturity. Example: Pome, sunﬂowers Aggregate Fruits Aggregate fruits consist of a number of mature ovaries formed in a single ﬂower and arranged over the surface of a single receptacle. The individual ovaries are called fruitlets. Example: strawberry Multiple Fruits Multiple fruits consist of the mature ovaries of several ﬂowers fairly united into a mass. Example: Pineapple Figure 2.1.Classiﬁcation of fruits based on their structure (a) simple (apple, middle), (b) aggregate (strawberry, left) or (c) multiple (pineapple, right) 2.3.2 Classification based on temperature requirement Tropical fruits: Tropical fruits are fruits which grow in a year-round summer-like growing season without freezing temperatures. Examples: Banana, pineapple, papaya, mango and guava Sub-tropical fruits: These fruit types cannot tolerate severe winter temperatures; they need some winter chilling. Example: citrus, ﬁgs, and olives. Temperate fruits: require a cold winter season as well as a summer growing season. They can survive temperatures considerably below a Fruit Crops Production and Management 25 Agriculture Grade 12 freezing point. Examples are apples, cherries and peaches. Figure 2.2: Common fruit crops grown in Ethiopia 2.3.3 Classification based on ripening/ response to ethylene Fruits can be divided into two groups: Climacteric fruits and non-climacteric fruits. The classiﬁcation is based on the regulatory mechanisms underlying their ripening process. Climacteric fruit: These fruits are characterized by a ripening-associated increase in respiration and in ethylene production. The ethylene is the major trigger and coordinator of the ripening process. E.g. tomato, apple, pear, and melon. Non-climacteric fruits: are characterized by the lack of ethylene- associated respiratory peak and the signaling pathways that drive the ripening process e.g. grape, orange and pineapple. 2.3.4 Classification based on plant characteristics Tree fruit: These are fruits produced on trees like peach, plum, mango, citrus, avocado, guava, mango, coﬀee, apple, etc. Small fruit: are fruits produced on shrubs like blackberry, raspberry, blueberries, etc. 26 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Activity 2.2. Group work Visit a local fruit shop/market and list the types of fruit available in the shop/market. Classify the fruits using one of the fruit classiﬁcation systems. list what fruits are eaten in your household Individually, ask your parents about fruit consumption in their diets and estimate the amount consumed in the household in one week. discuss the relationship between fruit production and its consumption in the surveyed area. *Report the summary of the group’s ﬁnding and present/share it to the whole class. 2.4. Principles and techniques of fruit propagation Brainstorming 2.3 Discuss in pairs. What techniques do growers in your area use to propagate fruit crops? Discuss the role of indigenous knowledge farmer’s use in propagating fruits. in your local area What are the advantages and disadvantages of the techniques? Crop plants can be propagated by either sexual methods or asexual (vegetative) methods. Both methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. Some crops can be propagated in both methods but others are propagated through only sexual or asexual method. 2.4.1 Sexual plant propagation Sexual plant propagation is developing plant from seed. The method is also called seed propagation. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, the endosperm and the embryo. The outer seed coat protects the seed. The endosperm is a food reserve while the embryo is the young plant itself. Fruit Crops Production and Management 27 Agriculture Grade 12 Figure 2.3. Diﬀerent fruit seeds When a mature seed is exposed to a favorable environment, it germinates and begins its active growth. Pre-sowing treatments are methods applied to overcome seed dormancy. Key term Seed dormancy: A period during which seed is not growing. This ensures rapid, uniform and timely seed germination that facilitates seedling production. Pre-sowing treatments are applied to seeds immediately before sowing. Most methods require from a few minutes to 24 hours. However, some pre-sowing methods require a few to several days. Appropriate pre-sowing treatment methods depend on the dormancy characteristics of the seed being treated. The most common pre-sowing treatment methods to break seed dormancy are: soaking in hot/cold water, ﬁre or heating methods, soaking in chemical or alternate wetting and drying. Advantages of Sexual Plant Propagation It is the easiest and least expensive method of plant propagation Seedling trees are hardier and have longer life span Allows propagation of plants which are diﬃcult to propagate by vegetative method e.g. papaya, phalsa, coconut, etc. 28 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 The rootstocks for budding and grafting are obtained by means of sexual propagation Sexually propagated plants can be more resistant to pests and disease Poly-embryonic varieties (giving rise to more than one seedling from one seed) can be propagated by seed. Disadvantages of Sexual Plant Propagation Seedlings take more time to bear fruits (late bearing) Quality of existing plants cannot be improved by sexual propagation Plants propagated sexually are large. This raises the cost of fertilization, pruning and spraying chemical. There is no guarantee about genetic purity of plant Identiﬁcation of sex in seedling is not possible The main requirement for sexual plant propagation is fresh, viable and quality seeds, seedbed, containers and nursery soil mixture. Containers are poly-bags and pots. Nursery soil mixtures are forest soil, sand, farm yard manure, usually in the ratio of 2:1:1, respectively. Key terms Viable seed: seed that is capable of germinating under suitable condi- tions. Seedbed: an area of land tilled to produce a ﬁne, ﬁrm and level soil surface, into which seeds will be sown. Cross pollination: pollination of a ﬂower with pollen from another plant of the same species. Genetic purity: the degree of contamination of seeds caused by un- desired genetic varieties or crop species. 2.4.2 Asexual Plant Propagation Vegetative parts or fragments of plants such as leaves, stems, and roots are used for plant multiplication (propagation). These plant parts may be taken from a single mother plant or other from multiple plants. Asexually propagated trees are exact copies of their mother plants and bear the same type of fruit. The asexual methods most often are cuttings, air layering, and grafting, budding and micro propagation. The material used Fruit Crops Production and Management 29 Agriculture Grade 12 for asexual propagation is obtained from a plant in the adult phase. The plants created through asexual propagation and bear fruit upon receiving the external signal that induces ﬂower development and will not have a juvenile phase unlike a plant from seed. While saving seeds is a great practice, certain plants and trees are better propagated via cuttings. This is particularly the case with many fruit trees that cannot produce the same quality of fruit as their parent plant. People can get young sapling fruit trees from a nursery. Getting saplings from a nursery can be very costly; propagating from cuttings is inexpensive and easy. People often expect that the apple trees they plant are going to supply a tasty fruit such as what they get from the apple trees in their backyard. In this case, cuttings, but not seeds - provide them with a replication of the apples they get from the parent tree. This implies the need for asexual propagation of the apples by cuttings. Cuttings Plants can be propagated by using cuttings in which apportion of a stem, root, or leaf is cut from the parent plant, placed under certain favorable environmental conditions and induced to form roots and shoots. This produces a new, independent plant which is identical to the parent plant. The stem cutting can be divided into three groups, according to the nature of the wood used: hardwood, semi-hardwood, and softwood cutting. The stem cutting is one of the most important plant propagation types in fruit propagation. Figure 2.3.Cuttings used in the propagation of some fruit crops 30 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 The basic cutting technique is the same. The cuttings should be removed with a very sharp, clean knife from a branch of the tree. They should be at least 15cm long but not longer than 30cm. Leaves should be removed from the bottom half of the cutting. Any fruit or buds should also be taken oﬀ. The cut end of the cutting should then be dipped in a rooting hormone and put in a moist rooting medium. Air layering Key Term Adventitious root is specialized root that develop from a non-root tissue part of the plant, such as stem, branch or leaves, rather than the Air layering is an asexual plant propagation method. In air layering a portion of plant is forced to produce adventitious roots without detaching it from the parent plant. It is usually used in plant species that are particularly diﬃcult to root. For example plants such as camellia, azalea, rhododendron, holly, etc. Air layering the intact stems allow a continuous supply of water, nutrients and plant hormones to the place of root development. Once the adventitious roots are developed, the plant is detached from the parent plant and starts to grow as an independent plant. This method is similar to propagation by cutting except that it is only detached from the parent plant after developing its own root system. When the roots are well formed, the air-layered branches are cut from the tree and either planted direct in the ﬁeld or ﬁrst planted in a container of soil and later set in the ﬁeld. Figure 2.4. Air layering is performed in steps: 1) well developed stool (parent plant) is selected, 2) one shoot is bent to the soil while the others might be harvested, 3) the bending shoot starts to root while the harvested one re- grows and 4) the bending shoot becomes an independent plant Fruit Crops Production and Management 31 Agriculture Grade 12 Grafting Grafting is the joining of parts of plants together in such a way that they unite and continue to grow as a single plant. The part of the plant that becomes the upper portion or top of the new plant (canopy) is called the scion. The part which becomes the lower portion that includes the root system is called the stock or root stock. All methods of joining plants are called grafting. Several grafting methods are used but, cleft or wedge grafting is the most common ﬁeld level practice. Cleft or wedge grafting has a good chance of success. The stock and the scion must be compatible, or they will not unite. Grafting should involve only closely related species or plant families. For example, avocado is primarily propagated commercially by grafting upon seedling rootstocks. Grafting requires experience and practice. The requirements below should be fulﬁlled to improve the performance of grafting method.  Cambial regions of scions and stock must be in intimate contact for successful grafting  Suitable variety should be selected both for stock and scion in terms of being healthy, strong and free from pests  Cut surfaces should be held tightly for proper healing and ﬂow of water and nutrients  After grafting, all cut surfaces must be protected from drying out. This can be done by covering the graft area with wax or tape or some moist material  Proper care must be given to the graft until the stock and scion unite  Shoots from the stock must be removed to stop their competition for resources like nutrients and water with the scion  Shoots from the scion can grow so vigorously that they break the scion oﬀ unless tied  The grafting knife should always be kept razor sharp during grafting operations 32 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Figure 2.5: Wedge or V grafting Key Terms Cambial region: A layer of actively dividing cells situated between the xylem and phloem. Root Stock: The basic root or stem onto which a scion is united to produce grafted fruit trees. Scion: the upper part of one plant joined to the root stock in grafted fruits or trees. Bud: a young shoot on a plant, which may later become a leaf or a ﬂower. 2.5 Establishing a nursery A nursery is a managed site, where plants are cared for during their early growth stages. The purpose of a nursery is to provide young plants with suitable conditions for germination and subsequent growth. The nursery plants stay in the nursery until they are ready and strong enough for planting in the main ﬁeld. Young seedlings of tropical fruits need special care during early growth stages. For example, they need protection from severe heat from the sun. Heavy rain, drought, pests and diseases damage seedlings. The selection of a proper site is as important as the planting system. Planting distance is also a matter to be carefully considered. Successful fruit production involves proper selection of plants and their varieties. Site selection for nursery Proper site for nursery establishment should fulﬁll the following criteria: 1. The topography of the area should be gently slope 2. There should be a continuous and suﬃcient supply of water Fruit Crops Production and Management 33 Agriculture Grade 12 3. The site should not be exposed to strong winds or protected with well-established windbreak 4. It should be well drained and have fertile soil 5. The area should be separated from production ﬁeld but must be located near main ﬁeld 6. There should be an adequate, dependable labor supply. 7. The area to be selected should be free from ﬂooding 8. It should not be close to shade of trees or buildings Seedlings Seedlings could be raised in nursery beds or in polythene bags. Raising seedlings in polythene bags often gives better seedlings. This is because the tap root system is often not disturbed. It also saves labor for weeding and watering. Many problems in fruit production can be avoided by taking good care at the nursery stage of fruit development. Nursery management includes activities like getting the right planting material from the parent plant. Getting the right planting material is followed by planting the seed. Young seedlings emerge not very long after planting the seed. At the seedling stage, many fruit trees might show twisted or poorly developed roots or stems. Such seedlings should be discarded. They have very little chance of becoming good plants or root stocks. Only seedlings with straight stems and roots should be transplanted to the nursery pots or bags. Figure 2.6. Mango seedlings in polythene bags in a nursery 34 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Activity 2.2. Group work In a small group, visit a nearby nursery and ﬁnd out the types of fruit seedlings grown there. the management methods at the site **Report your ﬁndings to the other groups in the class. 2.6. Management of Orchards Orchard is land allocated exclusively for fruit production. Establishment of an orchard requires planning. It takes a long time to establish good orchard. One of the most important considerations is the availability of resources. Site selection is the most important decisions that determine the success of a planting of fruit trees or orchard. Production site aﬀects various aspects of the yield, its quality and marketability. Good fruit production sites provide maximum fruit trees per hectare. Land preparation, preparing holes and planting of the fruits are important practices in orchard establishment and management. Seedlings have to be carefully planted into the prepared holes. This requires care not to break or bend the tap roots. The fertility status of the land is needed to be considered in the use of fertilizers on the site. Planting and planting distance Planting distance (spacing) is mainly determined by the type of fruit crop to be grown. Fruits can grow to big trees like mango or relatively small plants like banana and papaya. In addition to crop species, varieties could also determine fruit growth pattern and the spacing during planting. For example, the canopy of some fruit varieties could be narrow or wide. For fruit trees of wide canopies, a wide spacing is needed. Sexually propagated plants are usually larger than vegetative propagated ones and that aﬀects spacing. Soil quality and amount of rainfall in non-irrigated areas can also determine tree growth and size. Simply by looking at the soil quality and rainfall Fruit Crops Production and Management 35 Agriculture Grade 12 patterns, one can fairly determine the spacing of a given fruit crop. In a good soil with irrigation, a planting hole slightly larger than the container that holds the root-ball can be used. This is normally a 30 by 30 cm or a 50 by 50 cm hole made using shovels or augers. The whole should be 80-100 cm deep. When a hole is dug, the topsoil should be kept on one side and the subsoil on a separate side since they normally diﬀer in quality. The topsoil is a better quality. Before planting, mix the topsoil with organic matter such as mature moist manure or decomposed coﬀee husk. It is important to ﬁll the hole to the 40–50 cm mark of the 80–100 cm depth, then topsoil is added to about 30 cm from the soil surface and compacted by stepping on the materials in the hole. Table2.1 shows the spacing used for some common fruit crops and the corresponding plant population per hectare. Figure 2.7. Apple trees planted at regular spacing Table2.1.The spacing of some fruit crops and plant population per hectare. Fruit crop Permanent spacing (m) Trees per hectare Avocado 9 x 12 93 Guava 6.2 x 7.6 212 Mango 10 x 10 100 Papaya 2.4 x 3.1 1344 Pasion fruit 3.3 x 4.0 1324 Source: (SNV Vegetable, Root, and Tuber Crops Production and Management Mannual, 2019). 36 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 2.6.2. Irrigation Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amount of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and vegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below average rainfall. It is important to consider the quality of irrigation water in terms of salt content the amount of irrigation water and the irrigation time. The fruit producer needs to avoid excessive irrigation as well as irrigation below crop requirements. Both can reduce yields. Irrigation is usually practiced either in the morning or late in the afternoon to reduce loss of water through evaporation. If rainfall is not suﬃcient, supplementary irrigation is usually used. Irrigation Methods Irrigation methods used can be either surface irrigation or pressurized (power driven) systems. The surface irrigation systems can be divided into basin, ﬂooding or furrow irrigation. a. Surface or gravity irrigation: water is applied directly to the surface. E.g. ﬂood irrigation, furrow irrigation. Advantages it is easy to maintain it requires Low cost do not need any modern technology It works eﬀectively in a low ﬁltration rate. Technical skill is not required. Disadvantages Level lands require high accuracy Not applicable on soil with a high ﬁltration rate. Plants are always covered with water even when they do not need it. Fruit Crops Production and Management 37 Agriculture Grade 12 Sometimes limited space gets more water than required. No drainage outlet. Figure 2.8. Furrow irrigation of fruit crops a. Pressurized irrigation methods: In pressurized irrigation systems water is pressurized and precisely applied to the plants under pressure through a system of pipes. Pressurized irrigation systems, as opposed to the surface irrigation systems, are more eﬀective in application of irrigation water to the crops. The pressurized irrigation type can be done through the use of either a sprinkler or through drip irrigation. b. Sprinkler irrigation system: irrigation water is sprayed to the air and allowed to fall to the ground as rain/ mist. Advantages and disadvantages of sprinkle irrigation method Advantages Suitable for soil with high inﬁltration rate Fertigation is possible Practiced in not-levelled ﬁeld surface Disadvantage Costly to install and to maintain Wind drift of water droplets Require continuous power supply Adequate quantity of water. Drip Irrigation System: Water is applied through network of pipelines and allowed to fall drop by drop at crop root zone. Advantages Save water Facilitates easy inﬁltration Maintain moisture at root zone Fertigation is possible 38 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Disadvantages High maintenance cost Not economical for closely spaced crops 2.7 Factors Influencing the Quality of Fruits during Harvest and Post-harvest In harvesting fruit crops, the stage of the harvest, time of the harvest and the harvesting methods should be carefully considered to ensure the overall quality of the product. Stage and time of Harvest Maturity at harvest stage is one of the main factors that determine the compositional quality and storage life of fruit, vegetables and ﬂowers. It is thus important to make sure that the fruit crop is at the right stage of harvest before harvesting the fruit crop. Nearly all fruits reach peak eating quality when they are fully ripened on the tree. However, they are usually picked or harvested when they are nearly ripe. Postharvest handling of fruit crops Postharvest considerations for fruits are: pre-cooling: if the fruit is going to be stored for a relatively long time, it has to be pre-cooled to storage temperature immediately after harvest Sorting and grading: sorting according to size and quality level should be done. packaging and packaging materials: packaging of for market fruits is vital and the packaging materials should reduce moisture loss from the fruits storage: before storage, fruits should be cleaned for soil, dirt or insect waste temperature and relative humidity during storage and transportation: for most fruits, temperatures around freezing point (depending on fruit type) should be used. The relative humidity Fruit Crops Production and Management 39 Agriculture Grade 12 should be >90% to minimize water loss from fruits transportation: fruits should be carefully handled to reduce mechanical injury during transportation. Mechanical injuries enhance disease development. Project 2.1. Using the principles and techniques learned in this chapter establish a nursery for fruit crop, or buy fruit seedlings from fruit nursery, plant, propagate (if necessary) the fruit and manage its growth. Report its progress to your teacher. 2.8. Floriculture and Landscaping Brainstorming 2.3. In small group, Discuss the concept and importance of ﬂoriculture Floriculture Floriculture is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of ﬂowering plants, decorative foliage plants, cacti, orchids, succulents, bonsai, ferns, plants grown in containers as well as landscape gardening. In many of the recent literature, Floriculture is referred as Ornamental Horticulture. Ornamental plants are: √ either plants as such or their plant parts are: - decorative, showy, attractive, and used for both aesthetic and functional purposes. They can be: ﬂowering or non-ﬂowering with decorative nature. Floriculture in Ethiopia Ornamental Horticulture started in Ethiopia recently Now-a-days it is increasing and is one of the top export commodity of the country 40 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Opportunities for expansion of Floriculture in Ethiopia Suitable climate to produce various ﬂower crops Ample resources such as land, cheap labor, abundant water etc. Proximity to Middle East and European markets Increasing domestic market for ﬂowers Government policy and investment incentives Importance of Floriculture in Ethiopia Earns foreign currency Product diversiﬁcation Job opportunity for the people Encourages supportive industries Promote investment Important flower crops grown and exported from Ethiopia Roses Poinsettia Geranium/Pelargonium Chrysanthemum Lilies Carnation Gypsophila Statice Hypericum Freesia Fruit Crops Production and Management 41 Agriculture Grade 12 Unit Summary In this unit, you have learned that: fruits are important group of food crops that are nutritionally beneﬁcial. They also, engage smallholder farmers and have potential to reduce unemployment and increase household income. fruit production has the potential to contribute to food security and national economy. ethiopia has a huge potential for fruit production. There are diverse climate, wide water resources and human labor. a lack of knowledge about improved management methods has severely limited fruit production for long. There is a trend of improving fruit production in terms of the volume of production and land allocation. fruits are classiﬁed into various categories based on the plant structure, temperature requirement, nature of ripening and plant characteristics. fruit crops can be propagated by sexual as well as vegetative methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. nursery and orchard establishment and management are important components of fruit production. Both require careful planning and implementation 42 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Review Exercise Part I: Define the following terms used in this chapter Asexual propagation Fruit Non-climacteric Tree fruit fruits Chilling injury Fruit crops Orchards Chilling requirement Fruit set Simple fruits Climacteric fruits Multiple fruits Small fruits Part II. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives. 1. One of the following conditions increases the potential of fruit crops production in Ethiopia. Which one is it? A. Diverse climate B. Wide range of water resources C. Availability of labor D. All 2. In fruit crops, the edible part of the plant is often the_________. A. Root C. Steam B. Seed D. Fruit 3. From nutritional value perspectives, fruits are important sources of_________. A. Vitamins C. Energy B. Minerals D. All 4. Which one of the following is a non-climacteric fruit? A. Orange C. Tomato B. Apple D. Pear 5. Fruit crops like papaya are only propagated by________. A. Seeds C. Asexual propagation B. Sexual propagation D. A and B 6. One of the following is not a tree fruit crop. Which one is it? A. ango D. Blueberry B. Avocado E. C and D C. Guava 7. One of the following is asexual propagation method. Which one is it? A. Propagation by seed C. Propagation by grafting B. Propagation by cutting D. B and C Fruit Crops Production and Management 43 Agriculture Grade 12 8. Which of the following is important in site selection for nursery establishment? A. The topography should be ﬂat (no steep slope) B. There should be reliable water source C. The soil should be well drained D. All are correct 9. One of the following is not among the importance of fruit crops A. Improve household income B. Source of energy C. Improve household food and nutritional security D. provide nutrient and energy E. None 10. Which of the following is among the problems associated with fruit crop production and management? A. High Initial Orchard Investment B. Long Juvenile Period of Fruit Plants C. Lack of Storage and Transportation Facilities D. Perishable Nature of Fruits E. Low Purchasing Power of the People. F. Lack of High Quality Fruit Plants G. All Part II. Give short answers to the following questions. 1. What important factors should fruit producers consider when establishing nurseries and orchards? 2. What is grafting? What procedures should we follow during grafting? 3. What plant characteristics should we consider when selecting a fruit planting material for scion? For root stock? 4. What important factors do we need to consider during harvesting and post-harvest handling of fruit crops? 44 Fruit Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management Contents Learning Outcomes 3.1. Deﬁnition of terms At the end of this unit, you will be 3.2. Classiﬁcation of root and able to: tuber crops deﬁne common terms used in the 3.3.Importance of root and tuber unit crops classify root and tuber crops explain the importance of root 3.4.Prospects of root and tuber and tubers crops crops production in Ethiopia elaborate factors considered 3.5. Problems of root and tuber during harvesting and post- crops production in Ethiopia harvest handling of root and tuber 3.6.Root and tuber crops crops production managements and protection analyze diﬀerent management 3.7.Harvesting and post-harvest and protection methods used in handling of root and tuber crops the production of root and tuber crops assess the constraints in the production of root and tuber crops production in Ethiopia and suggest solutions to increase productivity describe the production and management practices of root and tuber crops describe some of the root and tuber crops in their school and/or home garden. Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management 45 Agriculture Grade 12 3.1. Definition of common terms Brainstorming 3.1 In a small group a. Describe what do you know about roots and tuber crops? b. Are there root and tuber crops in your area and mention some of them? Root Root is a compact, often enlarged storage organ with hairy stems that develops from root tissue. Tuber Tuber is an enlarged storage organ that develops from elongated stem tissue, or rhizome. So a tuber is a root crop, but a plant can be a root and not a tuber. Root crop Root crop is a crop grown for its enlarged and edible roots. E.g. beet roots, carrot, parsnip, cassava. Figure3.1. Root crops Tuber crops Tuber crops are crops with swollen underground stems and roots. Potatoes, sweet potatoes and yams, are edible tuber crops. Rhizomes and roots are both found underground, rhizomes are stems that grow horizontally. Rhizomes send out stems and roots from their nodes. Many plants have rhizomes as their main stem, including ginger, calatheas, poplar trees, and bamboo. 46 Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 Figure3.2. Tuber crops Roots and Tubers Roots and tubers are plants with edible modiﬁed roots. The modiﬁed roots consist of the tuberous and ﬂeshy roots. A tuberous root is a thickened secondary root as seen in Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and cassava (Manihot esculenta). A ﬂeshy root is usually an enlarged primary root, as in carrot (Daucus carota), and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris). Roots and tubers yield starchy roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms and stems. Roots and tuber crops are important cultivated staple energy sources, second to cereals, generally in tropical regions in the world. They include potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, enset, and some aroids. These belonging to diﬀerent botanical families but are grouped together as all types produce underground food. Root and tuber crops produce large quantities of energy, in comparison with cereals. They play an increasingly important roles in global food and energy security. The major root and tuber crops (potato, sweet potato, cassava, and yam) occupy approximately 53.93 million hectares worldwide and produce 736.747 million tons annually. Among the root and tuber crops, enset (Ensete verticosum), cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), potato (Solanum tuberosum) and yam (Dioscorea spp.) are the most important staple food crops in Africa which cover around 23 million hectares with annual production of more than 240 million tons. The production and productivity of these crops exceed that of cereal crops which is on average 169 million tons on 108 million ha of land Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management 47 Agriculture Grade 12 Activity 3.1. Work in a small groups a. Discuss root and tuber crops and list some examples. b. Explain the diﬀerence between roots and tuber crops. 3.2. Classification of root and tuber crops FAO classiﬁes roots and tuber crops based on their use in to seven primary crops. The major indigenous root and tuber crops ﬁnd in Ethiopia include: enset, anchote, Ethiopian potato, and yams. The exotic species include taro, tania, cassava, potato, and sweet potato. Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) Potato is a seasonal crop grown in temperate zones all over the world including Ethiopia, but primarily in the northern hemisphere. It is currently the fourth most important food crop in the world after maize, wheat, and rice, with a production of 368 million tones. It provides signiﬁcant amounts of carbohydrates, potassium, and vitamin C in the diet, ascorbic acid present in potatoes protect foliates from oxidative breakdown. Figure3.3. Potatoes (Solanum tuberous) Sweet Potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) Sweet potato is a seasonal crop grown in tropical and subtropical regions. The origin of sweet potato is Central America, but at present it is widely grown in many tropical and subtropical countries in diﬀerent ecological regions. Sweet potato can be grown all around the year under suitable climatic conditions; thus it is considered as an “insurance crop” and is typical food security crop. In addition, sweet potatoes are rich in dietary 48 Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management Agriculture Grade 12 ﬁber, minerals and vitamins. Figure3.4. Sweet potato Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Cassava is semi-permanent crop grown in tropical and subtropical regions. It is one of the world’s most important food crops, with annual global production at approximately 276 million metric tons (MT) in 2013. It is most widely produced in Nigeria (accounting for ~19% of the total), Thailand (~11%), Indonesia (~9%), Brazil (~8%) and Democratic Republic of Congo (~6%). Cassava can be converted into a large number of products ranging from traditional and novel food products, livestock feeds to ethanol, starch and numerous other products. Figure3.5. Cassava Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta). Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta) is a starchy root vegetables that is commonly used in South American, African, and Caribbean cuisine. It has a rough, hairy outer skin, with a crisp, white or pink ﬂesh. Once prepared, yautia (Cocoyam)’s earthy ﬂavor can be likened to that of a nut, versus the mild ﬂavor of a potato or yam. Yautia is nutrient-dense, low in fat, Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management 49 Agriculture Grade 12 and contains ﬁber. Yautiaalso provides vitamin C, riboﬂavin, thiamine, and iron. Figure 3.6. Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta). Taro (Colocasia esculenta) Taro, (Colocasia esculenta), also called eddo or dasheen, is an herbaceous plant of the arum family (Araceae) and its edible root like corm. Taro is probably native to southeastern Asia whence it spread to Paciﬁc islands and became a staple crop. It is cultivated for its large, starchy, spherical corms (underground stems), commonly known as “taro root,” which are consumed as a cooked vegetable, made into puddings and breads, and also made into the Polynesian poi, a thin, pasty, highly digestible mass of fresh or fermented taro starch. The large leaves of the taro are commonly stewed. Figure 3.7. Taro (Colocasia esculenta). Yams (Dioscorea sp.) The principal edible yams are widely grown throughout the tropics. Starchy staple foodstuﬀ, normally eaten as a vegetable, boiled, baked or fried. In West Africa they are consumed mainly as “fufu”, stiﬀ glutinous dough. 50 Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management Activity 3.2. Agriculture Grade 12 Group work c. List types of roots and tuber crops found in your local area and classify whether these crops are roots or tubers. d. Discuss the type of root and tuber crops which is the most important in your life. *share your result with whole your classmates 3.3. Importance of root and tuber crops production Brainstorming 3.2 in group or individually, Discuss the importance of roots and tuber crops production Roots and tuber crops play signiﬁcant roles for food and nutritional security of farmers and other parts of communities. They play major role to ﬁll food gaps that might exist until harvest of major crops. Root crops in general, and sweet potato in particular, are drought resistant and serve as security food crops in drought-prone areas of the country. Root and tuber crops enabled farmers to get additional income which helped them to improve their livelihoods. Root and tuber crops generate income for farmers of Ethiopia. They generate income by selling the surplus from their production and earn income from it. They are also used for animal feed and raw materials for various industrial applications. Activity 3.3. Work in small group Assume that you are from area that is well known for the production of diﬀerent root crop and tuber crops. Based on it:- List the type of crops that is widely produced and discuss their importance on a. food security, b. income generation, c. nutritional values, d. animal feed, etc. with their increasing order Root and Tuber Crops Production and Management 51 Agriculture Grade 12 3.4. Prospect of root and tuber crops production in Ethiopia Despite the existences of numerous challenges of agricultural activities, Ethiopia has marvellous opportunity like a commercial farming investment on root and tuber crops. For instances the huge number of the labour force, water resource and proximity to the Middle East and other African countries to sheep products within a short period of time. The country has also a great variety of climate and soil type that can grow diverse horticultural crops for home consumption and foreign markets. Ethiopia is known as the water tower of east Africa. About 0.7% of the country is covered with natural water bodies or lakes and rivers which in turn enhances root and tuber crops production by using the irrigation mechanisms. 3.5. Problems of root and tuber crops production in Ethiopia Even though roots and tuber crops, th

Agriculture Grade 12 Student Textbook PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue