FYBMS Foundation Course II SEM II PDF

F.Y.BMS SEMESTER - II (CBCS) FOUNDATION COURSE-II SUBJECT CODE :  © UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI Prof.(Dr.) D. T. Shirke Offg. Vice-Chancellor, University of Mumbai Prin. Dr. Ajay Bhamare Prof....

F.Y.BMS SEMESTER - II (CBCS) FOUNDATION COURSE-II SUBJECT CODE :  © UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI Prof.(Dr.) D. T. Shirke Offg. Vice-Chancellor, University of Mumbai Prin. Dr. Ajay Bhamare Prof. Prakash Mahanwar Offg. Pro Vice-Chancellor, Director, University of Mumbai IDOL, University of Mumbai Programme Co-ordinator : Prof. Rajashri Pandit Asst. Prof. in Economic, Incharge Head Faculty of Commerce, IDOL, University of Mumbai, Mumbai Course Co-ordinator : Samina Shaikh IDOL, University of Mumbai, Mumbai Editor : Mr. Swapnil N. Mayekar Assistant Professor, Political Science, VPM's Joshi-Bedekar College, Thane. Course Writers :- Prof. Priti Sawale, Prof. Megha Pal Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Philosophy Mithibai College of Arts, Birla College of Arts, Science & A. J. College of Comm. & Economics. Kalyan, Dist. Thane. Vile Parle (W), Mumbai - 400 056. Prof. Krishna Gaikwad, Prof. Manisha Saindhane, Head, Dept. of History Assistant Professor, MVLU College, Dept. of History, Andheri (East), G. N. Khalsa College, Mumbai - 400 069. Matunga, Mumbai - 400 019. Prof. Khevna Desai, Prof. Kavita Gadade, Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor, Mithibai College of Arts, Sathye College, A. J. College of Comm. & Economics Vile Parle (E), Vile Parle (W), Mumbai - 400 056. Mumbai - 400 057. March 2023, Print-I Published by : Director, Institute of Distance and Open Learning, University of Mumbai, Vidyanagari, Mumbai - 400 098. DTP Composed & : Mumbai University Press, Printed by Vidyanagari, Santacruz (E), Mumbai  CONTENTS Sr. No. Tittle Page No. SEMESTER - II Unit - 1 1. Globalization of Indian Society 01 Unit - 2 2. Human Rights 22 Unit - 3 3. Ecology 44 Unit - 4 4. Understanding Stresses and Conflict 60 Unit - 5 5. Managing Stress and Conflict in Contemporary Society 75   I Foundation Course Semester II Unit1 Globalisation and Indian Society: Understanding the concepts of liberalization, privatization and obalization; Growth of information technology and communication and its impact manifested in everyday life; Impact of globalization on industry: changes in employment and increasing migration; Changes in agrarian sector due lo globalization; rise in corporate farming and increase in farmers’ suicides. Unit 2 Human Rights Concept of Human Rights; origin and evolution of the concept; The Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Human Rights constituents with special reference to Fundamental Rights stated in the Constitution; Unit 3 Ecology Concept of Ecology and Environment; Ecosystems- their structure and functions; food chain, food webs and ecological pyramids; Environmental degradation- causes and impact on human life. Sustainable Development- concept and components; Unit 4 Understanding Stress and Conflict: Causes of stress and conflict in individuals and society; Agents of socialization and the rolo played by them in developing the individual; Significance of values, ethics and prejudices in developing the individual; Stereotyping and prejudice as significant factors in causing conflicts in society. Aggression and violence as the public expression of conflict; Unit 5 Managing Stress and Conflict in Contemporary Society: Types of conflicts and use of coping mechanisms for managing individual stress; Maslow’s theory of self-actualisation; Different methods of responding to conflicts in society; Conflict-resolution and efforts towards building peace and harmony in society.      II Reference Books  Social and Economic Problems in India, Naseem Azad, R Gupta Pub ( 2011)  Indian Society and Culture, Vinita Padey, Rawat Pub (2016)  Social Problems in India, Ram Ahuja, Rawat Pub (2014)  Faces of Feminine in Ancient , medivial and Modern India, Mandakranta Bose Oxford University Press  National Humana rights commission- disability Manual  Rural, Urban Migration : Trends, challenges & Strategies, S Rajagopalan, ICFAI- 2012  Regional Inequilities in India Bhat L SSSRD- New Delhi  Urbanisation in India: Challenges, Opportunities & the way forward, I J Ahluwalia, Ravi Kanbur, P K Mohanty, SAGE Pub ( 2014)  The Constitution of India, P M Bakshi 2011  The Problems of Linguistic States in India, Krishna Kodesia Sterling Pub  Politics in India: structure, Process and Policy SubrataMitra, Rouutlege Pub  Politics in India, Rajani Kothari, Orient Blackswan  Problems of Communilism in india, Ravindra Kumar Mittal Pub  Combating communalism in India: Key to National Integration, KawalKishor Bhardwaj, Mittal Pub             III Foundation Course Semester - II Maximum Marks : 75 Duration : 2½ Hours Question to be Set : 05 All Questions are Compulsory carrying 15 Marks each. Q.No. Particulars Marks Q.1 Objective Questions* 15 A) Sub questions to be asked 10 and to be answered any 08 B) Sub questions to be asked 10 and to be answered any 07 (* Multiple Choice / True or False / Match the Columns / Fill in the blanks) Q.2 Full Length Question 15 OR Full Length Question 15 Q.3 Full Length Question 15 OR Full Length Question 15 Q.4 Full Length Question 15 OR Full Length Question 15 Q.5 Full Length Question 15 OR Short Notes 15 To be asked 05, to be answered 03 Note : Full length question of 15 marks may be divided into two sub questions of 8 and 7 marks.   1 SEMESTER II Unit -1 GLOBALIZATION AND INDIAN SOCIETY Unit structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Concept of Liberalization 1.2 Concept of Privatization 1.3 Concept of Globalization 1.4 Growth of Information Technology and Communication 1.5 Impact of IT and Communication 1.6 Impact of Globalization on Industry 1.7 Effect of Globalization on Employment 1.8 Causes and Impact of Migration 1.9 Effect of Globalization on Agriculture 1.10 Growth of Corporate Farming 1.11 Summary 1.12 Exercise 1.0 OBJECTIVES 1. To understand the concepts of liberalization, privatization and globalization 2. To study the growth of information technology and communication and it’s impact manifested in everyday life. 3. To examine impact of globalization on industry; changes in employment and increasing migration. 4. To bring out the changes in the agrarian sector due to globalization; rise in corporate farming and increase in farmer’s suicides.  2 1.1 CONCEPT OF LIBERALIZATION Globalization and privatization have become the buzzwords in the current economic scenario. The concepts liberalization, globalization and privatization are actually closely related to one another. This LPG phenomenon was first initiated in the Indian Economy in 1990 when the Indian Economy experienced a severe crisis. There was decline in the country’s export earnings, national income and industrial output. The government had to seek aid from IMF to resolve it’s debt problem. That is when the government decided to introduce the New Industrial Policy (NIP) in 1991 to start liberalizing the Indian economy. Liberalization means elimination of state control over economic activities. It implies greater autonomy to the business enterprises in decision-making and removal of government interference. It was believed that the market forces of demand and supply would automatically operate to bring about greater efficiency and the economy would recover. This was to be done internally by introducing reforms in the real and financial sectors of the economy and externally by relaxing state control on foreign investments and trade. With the NIP’ 1991 the Indian Government aimed at integrating the country’s economy with the world economy, improving the efficiency and productivity of the public sector. For attaining this objective, existing government regulations and restrictions on industry were removed. The major aspects of liberalization in India were ; 1. Abolition of licensing:NIP’1991 abolished licensing for most industries except 6 industries of strategic significance. They include alcohol, cigarettes, industrial explosives, defense products, drugs and pharmaceuticals, hazardous chemicals and certain others reserved for the public sector. This would encourage setting up of new industries and shift focus to productive activities. 2. Liberalization of Foreign Investment: While earlier prior approval was required by foreign companies, now automatic approvals were given for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to flow into the country. A list of high-priority and investment-intensive industries were delicensed and could invite up to 100% FDI including sectors such as hotel and tourism, infrastructure, software development.etc. Use of foreign brand name or trade mark was permitted for sale ofgoods. 3. Relaxation of Locational Restrictions : There was no requirement anymore for obtaining approval from the Central  3 Government for setting up industries anywhere in the country except those specified under compulsory licensing or in cities with population exceeding1 million. Polluting industries were required to be located 25 kms away from the city peripheries if the city population was greater than 1million. 4. Liberalization of Foreign Technology imports : In projects where imported capital goods are required, automatic license would be given for foreign technology imports up to 2 million US dollars. No permissions would be required for hiring foreign technicians and foreign testing of indigenously developed technologies. 5. Phased Manufacturing Programmes :Under PMP any enterprise had to progressively substitute imported inputs, components with domestically produced inputs under local content policy. However NIP’1991 abolished PMP for all industrial enterprises. Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) was set up to speed up approval for foreign investment proposals. 6. Public Sector Reforms : Greater autonomy was given to the PSUs (Public Sector Units) through the MOUs ( Memorandum of Understanding) restricting interference of the government officials and allowing their managements greater freedom indecision- making. 7. MRTP Act : The Industrial Policy 1991 restructured the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practice Act. Regulations relating to concentration of economic power, pre-entry restrictions for setting up new enterprises, expansion of existing businesses, mergers and acquisitions. etc. have been abolished. 1.2 CONCEPT OF PRIVATIZATION Privatization is closely associated with the phenomena of globalization and liberalization. Privatization is the transfer of control of ownership of economic resources from the public sector to the private sector. It means a decline in the role of the public sector as there is a shift in the property rights from the state to private ownership. The public sector had been experiencing various problems , since planning, such as low efficiency and profitability, mounting losses, excessive political interference, lack of autonomy, labour problems and delays in completion of projects. Hence to remedy this situation with Introduction of NIP’1991 privatization was also initiated into the Indian economy. Another term for privatization is Disinvestment. The objectives of disinvestment were to raise resources through sale of PSUs to be directed towards social welfare expenditures, raising efficiency of PSUs through increased  4 competition, increasing consumer satisfaction with better quality goods and services, upgrading technology and most importantly removing political interference. The main aspects of privatization in India are as follows; 1. Autonomy to Public Sector : Greater autonomy was granted to nine PSUs referred to as ‘navaratnas’ ( ONGC, HPCL, BPCL, VSNL, BHEL) to take their own decisions. 2. Dereservation of Public Sector : The number of industries reserved for the public sector were reduced in a phased manner from 17 to 8 and then to only 3 including Railways, Atomic energy, Specified minerals. This has opened more areas of investment for the private sector and increased competition for the public sector forcing greater accountability and efficiency. 3. Disinvestment Policies : Till 1999-2000 disinvestment was done basically through sale of minority shares but since then the government has undertaken strategic sale of it’s equity to the private sector handing over complete management control such as in the case of VSNL , BALCO.etc. 1.3 CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION Globalization essentially means integration of the national economy with the world economy. It implies a free flow of information, ideas, technology, goods and services, capital and even people across different countries and societies. It increases connectivity between different markets in the form of trade, investments and cultural exchanges. The concept of globalization has been explained by the IMF (International Monetary Fund) as ‘the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing volume and variety of cross border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology.’ The phenomenon of globalization caught momentum in India in 1990s with reforms in all the sectors of the economy. The main elements of globalization were; 1. To open the domestic markets for inflow of foreign goods, India reduced customs duties on imports. The general customs duty on most goods was reduced to only 10% and import licensing has been almost abolished. Tariff barriers have also been slashed significantly to encourage trade volume to rise in keeping with the  5 World trade Organization (WTO) order under (GATT )General Agreement on Tariff and Trade. 2. The amount of foreign capital in a country is a good indicator of globalization and growth. The FDI policy of the GOI encouraged the inflow of fresh foreign capital by allowing 100 % foreign equity in certain projects under the automatic route. NRIs and OCBs (Overseas Corporate Bodies)may invest up to 100 % capital with reparability in high priority industries. MNCs and TNCs were encouraged to establish themselves in Indian markets and were given a level playing field to compete with Indian enterprises. 3. Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) was liberalized in 1993 and later Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) 1999 was passed to enable foreign currency transactions. 4. India signed many agreements with the WTO affirming it’s commitment to liberalize trade such as TRIPs (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights), TRIMs (Trade Related Investment Measures) and AOA (Agreement On Agriculture). 1.3.1 Impact of Globalization: Advantages of Globalization:  There is a decline in the number of people living below the poverty line in developing countries due to increased investments, trade and rising employment opportunities.  There is an improvement in various economic indicators of the LDCs (Less Developed Countries) such as employment, life expectancy, literacy rates, per capita consumption etc.  Free flow of capital and technology enables developing countries to speed up the process of industrialization and lay the path for faster economic progress.  Products of superior quality are available in the market due to increased competition, efficiency and productivity of the businesses and this leads to increased consumer satisfaction.  Free flow of finance enable the banking and financial institutions in a country to fulfill financial requirements through internet and electronic transfers easily and help businesses to flourish.  MNCs bring with them foreign capital, technology, know-how, machines, technical and managerial skills which can be used for the development of the host nation.  6 Disadvantages of Globalisation:  Domestic companies are unable to withstand competition from efficient MNCs which have flooded Indian markets since their liberalized entry. It may lead to shut down of operations, pink slips and downsizing. Moreover skilled and efficient labour get absorbed by these MNCs that offer higher pay and incentives leaving unskilled labour for employment in the domestic industries. Thus there may be unemployment and underemployment.  Payment of dividends, royalties and repatriation has in fact led to a rise in the outflow of foreign capital.  With increased dependence on foreign technology, development of indigenous technology has taken a backseat and domestic R and D development has suffered.  Globalization poses certain risks for any country in the form of business cycles, fluctuations in international prices, specialization in few exportable and soon.  It increases the disparities in the incomes of the rich and poor, developed nations and LDCs. It leads commercial imperialism as the richer nations tend to exploit the resources of the poornations.  Globalization leads to fusion of cultures and inter-mingling of societies to such an extent that there may be a loss of identities and traditional values. It gives rise to mindless aping of western lifestyles and mannerisms however ill-suited they maybe.  It leads to overcrowding of cities and puts pressure on the amenities and facilities available in urban areas. Check your progress :- 1. Explain the concept of Liberalization. 2. Briefly explain the meaning of privatization. 3. What is globalization? Bring out the advantages and disadvantages of globalization. 1.4 GROWTH OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION One of the factors that triggered globalization was the IT Revolution and since reforms there has been no turning back. Use of Information technology has taken over manufacturing and services sectors all over the world. It has provided employment to  7 millions of people in tertiary sector. Outsourcing and BPOs have been responsible for a rapid rise in the annual domestic product of the country. In 2011 annual revenues from the BPO sector is estimated to have aggregated revenues of over 88 billion U.S.Dollars. Bengaluru, also known as India’s Silicon Valley, continues to be home to several of India’s flourishing IT Companies including Infosys and Wipro. The top seven cities that account for almost 90 % of the exports in the IT sector are Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Pune, Delhi and Kolkata. Because of these companies India is fast gaining recognition as a knowledge economy. This sector is responsible for generating direct employment to the tune of 2.3 million in 2009-10 and is estimated to reach nearly 2.5 million by the end of the year2010-19. The communication sector or the Telecom industry is growing at a dizzying pace. Use of internet , Global Positioning System, telephones, mobile phone, fax, and video conferencing has brought all the countries closer and turned the world into a ‘global village’. India had the fourth largest number of internet users of around 100 million in 2010. There were as many as 826.93 million total wireless subscribers in the country by the end of April 2019. It is projected that wireless communication will continue to fuel growth in the telecom sector increasing the subscription base to 9.159 billion by2013. Among leading mobile operators in India are Bharti Telecom, followed by Reliance, Vodafone, idea and then the state-owned BSNL. 1.5 IMPACT OF IT AND COMMUNICATION Positive impact:  The IT sector has truly achieved global integration through increased connectivity. It has cut across linguistic and geographical barriers making it possible for persons in distant nations to easily communicate with one another.  It has enabled inter-mingling of cultures, exchange of opinions and ideas thereby creating strong bonds and reducing prejudices.  Use of wireless phones and internet has made communication speedier, environment-friendly as it is paper-free and cheaper. Video conferencing makes it possible for people however far apart  8 to engage in a direct interaction. This has enabled people to work from home, meetings to take place among many individuals even if they are in different parts of the world,etc.  E-mails can be checked on phone; financial transactions can be carried out over phone; social networking sites are linked to phone to keep oneself updated with the events in the lives of our friends and relatives; all this has made communication devices an indispensable part of ourlives.  The benefits of Information Technology and communication facilities have split into various areas of business, health care, defense, environment an and so on. The quick access to information has removed time lags in decision-making, increased productivity and cut costs effectively. It has made work less strenuous and salaries more lucrative.  Technology has made it possible to buy and sell anytime from any place and have the goods delivered at one’s doorstep. Electronically markets can operate day and night because of theinternet.  A lot of new jobs have been created especially in the IT sector. For ex. Software programmers, Hardware developers, Systems analysts, Web designers and soon.  Remote Sensing Satellites are used for various purposes such as land use mapping, drought and flood mapping, forest cover mapping etc. to study the impact of industrial activities, mining on environment. Negative Impact:  Increased computerization has led to over manning and with efforts at cost cutting to streamline business processes a lot of jobs have been made redundant. This has aggravated the unemployment problem.  Mobile phone have made people accessible at all times encroaching into their personal time with friends and family.  Technology is dynamic and keeps changing on a daily basis which makes it impertinent for professionals in this field to upgrade their skills and knowledge regularly. Otherwise they face the risk of losing their jobs. Hence there is no job security.  There are new forms of offences such as cyber crime and hacking which threaten to compromise the privacy of individuals.  Exposures to western influences have led to certain cultures being imbibed and their lifestyles, language, dress and behavior being imitated. However, while some changes may be positive , this also brought in consumerism and reckless spending habits which are corroding the traditional value systems.  9 1.6 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDUSTRY The positive effects of globalization on industry can only be traced since the New Industrial Policy’1999. Positive Effects  Deli censing, removal of government restrictions on industries and liberalization of foreign investments have reduced the time and money spent in formal procedures for obtaining approvals from the government. This has shifted the focus of enterprises to the actual business of production thus lowering project costs.  Exports have increased so also has the volume of trade.  Policies in areas of foreign investments have attracted inflow of foreign capital especially in sectors like electrical equipments, services and telecommunication.  Indian industries and financial institutions have undertaken investments abroad. Several Indian companies have entered into joint ventures with foreign companies. They are becoming internationally competitive.  India is increasing it’s export orientation through setting up of SEZs (Special Economic Zones) and they are making their international presence felt through mergers and acquisitions.  Industrial labour has become more efficient and skilled due to increased competition and inflow of foreign knowledge. There is a rise in industrial productivity which is reflected in higher industrial wages. Instances of industrial sickness have gone down.  The goods produced by Indian industries in this competitive scenario, sold at competitive prices give higher levels of satisfaction to the Indian consumers as they are of superior quality.  The small scale sector is growing more robust with preferential loans, microfinance and other forms of credit being made available. Some SSEs have grown into medium scale operations. Negative Effects:  Certain sectors that were already well established when opened to foreign investment led to exploitation of their resources by dominating MNCs and stifle their own R and Defforts.  Use of foreign technology may not be adaptable to Indian conditions. Sometimes MNCs deliberately use less sophisticated technology in their subsidiaries.   10  There’s excessive competition in the market that puts too much pressure on domestic companies to raise productivity, improve product quality etc.  Rising urban industrial wages are much higher than rural wages, which leads to disparity in incomes.  There’s uncontrolled growth of consumerism and the problem of plenty as a consumer has lot of choice. Businesses are solely motivated by private profits. Globalization has in fact raised capital intensity in production and this has affected employment adversely as labour has been replaced by machine.  Globalization has exposed domestic firms to risks such as fluctuations in prices, instability of profits and uncertainties of demand and supply. 1.7 EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON EMPLOYMENT The effects of globalization on employment can be analysed based on the NSSO ( National Sample Survey organization) data. The employment (Current daily status) growth accelerated between1999-2000 and 2004-05 as compared to the previous period of 1993-94 to 1999-2000. During 1999-2000 to 2004-05, about 47 million work opportunities were created and as compared to 24 million during the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000. Employment growth accelerated from 9.25 per cent per annum during 1993-94 to 1999-2000 to 2.62 per cent per annum during 1999-2000 to 2004-05. However, a higher labour force growth of 2.84 per cent per annum during 1999-2000 to 2004-05, which exceeded the growth in workforce of 2.62 per cent per annum, resulted in an increaseinunemploymentratefrom7.3percentin1999-2000to 8.3 per cent in 2004-05. In recent years, the quality of employment created has also been a matter of concern as the organized sector employment has been declining. Moreover the share of regular workforce in total employment was low. This decline is attributed primarily to a decline in employment in PSUs. During 1999-2000 to 2004-05, most of the growth of 4.7 per cent per annum in industrial and tertiary employment, was in the unorganized sector. There has been a clear shift in workforce from organized sectors to the casual and informal sectors as liberalization has caused informalization of labour. At present, the main challenges for the policymakers are to target a rapid growth of employment creation and also improve the quality of employment generated by strengthening the organized sector.  11 Negative Impact:  The organized sectors have become profit-driven and there is a lot of emphasis on cost-cutting and have therefore gone in for downsizing policy. Labour in unorganized sector is not protected, so they have no job security, provident fund, medical facilities or paid leave and suffer due to low wages. Globalization has caused a shift of labour from the organized to the unorganized sector.  Even large firms like Bajaj Auto and Tata Steel have succumbed to pressure and have chosen automation and computerization of processes over securing jobs of their employees. Excess labour has been retrenched by offering VRS (Voluntary Retirement Scheme) and CRS (Compulsory Retirement Scheme). According to a report of National Commission on Labour (2002) indirect compulsion, pressure tactics have been used to compel employees to resign underVRS  With disinvestment of some public sector units, employment in these sectors has reduced. The most affected sectors are manufacturing, construction, electricity, gas and watersupply.  The level of employment in the small scale sector has remained stagnant and discouraging. FDI inflow in several sectors has wiped out the business of many small and medium size enterprises forcing them into closure.  MNCs have exported jobs from developed countries to developing countries through foreign investments. Moreover they offer higher pay than what is offered by employers of local enterprises adding to the inequalities in income.  Through trade liberalization the government has actually encouraged substitution of domestic goods by imports which has reduced the market size for goods manufactured by domestic labour bringing down their wages and putting their jobs indanger.  Trade unions have become weaker in negotiating better pay and security for workers as only efficient labour is absorbed by the profit- driven enterprises. To save workers from losing jobs, they were compelled to accept cuts in salaries, freezing of dearness allowance and other benefits and eventually reduction in labour force. Positive Impact:  The employment in the services sector has increased from 20% in 1991 to over 30% in 2010. The reason behind this is creation of new jobs in the IT and communication sectors. Jobs in Call Centres, BPOs, and medical transcription as well as other service sectors such as banking, insurance, airlines have buoyed employment. Foreign companies from different sectors like  12 banking, and finance have come to India to outsource their work creating jobs in accounting, mortgage collections, marketing etc.  Other sectors where job opportunities have multiplied are Biotechnology; health care especially with chains of private hospitals being set up; medical research centres; food retailing with shopping malls cropping up at every nook and corner of the cities and towns.  In the field of education, there is a demand for trained professionals as international schools and colleges are poised to enter India on a wider scale.  MNCs generate employment for the skilled workforce especially in urban areas. It motivates labour to pick up various skills through training.  There is an increase in contractual and casual employment due to globalization since employers can’t afford to have a large workforce on a regular basis. Female participation in workforce has actually improved. Especially in the casual, informal sectors affording low wage or flexible employment and export oriented low technology high labour industries such as garments, electronics.etc., there has been an increase in women’s employment. Check your progress :- 1. Bring out the positive and negative impact of globalization on IT sector. 2. Briefly explain the impact of globalization on industries. 3. How has globalization affected employment? 1.8 CONCEPT AND IMPACT OF MIGRATION Globalization has definitely shown an increased trend of migration especially from the developing to the developed countries of the world. Migration is basically a movement of people from one place to another and to destination. It can be local, regional; where people move within the borders of a nation or even international which involves crossing the borders. Generally migration occurs in order to access better opportunities in work, education, or to achieve a better standard of living. With the relaxation of restrictions on trade and capital movements, movement of labour was also liberalized and explains the increase in migration. However in recent years due to increased FDI inflow and job creation by subsidiaries of established MNCs, there has been a check on migration levels from developing  13 countries. These nations are characterized by surplus pauper labour, which if not absorbed in the domestic job markets, are willing to migrate to the developed nations , having labour shortages. Such countries ready to receive immigrant labour are called host nations or receiving nations and countries from which emigrant labour move out are called sending nations or countries of origin. For eg. when an Indian student goes to Australia for higher studies or to find a job, he is an immigrant in Australia but for India he is an emigrant. The causative factors of migration could be economic, social, environmental, or political. Instances of rural to urban migration or international migration are generally out of economic motivations such as to find better job prospects, avail of better civic amenities or raise one’s standard of living. Social factors comprise of marriage, moving closer to one’s relative’s.etc. If a place is prone to environmental hazards or calamities such as earthquakes or floods, it may encourage people to migrate to safer locales. Political instability of any kind like rioting, acts of terrorism may create panic and fear for one’s life forcing people to move. These days people also travel afar to seek better or cheaper medical treatment. In recent times, a lot of nations like US and UK have taken a narrow stance by introducing several measures to control in- migration. They have imposed restrictions on holding of visas and citizenship by the immigrants. Impact of migration on host nations:  Immigrants may find it difficult to adapt to the environmental and social conditions of the host nation. Very often they experience homesickness as the food, culture, language, mannerisms , weather conditions may all differ. Adapting to so many differences creates stress and other psychological problems such as loneliness and withdrawal.  Sometimes immigrants face discrimination especially if they belong to a different race. They are perceived with prejudice and not treated as equals by the natives, which makes them feel like outsiders ad insecure.  It has been observed of a large proportion of emigrants from developing countries that they end up performing menial tasks and lowly jobs, which draws much lower income than the natives in developed countries.  Women participation in emigrant labour force has also increased especially because women are willing to take up low paid jobs abroad such as maids, domestic workers , cleaning women, nannies etc.  14  Migration leads to fusion of cultures. The natives may find these influences threatening to their identity and resist mingling freely with the immigrant population. The immigrants tend to stick together in an expression of solidarity and form ghettos.  Immigrant labour contributes to the growth of the host nation to which they provide their services. This is because they earn, spend, save and invest in the host nation, which adds to the economic activities there. The fact remains that the host nations get gains out of the immigrant labour without having contributed towards the development of these human resources.  Increase in the population of host nation puts pressure on the infrastructure and facilities available. It leads to congestion and a rise in various social problems. Impact of migration on countries of Origin :  Most of the immigrant labour are persons of specialized knowledge like doctors, engineers, research scholars and lately from the field of IT. These individuals are educated and well trained, in whom the sending nations have invested but their out-migration, which is labeled ‘brain drain’ , benefits the host nations.  The countries of origin experience some gains as the remittances of emigrant labour adds to their gross national product and adding to their foreign exchange reserves.  Remittances send back to families in the sending nation raises the standard of living and improves the lifestyle. It increases the choice of goods that can be purchased but also leads to consumerism.  Continuous inflow of large amounts of remittances creates a sense of dependency in the sending nation. It reduces reliability on domestic resources or goods and makes the country less than self sufficient. In the event of severed ties between the host and sending nation, a fall in trade and migration could affect the economy of the sending nation adversely.  Emigrants abroad tend to form organisations and associations which rush aid to their native lands during calamities and disasters. They may also fund projects and thus increase the pace of investment for growth.  15 Check your progress :- 1. Explain the concept of migration. 2. Elaborate the impact of migration on host countries as well as the countries of origin. 1.9 EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON AGRICULTURE 1.9.1 India and AoA: The study of effects of globalization would be incomplete without considering it’s impact on the most important sector of the economy. The agricultural sector is known to be the backbone of the Indian economy with an employment of 70 % of the population in various agricultural, horticultural and allied activities. It’s contribution to the Gross Domestic Product however has been declining steadily over the past decades due to low productivity. Currently it contributes 18 % to the GDP and 10 % to the export earnings of India. With a view to move towards liberalizing the agricultural sector and promoting free and fair trade, India, a member nation of the World Trade organization (WTO) signed the UruguayRoundAgreementson1stJanuary1995.TheAgreement on Agriculture of the WTO, was the first multilateral agreement, meant to curb unfair practices in agricultural trade and set off the process of reforms in the agricultural sector. It contained the following broad areas : 1. Tariff Reduction : Previously trade in agriculture was restricted by quotas, import and export licensing and other non-tariff barriers. The AoA required that all non-tariff barriers be replaced by a single tariff rate called the bound tariff rate and that existing tariffs be reduced in a phased manner over a stipulated period of time. Developing countries including India were expected to reduce bound tariffs by 24 % , minimum of 10 % for each commodity over a period of 10years. 2. Market Access : To avoid the adverse effect of tariffs on certain special products, importing countries have given a current access commitment by establishing a tariff quota, up to which imports are allowed at a lower rate and above which higher tariffs arecharged.  16 Under minimum access commitment countries had to import a minimum quantity of their most restricted products. i.e. In case of products with marginally low or no imports, countries had to impose tariff quota imports equal to 3 % of domestic consumption, which would increase to 5 % by2000. 3. Export Subsidies : They are special incentives given to the exporters to encourage sales of exports abroad, allowing them to charge competitive or lower price in the world market. However this crated distortions in international trade and hence AoA prohibits export subsidies. Member nations were expected to reduce them. While developed countries were supposed to cut the value of export subsidies by 36 % over 6 years, developing countries were to reduce them by 24 % over 10 years. LDCs were exempted. 4. Domestic Support Subsidies : Domestic support through subsidies and other measures were meant to push imports out of the market and also enable domestic exporters to compete in the world market. WTO measured this support as ‘(AMS) Aggregate Measurement of Support’. Domestic support is categorized in the form of red box, amber box, green box and blue box subsidies. Red box subsidies are banned whereas amber box subsidies are not banned but actionable. These subsidies were believed to be the most distortive in international trade having adverse effects on trade interests of others. Green box subsidies in the form of assistance to research activities, disadvantaged regions or non- discriminating subsidies and Blue box subsidies in the form of direct payments to farmers required to limit their production were permitted and non-actionable. The Blue box subsidies were not allowed to be not more than 5 % for developed countries and 10 % for developing countries. 1.9.2 Impact of Globalization on Agriculture and current trends:  India is the second largest producer of food in the world. However Indian agriculture has shown a slow average annual growth rate. It was 3.1 % during the decade 1980-1990 prior to liberalization of the economy. But since then the annual growth rates have declined consistently relative to annual growth rate of the population. Several factors were responsible for this fall in growth rate; lack of credit, inadequate irrigation cover, and indebtedness, continuing use of obsolete technology, improper use of inputs and decline in the public investments.  The decline in overall growth of employment during 1993-94 to 2004-05 was largely due to fall in creation of employment opportunities in agriculture. With increase in knowledge and entry of many foreign firms in the non-agricultural sectors, the labour has  17 shifted to manufacturing and services sectors. The National Sample Survey Organization’s (NSSO) report on Employment and Unemployment Situation in India 2009-10, on the basis of usually workingpersons in the principal status and subsidiary status, for every 1000 people employed in rural and urban India, 679 and 75 people are employed in the agriculture sector, 241 and 683 in services sector and 80 and 242 in the industrial sector, respectively.  With globalization farmers were encouraged to shift from traditional crops to export- oriented ‘cash crops’ such as cotton and tobacco but such crops needed far more inputs in terms of fertilizers, pesticides and water. The growth in yields of principal crops notably rice and wheat have also decelerated.  There has been a decline in overall area under food grains during 2011-12. The area coverage under food grains during 2011- 12 stood at 1254.92 laky ha compared to 1267.65 at last year. The lower area under food grains has been due to a shortfall in the area under jowar in Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat; Bajra in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana; and in pulses in Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan.  Appropriate use of agricultural equipments, suited to the crops and the region of cultivation, lead to efficient utilization of farm inputs, making farming financially viable and profitable. Though there has been considerable progress in farm mechanization, its spread across the country still remains uneven. The most significant supply side constraint to agricultural production is irrigation coverage that still extends to only about 40 per cent of net sown area. There has been a slow down in the growth rate of direct demand for food grain consumption on account of several factors and there is a need to address these challenges of the agriculture sector through coordinated efforts directed at improving farm production and productivity through high value crops, developing rural infrastructure, renewing thrust on their irrigation sector, strengthening marketing infra structure, and supporting investment in R&D with due emphasis on environmental concerns. 1.9.3 Agrarian Crisis: The Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of liberalizing the Indian Economy was undertaken in 1991 as per the directives of International Monetary Fund and World Trade Organization. Major reforms were introduced in the real and financial sectors of the economy with a view to increase its efficiency and profitability. Trade was also liberalized ; the import and customs duties of many  18 products were drastically reduced or abolished completely. Removal of all restrictions on imports lead to a steep fall in their domestic prices rendering them unprofitable for production. The government started disinvesting in agriculture and the industrial sector allowing the private sector to take over. The government reduced different types of subsidies to agriculture which increased the production cost of cultivation. This lead to the agrarian crisis as it had an adverse impact on the agricultural sector.  Several million hectares of food-growing land were converted to exportable crops leading to fall in food grains output. India being self- sufficient started exporting wheat and rice. But the rate of growth of the GDP in agriculture and allied sectors was just one per cent per annum during the year 2002-05. As a result, per capita availability of food grains decreased; the growth rate of population became higher than that of food grains. Moreover trade liberalization with a thrust on exports has been in conducive to Indian markets causing a steep fall in prices of farm goods. As prices fell for Indian producers of export crops, their access to low- cost credit was also reduced under financial sector reforms.  Lending facilities and concessions of banks were removed during the post-reform period and this accelerated the crisis in agriculture. Farmers were unable to pay back loans with high interest and also resorted to borrowing from unorganized elements such as moneylenders, thus falling into the debt trap. Farmers did not benefit even with contract farming and their exposure to steeply falling global food prices plunged them into spiraling farm debt pushing them to commit suicide.  The restructuring of the public distribution system, through the creation of two groups - Below Poverty Line (BPL) and Above Poverty Line (APL), continuously increased their prices through ration shops, affecting the availability of food grains to the poor at subsidized rates. As a result, even the poor people did not buy the subsidized food grains and it got accumulated in godowns to be spoiled or sold in the open market.  The increased grain exports have been at the cost of hunger and starvation as millions of rural laborers and farmers have suffered job loss and income decline. Rising unemployment, rising input and credit costs for farmers and exposure to global price declines are responsible for the low absorption of food grains in India.  Increase in the instance of farmers’ suicides has been a major fall- out of stagnation in agriculture. Monopolisation of HYV seeds, shift in farming from chemical farming to organic farming, global competition is killing our farmers literally. Since agriculture is not drawing remunerative income, farmers have become desperate, turning to suicide as an escape from the debt trap. More than five thousand indebted cotton farmers, have committed suicide in  19 Andhra Pradesh since 1998. Punjab and Maharashtra ( Vidarbha) are not far behind in numbers. This is a grave issue which requires urgent and continuing attention of the government and society.  Contract farming has lead to a direct onslaught on peasant land and water resources by the corporate. Restrictions on landownership by non-cultivators have been removed and ceilings on landholdings rolled back in many states to aid large business corporations in purchase of agricultural land. Farmers are giving up land to solve their debt crises but are unable to overcome their food problems. Unemployment in the agricultural sector has in fact increased during the reform period.  Under the Special Economic Zones Act of 2005, land has been taken over by the government for commercial and industrial purposes. Most of the acquired land is fertile for non-agricultural purposes. Corporate bigwigs like Reliance, TATA have faced public protests over their acquisition of land such as Nandigram agitation in West Bengal. SEZ were introduced to promote export and industrial growth in line with globalisation but have resulted in exploitation of farmers taking away their means of livelihood and directing land towards business and manufacture. Check your progress :- 1. Write a note on Agreement on Agriculture and India. 2. Elaborate the impact of globalization on agricultural sector. 3. Explain the features and causes of Agrarian crisis in India. 1.10 GROWTH OF CORPORATE FARMING Contract farming and Corporate farming have been encouraged by the government as possible solutions to problems of Indian Agriculture. The small sized, fragmented, uneconomic Landholdings and lack of competitiveness of agricultural produce are main reasons for eroding profitability of the agricultural sector. State governments across different states such as Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, West Bengal and many more are amending laws to encourage the practice of corporate farming. Prime agricultural land and wastelands are being purchased or leased in by corporate houses, to undertake agri-business ranging from seed supply, agrichemicals to storage, transport and retail sales. The large corporates, primarily motivated by profits, invest huge  20 amounts of funds towards research and modernization of agriculture and with complete control over land holdings are able to maximize produce for both sale in the open markets as well as their own retail food processing. Reliance Fresh, Tata agri-chemicals, Sterling Agro, Mcdonalds, Hindustan Lever are only a few examples of entry of private sector into the primary sector. The problem of the Indian farmer is that the farm land should be owned by the independent farmer and input costs like farm machinery, crop insurance, fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, fuel, and seeds should be borne by the corporates. But corporate farming at present is bringing back feudalism as corporate farmers are working as contractual labourers of the corporates that have bought their lands and employed them. The small farmers, now landless, continue to be plagued by problems of hunger anddebt. Corporate farming can be economically and socially beneficial if it gets the marginal farmer a remunerative price. It adds to the export capacity of the country by discovering international markets for the fresh produce, fruits, vegetables and processed primary goods of consumptions thus contributing to the growth in agriculture. Credit requirement is not a constraint for the big corporates as they have huge funds at their disposal as well as ample support of the financial institutions and banks. They can undertake large-scale investments necessary for marketing from packaging to warehousing to transportation of primary goods. There is a huge demand for organic foods among consumers today and such cultivation is being taken up by the businesses to cater to changing preferences However corporate farming has it’s fair share of pitfalls which can reverse trends of growth and increase social injustice. Since the corporates continue to operate on the motive of profits, they will not be too concerned with the welfare of the farmers. Production will become completely market-oriented substituting subsistence cropping by commercial cultivation. More and more of the farm output produced will be for the export basket rather than satisfying domestic needs of consumption. It is already observed that there is anincreasingtrend of casualization of labour causing a shift in employment from the agricultural sector to the urban informal and service sectors. Concrete steps need to be taken by policymakers to ensure the farmers’ status in the country doesn’t worsen.  21 Check your progress :- 1.Write a note on corporate farming. 1.11 SUMMARY The developments over the last year in major economies of the world have not been encouraging. The financial crisis in U.S.A as well as the ongoing European sovereign debt crisis have raised questions about the globalized environment in the world and whether most nations would be exposed to ore instability in the future. India has achieved faster growth from the 1980s compared to its past but that growth brought about by globalisation has been at a cost as indicated by worsening of employment, agriculture, small scale and others in the priority sector. 1.12 EXERCISE 1. State the concept of Liberalisation. 2. Explain in detail the positive and negative impact of Information Technology? 3. What is the impact of globalisation on employment opportunities? 4. How does migration impact host nations and countries oforigin? 5. Write a note on Agrarian Crisis?   22 Unit - 2 HUMAN RIGHTS Unit structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Concept of Human Rights 2.3 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 2.4 Human Rights Constituents to Fundamental Rights 2.5 Summary 2.6 Exercise 2.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the Concept of Human Rights.  To study the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.  To relate Human Rights Constituents with special reference to Fundamental Rights in Indian Constitution. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Human Rights are commonly understood as ‘inalienable fundamental rights’ to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being. Human Rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian. At the international level human rights have become a movement. It can be studied through many ways which is called as the constituents of Human Rights. They may be civil rights, political, economic, cultural, social rights. They are also called somewhere Fundamental Rights. Being a humankind one must have some rights from birth and hence they are the birth rights of every human being. They are also the rights of freedom to everyone irrespective of caste, creed, sex, region, colour, profession, etc. 2.2 CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS Human Rights is a 20th century term for what had been traditionally known as ‘Natural Rights’ or in a more appealing phase, the ‘Rights of Man’. The notion of ‘Rights of Man’ and other  23 such concepts of human rights are as old as humanity. These rights of men had a place almost in all the ancient societies of the world, through they were not referred to by that time. The term ‘Human Rights’ is comparatively of recent origin. But the idea of human rights is as old as the history of human civilization. Human Rights are deeply rooted in the historical past. The history of mankind has been firmly associated with the struggle of individuals against injustice, exploitation and disdain. Broadly speaking, ‘Human Right’ means right to life, liberty, equality and the dignity of an individual irrespective of caste, creed or sex. Human rights are always natural. Universal Declaration of Human Rights states, this term signifies the rights which belongs equally to every individual. It envisages that all human beings are born free, equal in dignity and rights and are entitled to enjoy all rights. According to Prof. Herald Laski “rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek in general to be himself at his best”. In view of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, “Fundamental Rights are the gift of law. They are essential for human beings. They are inalienable and enforceable by the State.” His theory of Fundamental Rights is related with the political democracy which rests upon four ‘premises’ which could be stated asunder. 1) “ The individual is an end in himself.” All the institutions either social or political are the instruments to serve the end of the individual. An individual is not for the state; but as an ideal citizen must serve the common interest embodied in the state. The ‘end’ or the welfare of the individual includes the development of his physical, mental and material abilities which could be able to enhance his pursuit of happiness. 2) “That the individual has certain inalienable rights which must be guaranteed to him by the Constitution.” This means no person or authority should encroach, abridge or abrogate the rights of the individual in the society. There is no better guarantee of those rights other than the Constitution. 3) “That the individual shall not be required to relinquish any of his Constitutional rights as a condition precedent to the receipt of privilege.”  24 According to Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, “the rights of the individual being inalienable and constitutional, no one could be required to relinquish any right at the cost of any privilege. However, rights of individual are abridged or abrogated only with due process oflaw.” 4) “That the state shall not delegate powers to private persons to govern others.” According to him, the state would be supreme and powerful to govern the people. There would not be any intermediary or private person like hereditary ruler or Jahagirdar. All the individuals would be legally equal and enjoy equal treatment under the state. 2.2.1 History of Human Rights: The roots of human rights can be traced to the Babylonian laws. The Babylonian King Hammurabi issued a set of laws to his people called ‘Hammurabi’s Codes’, which contained fair wages, protection of property and charges against them to be proved at trial. Greek philosopher Plato, Artistotle and Roman philosopher Cicero advocated the natural law, natural rights and human rights. According to Cultural dictionary human rights can be defined as ‘freedom from arbitrary interference or restriction by governments.’ The term encompasses largely the same rights called civil rights or civil liberties but often suggests rights that have not been recognised. The origin of human rights also can be credited to era of Renaissance Humanism in the early modern period. Prior to this habeascorpushadbeenexplainedintheMagnaCartaof1215 A.D. The European wars of religion and the civil wars of 17th century England gave rise to the philosophy of liberalism and belief in human rights became a central concern of European intellectual culture during 18th century ‘Age of Enlightenment’. The idea of human rights lay at the core of the American and French revolutions A.D.1776 & A.D.1789 respectively which paved the way for the advent of universal suffrage. The World Wars of the 20th century led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A declaration for religious tolerance on an egalitarian basis can be found in the ‘Edicts of Ashoka’, which emphasize the importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The slaughter and capture of prisoners of war was also condemned by Ashoka.  25 According to historian John Esposito, Prophet Muhammad condemned female infanticide, exploitation of poor, usury, murder, false contracts and theft. He also incorporated Arabic and Mosaic laws and customs of the time into his divine revelations. The Constitution of Medina (Charter of Medina) established the security of the community, freedom of religion, security of women. The modern sense of human rights can be traced to Renaissance Europe and Protestant Reformation, as also the disappearance of the feudal authoritarianism and religions conservatism that dominated the Middle Ages. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, “traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties….conceptions of justice, political legitimacy and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing or well-being entirely independent of human rights.” Then Magna Carta (1215) was related to General Charter of Rights. The statue of Kalisz (1264) gave privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, in Germany, the Peasants put their ‘Twelve Articles’ i.e demands towards the ‘Swabian League’ in the German peasant’s war. In Britain in 1683, the English ‘Bill of Rights’ or Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and settling the ‘Succession of the Crown’ and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions. Next traces of human rights found in the revolutions of 1776 (American Revolution) and 1789, French Revolution leading to the adoption of the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively both of which established certain legal rights. Additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were then followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and G.W.F Hegel during 18th and 19th centuries. The term human rights probably came into use sometime between Paine's ‘The Rights of Man’ and William Lloyd Garrison’s 1831 writings in ‘The Liberator’ in which he stated that he was trying to enlist his readers in ‘the great cause of human rights’.  26 In the 19th century human rights became a central concern over the issue of ‘slavery’. In Britain William Wilberforce worked towards it and the result was that Britain passed Slave Trade Act,1807 and ‘Slavery Abolition Act, 1833. In America Northen States already abolished slavery and Southern states did it later. In the 20th century we find many such human rights movements in one form or another such as labour unions and their rights for labour in North America. The Women’s rights movements also were started in many countries. In India Mahatma Gandhi’s movement to free the natives and Dr.B.R.Ambedkar’s movement of liberation of Depressed Classes within Hindu Community are also noteworthy so far as the Human Rights are concerned. The establishment of the ‘International Committee’ of the Red Cross the 1864 ‘Lieber Code and the first of the ‘Geneva Conventions’ in 1864 laid the foundations of ‘International Humanitarian Law’. The huge losses of human life and gross abuses of human rights that took place during World Wars developed the modern human rights instruments. The League of Nations was established in 1919 and its goals included disarmament, preventive war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body i.e United Nations that now make up international humanitarian law and international human rights law. Check Your Progress: 1. According to Prof Herald Laski what is rights? 2. What is Hamurabi's codes?  27 2.2.2 Philosophy of Human Rights: The philosophy of the human rights attempts to examine the underlying basis of the concept of human rights (which have already discussed in 10.2) and critically looks at its content and jurisdiction. Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain law and why human rights have became a part of social expectations. One of the Western philosophies of human rights is that they are a product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution as held by David Hume. Human rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting as theorized by Max Weber. These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage as according to John Rawls as a ‘Social Contract’. The two theories that dominate contemporary human rights discussion are the 'Interest theory' and the 'Will theory'. Interest theory argues that the principal function of human rights is to protect and promote certain essential human interests, while Will theory attempts to establish the validity of human rights based on the unique human capacity for freedom. 2.2.3 Classification of Human Rights: Human rights can be classified and organized in a number of different ways. At an international level the most common categorization of human rights has been to split them into civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights. Civil and Political Rights are enshrined in Articles 3 to 21 of the ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (UDHR) and in the ‘International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Economic, social and cultural rights are enshrined in articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).  28 Karel Vasak categorized the human rights into three generations. i) First – generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation). ii) Second – generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence)and iii) Third – generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these three generations the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition. 2.2.4 Development of Human Rights: Before we study Universal Declaration of Human Rights we have to know certain documents declaring rights of man such as Magna Carta, Bill of Rights, US Declaration of Independence, French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. 2.2.4.1 The Magna Carta,1215:- The Magna Carta was issued on 15 June, 1215 also called Magna Carta Libertatum or the Great Charter of the Liberties of England originally in Latin and translated into vernacular French as early as 1219 and later on it was modified by time to time. The 1215 charter required King John of England to proclaim certain liberties and accept that his will was not arbitrary. For example by explicitly accepting that no ‘freeman’ (non-serf) could be punished except through the law of the land, a right which is still in existence in England. 2.2.4.2 The Bill of Rights,1689:- The Bill of Rights or the Bill of Rights 1688 is an Act of the Parliament of England passed on 16 December 1689. This lays down limits on the powers of sovereign and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement to regular elections to Parliament and the right to petition the monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the liberty of the protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law as Papists were both armed and employed contrary to law.  29 2.2.4.3 US Declaration of Independence,1776:- The Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the continental Congress on July 4,1776 which announce that the 13 American Colonies, then at war with Great Britain regarded themselves as independent states and no longer a part of the British Empire. It contained that all men are created equal that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. This view was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that the Declaration is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted. It has worked for the rights of marginalized people throughout theworld. 2.2.4.4 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen,1793:- It is a fundamental document of the French Revolution defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of ‘natural right’, the rights of man are held to be universal. It was adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, but after modifications it was adopted in 1793. This declaration is in the spirit of natural law which does not base itself on religious doctrine or authority. According to this, ‘Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. And hence, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. They are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. Check Your Progress: 1. Name two theories that dominate contemporary human rights discussion? 2. What is Magna Carta?  30 2.3 THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (UDHR) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December, 1948 in Paris. The Declaration arose directly from experience of the World War II and represents first global expression of rights for human being. The provisions of this UDHR subsequently followed and adopted by various constitutions and legal systems of the world. The International Bill of Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two optional protocols. In 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights; and in 1976 after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill took on the force of International law. The authorship of this Declaration is credited to John Peters Humphrey (Canada), Rene Cassin(France), Stephane Hessel (France), P.C.Chang (China), Charles Malik (labanon), Eleanor Roosevert(U.S) and others. 2.3.1 Background of UDHR, 1948: During the World War II the allied powers adopted the Four Freedoms i.e speech, assembly, freedoms from fear and freedom from want as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights and dignity and worth of the human rights and committed all member states to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion. When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany on Jews became apparent after the World War II, the consensus within the world community was that the UN Charter did not sufficiently define the rights it referenced. A Universal Declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter’s provision on human rights.  31 2.3.2 Making of UDHR: Canadian expert John Peters Humphrey was the main drafter to the UDHR and Director of UN secretariat and division of Human Rights. The Commission on Human Rights a standing body of the UN, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights. The membership of the commission was designed to be broadly representative of the global community with representative of the countries like Australia, Belgium, Chile, China, Egypt, France, India, Iran, Lebanon, Panama, Philippines, UK, US, USSR, Uruguay and Yugoslavia. Among above authors John Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission. 2.3.3 Member Countries to Vote for UDHR: The UDHR was adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December, 1948 by a vote of 49 in favour and zero against with 8 countries abstained from it such as USSR, Ukrainian SSr, Byelorussian SSR, Yugoslavia, Poland, South Africa, Czechoslovakia and Saudi Arabia. Despite the central role played by Canadian John Humphrey the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the Declaration’s draft, but later voted in favour of the final draft in the General Assembly. 2.3.4 Provisions of the UDHR: This UDHR has 30 Article starting with Preamble to it. Preamble: THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THISUNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.  32 2.3.4.1 Major Provisions of Articles to UDHR: Article1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endured with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, se, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs. Whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery and the Slave Trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or go cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment Article 6: Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7: All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. Article 8: Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunal for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.  33 Article 9: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Article 10: Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Article 11: (1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense. (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed that the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Article 12: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 13: (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country including his own, and to return to his own country. Article 14: (1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.  34 Article 15: (1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Article 16: (1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and state. Article 17: (1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Article 18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Article 19: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Article 20: (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.  35 Article 21: (1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government: this will be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. Article 22: Everyone , as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each state, of the economic, social and cultural right indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. Article 23: (1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone without any discrimination has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the right to and favorable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity and supplemented if necessary by other means of social protection. (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Article 24: Everyone has the right to rest and leisure including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. Article 25: (1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services  36 and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widow hood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children whether born in act of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. Article 26: (1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friend ship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Article 27: (1) Everyone has the right to freely participate in cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to shake in scientific advancement and its benefits. (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literacry or artistic production of which he is the author. Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. Article 29: (1) Everyone has duties to the communities in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.  37 (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein. 10th December is known as ‘Human Rights Day’ or ‘International Human Rights Day’. The Guiness Book of World Records describes UDHR as the ‘Most Translated Document in the World’. Check Your Progress: 1. Who is the main author of Universal Declaration of Human Rights? 2. When is the Human Rights day observed? 2.4 HUMAN RIGHTS CONSTITUTENTS TO FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF INDIAN CITIZEN When we look at the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, we find that it has influenced the Fundamental Rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution. Our Fundamental Rights have been included in the Part II of our Constitution and have the influence of following document. i) The Bill of Rights of British Parliament(1688). ii) American Revolution,1776. iii) Declaration of Rights of Man, French Revolution,1789. iv) Bill of Rights of the American Constitution,1791. v) Motilal Nehru Report, 1928and vi) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948(UN).  38 The founding father of our Constitutions first studied many world constitutions before making the provisions so the fundamental rights reflects the provisions of Human Rights, natural rights etc. provided in the world. There were seven Fundamental Rights provided in 1950 i.e i) Right to Equality ii) Right to Liberty iii) Right against Exploitation iv) Right to Freedom of Religion v) Cultural and Educational Rights vi) Right to Property and vii) Right to Constitutional Remedies. The Right to Property was repealed by the 44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978. The Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution falls between the articles 14 to 35. These rights are discussed as below: 2.4.1 Right to Equality (Articles14-18): Article 14: It states that the State cannot deny to any person equality before law or the equal protection of law within the territory of the Indian Union. Article 15: The State cannot discriminate on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or on any other ground. Article 16: According to this article, there is equality of opportunity in the matter of public employment and prevent discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, descent place of birth, residence or on any other ground. The sub-clause(4) provides that nothing in that article would prevent the State from making any law for the reservation of jobs for the Backward Classes and Caste.  39 Article 17: This article provides for the abolition of hateful practice of untouchability and declares practice of untouchability in any form as crime. Article 18: It provides the restrictions to accept any award or position or conditional award from any foreign country. 2.4.2 Right to Liberty (Right to Freedom) (Articles 19 to22) Article 19 makes the provision of various kinds of freedoms for Indian citizens. They are six basic freedoms namely: i) Freedom of Speech and Expression. ii) Freedom of Assembly peacefully and without arms. iii) Freedom to form associations and unions. iv) Freedom to move freely within the territory of India. v) Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of Republic of India. vi) Freedom to carry on any business, trade or occupation within the territory of India. The provision of right to freedom is similar to the civil rights granted by most of the democratic countries of Western Europe and North America. However, the Constitution does not guarantee absolute individual rights. Indeed no state can or has guaranteed absolute individual freedom. Therefore, this guarantee of each of the rights is reasonably limited by the Constitution by empowering state to impose reasonable restrictions as may be necessary in the interest of social harmony, internal peace, national security and law and order. Article 20: This provides a fair chance to the guilty to prove himself and accordingly be punished if proven guilty not more or less. Article 21: Without the due process of law one cannot be deprived of his life or individual freedom.  40 Article 21 A: As per the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 this article was added and it provided that State shall provide free and compulsory education to the children between age 6-14 years. Article 22: No person could be arrested without any crime and warrant stating his crime should be showed to him by the legal authority. 2.4.3 Right against Exploitation (Article 23-24): Article23: This article prohibits traffic in human being and beggar (forced labour) or bonded labour or servitude on any ground. Any act contrary to this provision would be an offence punishable by law. Article 24: This prohibits any child below 14 years of age to work (child labour) in any factory or mines or at any other dangerous job. 2.4.4 Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25-28): Article25: This deals with freedom of conscience and makes provision for practice and propagation of one’s own religion. Article 26: Provides for freedom to manage religious affairs and institutions by a community. Article 27: This says that no person shall be compelled to be a member of any religious association or incur any penalty or religious tax on the ground of his caste, creed or religion. Article 28: This prevents the imparting of religious instructions in any educational institution which is wholly maintained out of State funds.  41 2.4.5 Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29-30): Article29: This ensures that every community in India shall have the right to propagate and preserve its own language, script, literature and culture. All religious and linguistic minorities have been ensured a right to establish and administer their educational institutions maintain and manage them and receive state grant on the equal basis. Similarly, no citizen can be denied admission into state maintained or state aided educational institutions on the ground of religion, race, caste or language. Article 30: This provision highlights the importance which the framers of the Constitution attached to secular character of the state and the desirability of secularism permeating different spheres of our national life. The article also ensures to the minorities of India that special safeguards have been provided to protect their interests and culture. 2.4.6 Right to Property (Article31): The Constitution originally provided for three fold provision for safeguarding the right to private property. It not only guaranteed the right to private property but also conferred the right to enjoy and dispose of property (Act-19(f)). vii) It guaranteed to every citizen the right to acquire any property by any lawful means. viii) The Constitution guaranteed that no person should be deprived of his property save by the Authority of Law (Article31(1)). ix) The Constitution enjoys that if the State wants to acquire the private property of an individual or to requisition i.e to take it over, it can do so only on two conditions. a) That the acquisition or requisition is for a public purpose. b) That when such a law is passed, it must provide for payment of an amount to the owner as compensation for the acquisition or requisition of the property by the state.  42 However, in keeping with the goal of Welfare State and the establishment of egalitarian society, the Right to Private Property was abolished by 44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978. 2.4.7 Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article32-35): Article32: The Constitution not only grants basic rights to the citizens of India but also makes a provision for the protection and continued enjoyment of these rights. It consists of the prerogative writs which the Superior Courts issue under their power to review to establish the rule of law. These rights guarantee judicial protection to the Fundamental Rights enumerated in Part III of the Constitution. Under this right, a citizen can file such writs as below: x) Habeas Corpus: Court orders the custodians of law to present a person in court if he is unlawfully detained. xi) Mandamus: It is an order issued by a superior court to compel a lower court or a government officer to perform mandatory or purely ministerial duties correctly. xii) Prohibition: Issued by a superior court to the lower court to prevent it from exceeding its jurisdiction in cases pending before it or acting contrary to the rules of natural justice. xiii) Certiorari: It is a type of writ seeking judicial review and other law, meaning an order by a higher court directing a lower court, tribunal or public authority to send the record in a given case review. xiv) Quo warranto: It is a prerogative writ requiring the person to whom it is directed to show what authority they have for exercising some right or power they claim to hold. Check Your Progress: 1. Explain the freedom of Religion. 2. What is Habeas Corpus?  43 2.5 SUMMARY In the above discussion we have come to understand the meaning, concept of human rights which are inalienable or natural or of natural justice and found in many countries of the world. We have Constitution of England (1688) and Bill of Rights, American Constitution (1776), French Revolution (1789) and Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. At present, there are more than 200 member nation of United Nations General Assembly. They all have to follow the Human Rights Provisions enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Indian Constitution also have included the Fundamental Rights which are the direct constituents of Human Rights. 2.6 EXERCISE 1. Explain the concept of Human Rights. 2. Discuss the importance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,1948. 3. Comment on the Human Rights Constituents to Fundamental Rights of Indian Constitution. 4. Write short notes i) Four premises of Political Democracy. ii) Philosophy of Human Rights. iii) Right to Liberty. iv) Right to Constitutional Remedies.    44 Unit - 3 ECOLOGY Unit structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Concept of Ecology and Environment 3.1.1 Meaning and definition of ecology 3.1.2 Scope and principles of ecology 3.1.3 Meaning, definition and components of Environment 3.2 Ecosystems 3.2.1 Structure (components) and functions of ecosystems 3.2.2 Food chains and food webs and ecological pyramids 3.2.3 Environmental degradation 3.2.4 Forms of environmental degradation 3.2.5 Causes of environmental degradation 3.2.6 Impact of environmental degradation on human life 3.3 Sustainable development 3.3.1 Concept of sustainable development 3.3.2 Components of sustainable development 3.4 Summary 3.5 Exercise 3.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand and distinguish between the concepts of ecology and environment and their components  To create awareness regarding the catastrophes caused by environmental degradation  To generate sensitivity towards the issues and concerns regarding environment  To build the understanding regarding the concept of sustainable development. 3.1 THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Man has been taking keen interest in his surrounding and for that matter his environment in a practical sense since his evolution. His matter of survival was dependent on his understanding of the  45 natural forces, the flora and fauna surrounding him. Civilization and settled agriculture further strengthened his relationship with environment as he started modifying and controlling the forces of nature. However it is important to understand the concepts of environment ecology or eco systems which are loosely used interchangeably or as substitutes of each other. Where as they differ in their scope and mechanism. 3.1.1 Meaning and definition of Ecology: The science of ecology has had a gradual development through history. The reference to this concept is found in the writings of Aristotle and other philosophers of Greek period. The term ecology was first proposed by a German Biologist Ernest Hackel in 1866. The word is derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ that means house, a place to live and logos i.e. the study of. Therefore ecology is a study of organisms at home. Ecology is mainly concerned with the biological connections and processes of organisms, land, water etc. It can be referred as the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organism. According to Webster’s dictionary “ecology is the totality or patterns of relations between organisms and their environment”. For E. Hackel “It is the science of relation between organisms and their environment”. Taylor defined ecology as “the science of all the relations of all the organisms in relation to all the environments” According to the United States Council on Environmental Quality, “ecology is the science of the intricate web of relationships between living organisms and their non-living surroundings. Hence it is imperative to understand and differentiate the concept of ecology with reference to environment or the components of ecosystem. 3.1.2 Scope and principle of ecology: Scope of ecology: Ecology is a multidisciplinary science. Because of its focus on higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially geology, geography, meteorology, climatology genetics, chemistry, physics, biology, maths and now even computer science.  46 Ecologists aim to explain the distribution, life processes and adaptations amongst the organisms. Further it tries to analyse the movement of energy flow and successive growth and development of organisms. It tries to comprehend the nature of biodiversity and its complexity.