Maharashtra Women's Policy: Objectives, Schemes, and Rights

1. Maharashta Policy for Women The Maharashtra Policy for Women is a comprehensive framework. It is aimed at addressing the various issues faced by women in the country. The Maharashtra Policy for Women was launched in 2021 to ensure gender equality and promote socio- economic development. The policy covers many areas: education, health, employment, and entrepreneurship. All about New Maharashtra Policy for Women Maharashtra’s Women and Child Development Minister Mangal Prabhat Lodha announced that the State’s all inclusive Women policy will be announced in the current session. The new policy will be practical, he said, adding that a`tourist policy’ for women will also be announced. A `janata durbar’ will be held for women at the district level every month where 50 complaints will be taken up, he said. A women’s bazaar to promote products of Self- Help Groups has also been proposed every month in all districts. As much as 50 percent of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds should be allocated for women’s causes. Maharashtra Policy For Women: Objectives The Maharashtra Policy for Women is devised to address the various challenges women face in Maharashtra. It has the potential to significantly impact women's lives, promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment in India. The following are the objectives of Maharashtra Policy for Women: o The Maharashtra State women’s policy aims to empower women economically. o The policy seeks to promote and improve the health and well-being of women. o It aims to create a safe environment for women by addressing issues related to violence or harassment. o To strengthen women's participation in decision-making. o Provide free and fair legal support to women. Maharashtra Policy for Women and Their Implementation The following are the Maharashtra Policy for Women: Maharashtra Policy for Women : Manodhairya Scheme This scheme has protected the rape victims and children who have suffered violence and shock. o It rehabilitates the victims of rape and acid attacks. o The Manodhairya Women Policy provides efficient funds to the victims and survivors. o The dependents would be provided with shelter, counseling, and legal support. o Single window clearance. o Protection of minor girls under The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 1956. Maharashtra Policy for Women :ASMITA Yojana The Maharashtra Government has launched the ASMITA yojana on International Women's Day. o Under this scheme, sanitary napkins are provided at a discounted rate. o The rural school girls could avail of the sanitary napkin packet for Rs 5. o Rural women could get the same at a subsidized rate of Rs 29. Maharashtra Policy for Women: Rajmata Jijau Mother-Child Health and Nutrition Mission Maharashtra was the first state in the country to decide to tackle malnutrition issues in Maharashtra. The mission was set up in two phases: 2005 and 2011. o This Maharashtra Policy for Women aims to reduce malnutrition in the state. o It will focus on child nourishment in the first 1000 days of conception. o It aims at improving coordination between the Public Health Department and Maharashtra. Maharashtra Policy for Women: Udhyam Nidhi Scheme It is a scheme offered under the Small Industrial Development Bank of India. It encourages and empowers women entrepreneurs to provide them with fair financial assistance. o Under this scheme, sanitary napkins are provided at a discounted rate. o The rural school girls could avail of the sanitary napkin packet for Rs 5. o Rural women could get the same at a subsidized rate of Rs 29. Maharashtra Policy for Women: Rajmata Jijau Mother-Child Health and Nutrition Mission Maharashtra was the first state in the country to decide to tackle malnutrition issues in Maharashtra. The mission was set up in two phases: 2005 and 2011. o This Maharashtra Policy for Women aims to reduce malnutrition in the state. o It will focus on child nourishment in the first 1000 days of conception. o It aims at improving coordination between the Public Health Department and Maharashtra. Maharashtra Policy for Women: Udhyam Nidhi Scheme It is a scheme offered under the Small Industrial Development Bank of India. It encourages and empowers women entrepreneurs to provide them with fair financial assistance. o The Mahila Udhyam Nidhi Scheme aims to provide financial assistance at concessional rates. o MSMEs can use it to undertake service and production-related activities. o Women entrepreneurs can avail of loan amounts of up to 10 lakhs. Maharashtra Policy for Women: Mahila Arthik Vikas Mandal The Mahila Arthik Vikas Mandal is a government agency dedicated to women’s empowerment throughout the state. o Mahila Arthik Vikas Mandal has offered various programs, especially for marginalized women. o It acts as a medium between self-help groups and financial institutions. o It ensures the delivery of government guidelines for the nutrition of pregnant women and children. o Its guiding philosophy is to empower women. o It ensures the delivery of government guidelines for the nutrition of pregnant women and children. Maharashtra Policy for Women :Balika Samruddhi Yojana It will cover both urban and rural areas of the country. It will cover girl children in families below the poverty line. The target group can be taken as families identified in BPL by the Swarna Jayati Gram Swarozgar Yojana norms. Maharashtra Policy for Women Scheme The New Tejaswini Scheme aims to enable one million poor rural households to overcome poverty sustainability. To improve rural women’s capacity, sustainable enterprises, and access to markets. The target beneficiaries are marginal farmers, livestock, fisheries, and laborers. Maharashtra Policy for Women :Mahila Shakti Kendra Scheme It was implemented in the state in the year 2020. In the first year, the Mahila Shakti Projects will be set in 50 backward districts, followed by 115 backward districts of Maharashtra. Maharashtra Policy for Women: SWADHAR Greh Scheme It would provide temporary accommodation with food, clothing, and medical facilities. o To use vocational and economic rehabilitation of women. o To support women prisoners released from jail without any family or support. o Women affected by domestic violence. Maharashtra Policy for Women: Savitri phulebai Scholarship Scheme It is a state government scheme that provides financial assistance to women in a socially and economically backward society. The main aim is to provide for the girl students to continue their studies. Maharashtra Women's Policy 2014 The Maharashtra State Women's Policy 2014 aims to promote and protect the rights of women in the state of Maharashtra. Its objective is to create an enabling environment for women to live with dignity and achieve their full potential, by providing them with access to resources, opportunities, and support services. Maharashtra Policy for Women and Government Initiatives The Women and Child Department of Maharashtra is responsible for implementing various policies. Some key achievements of Maharashtra Policy for Women are as follows: o Maharashtra State Commission for Women’s economic development. It aims to empower women by providing them with opportunities for education and employment. o The Women and Child Department of Maharashtra is responsible for formulating various policies and programs for the welfare of women and children. o Maharashtra has enacted the Maharashtra Prohibition of Eve-teasing and Prevention of Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 1999. This mandates workplaces to prevent incidents of harassment against women. o Free legal aid to those who can't afford legal representation. Challenges in Maharashtra Policy for Women Formulating Women's policy in Maharashtra can face a variety of challenges: o It needs to cater to the needs of diverse groups and different women. o To address the issue of gender inequality. o Ensuring adequate representation of women is crucial. This ensures the policy is inclusive and effective. o Effective implementation. Maharashtra Policy For Women Conclusion Formulating a women’s Policy in Maharashtra requires a comprehensive understanding of the diverse population in India. However, despite the challenges, ensuring women’s rights and empowerment is crucial. It will require a collaborative effort between government agencies and different women’s groups. The successful implementation of the Maharashtra Policy for women would serve as a model for other states in India to promote equality and women’s rights. 2. Status of Women in India Women have been an integral part of India’s culture and society since ancient times. However, the status of women in India has been a topic of debate and concern for many years. Despite the progress made in recent years, there are still many challenges that women in India face today.  Progress and Achievements In recent years, there have been many positive developments in India’s efforts to empower women. The government has implemented several programs and policies aimed at improving women’s health, education, and economic opportunities. There has been a significant increase in the number of women participating in the workforce, and women have achieved high positions in various fields, including politics, business, and entertainment.  Challenges and Struggles Despite these achievements, women in India still face significant challenges. Gender discrimination, violence against women, and unequal pay continue to be major issues. Female foeticide and infanticide, particularly in rural areas, remain a significant concern. Women’s safety and security are also a significant issue, with many incidents of sexual harassment and assault reported each year.  Legal Rights for women in India Women in India have been granted various legal rights over the years to promote gender equality and protect their interests. Here are some of the most important legal rights that women in India have:  Right to equality Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality to all citizens, regardless of their gender.  Right to education The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, makes it mandatory for all children, including girls, between the ages of 6 and 14 to receive education.  Right to work The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, ensures that men and women receive equal pay for the same work.  Right against sexual harassment The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013, provides a framework for addressing complaints of sexual harassment at the workplace.  Right to property The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, was amended in 2005 to give equal inheritance rights to daughters in Hindu families.  Right to marriage and divorce The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, gives women the right to seek divorce on various grounds, including cruelty and adultery.  Right to health The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, provides women with paid maternity leave and other benefits during pregnancy and childbirth.  Right against domestic violence The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, provides legal protection to women from physical, emotional, and verbal abuse by their spouses or relatives. Overall, while women in India have come a long way in terms of legal rights, there is still a lot of work to be done to ensure full gender equality and protection from discrimination and violence.  The Way Forward To address these challenges and improve the status of women in India, there needs to be a concerted effort from all sectors of society. The government needs to continue to implement policies that promote women’s health, education, and economic empowerment. There needs to be a greater focus on gender sensitization and education at all levels of society. The media also has a role to play in promoting positive messages about women and combating gender stereotypes.  Conclusion In conclusion, the status of women in India has improved significantly in recent years, but there is still a long way to go. It is essential to recognize the achievements made so far and continue to work towards a more equitable and just society for women. By addressing the challenges that women in India face and promoting gender equality, we can ensure that women can fully participate in all aspects of life and contribute to the development of the country. Women Achievers of Modern India Women make up close to half the world’s population, but there are so few who receive the same kind of opportunities that men do – women often have to work harder and for longer to attain the heights they deserve to reach. Despite that, women, all over the world including in India are scaling great heights and reaching the pinnacles of success. In this article, we are listing the names of 10 women, who come from different fields and domains, and have made India proud. 1. Avani Chaturvedi: Flight Lieutenant Avani Chaturvedi was one of the first women to become a combat pilot in the Indian Air Force. Selected for training at the Air Force Academy, she became a fighter pilot in 2016 and in the same year, she was formally commissioned by the then defence minister, Manohar Parrikar. In 2018, she became the first woman to fly a MiG-21 solo and was eventually promoted to flight lieutenant. Today, she soars the skies to protect the boundaries of our country and inspires several other girls to become women achievers in India. 2. Sneha Dubey: Sneha rose to fame when her fiery response to the Pakistani Prime Minister’s speech at the United Nations, became viral. This 2012 batch Indian Foreign Service officer is the first civil servant from her family and also has the distinction of clearing the extremely difficult UPSC exams in the very first attempt. Armed with postgraduate degrees from the School of International Studies at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, she worked as an under secretary at the Ministry of External Affairs and as the Third Secretary at the Indian Embassy in Madrid, before taking on her current role as India’s first secretary at the United Nations. 3. Krithi Karanth: Currently the Chief Conservation Scientist and Director at the Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, Dr. Karanth is also Adjunct Faculty at Duke University and National Centre for Biological Sciences. She earned her PhD from Duke University in 2008, before getting her degrees from Yale and University of Florida. Her expertise lies in wildlife conservation and has conducted several studies in subjects related to species distributions, how some become extinct, how tourism can impact wildlife and the importance of human and wildlife interactions. Her constant efforts are towards creating a more sustainable planet that allows both humans and animals to thrive in natural environments. 4. Tulsi Gowda: Even though she had been working to protect the environment for several decades, it was only in 2020 that the country and the world sat up and took notice of Tulsi Gowda. Commonly known as the “Encyclopaedia of the Forest”, Tulsi has planted over 30,000 saplings and continues to work in tandem with the forest departments of the country. Given that she spent more than six decades working with the forest department of Karnataka, she has immense knowledge about medicinal plants and other trees. Even though she might not have a formal education, she is still counted amongst the greatest Indian women achievers. 5. Tessy Thomas: Born in Alappuzha district of Kerala, Tessy always had an interest in science and was fascinated by aircraft flying. Given that she grew up near the Thumba Rocket Launching Station, she developed an interest in rockets and missiles and it came as no surprise that she joined the DRDO or Defence Research and Development Organisation. She was appointed for Project Agni by the late Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam and went on to become project director for the Agni IV and Agni V missions. In 2018, she became the Director-General of the Aeronautical Systems of DRDO. She is one of the best examples of how getting a proper education can allow girls to reach their full potential – an opportunity that is often not available to several girls in India, even today. 6. Vani Kola: She is an Indian venture capitalist, one of the few women in the country, who is the founder and managing director of Kalaari Capital. Considered to be one of the most influential women in business, she is an engineering post graduate who worked her way to the top in Silicon Valley. In 2006, when she returned to India, she co-founded Indo-US Venture Partners and eventually made her way to setting up Kalaari Capital. Even though her primary focus is on technology based early-stage companies that have the potential to grow into global enterprises, she is also involved in several philanthropic projects. 7. Richa Kar: In the past few years, Zivame has emerged as one of the most popular and sought-after brands in the world of women’s intimate apparel and the idea was born when Richa was researching the lingerie markets in the country. She noticed that most stores that sold intimates for women were handled by men and women felt uncomfortable going to such stores and buying for themselves. Given her experience working with Marks and Spencer’s and SAP, she started working towards building an online store for such products. Building the brand was not an easy task and it took a lot of time, effort, failures and heartbreak, before she reached the success that she enjoys today. 8. Falguni Nayar: Falguni has become a household name because of her brand Nykaa – with her becoming an overnight sensation and one of the most successful business women in the country. Having grown up in a normal middle-class family, she had business in her blood, which allowed her to rise through the ranks at the Kotak Mahindra Group. Today, she runs the billion- dollar company and is one of the only two self-made female Indian billionaires. 9. Arunima Sinha: The first female amputee to scale the domineering Mount Everest happens to be from India and her name is Arunima Sinha. As a matter of fact, she has also scaled several other important mountains like Kilimanjaro, Kosciusko, Aconcagua and Denali. Pushed from a running train by robbers, Arunima lost her left leg and had multiple fractures on her spinal cord, but none of these stopped her. With her prosthetic leg, this shining example of modern women achievers has shown the world that anything is possible, including climbing mountains. In 2015, she was honoured with the Padma Shree and continues to be an inspiration to girls all over the country. 10. Gita Gopinath: Gopinath, an Indian American is a world-renowned economist, who has served at several important positions including the first deputy managing director of the International Monetary Fund as well as the chief economist of the IMF. Before she joined the IMF, Gopinath was a professor of Economics at the prestigious Harvard University and also worked as an honorary economic advisor to the government of her home state of Kerala. Her multiple published writings showcase her knowledge about economics and its role on a more global scale. At Educate Girls, we look towards creating more Indian women achievers in all fields, because we are aware that the girls of our country are capable of reaching great heights. All they are lacking is perhaps the right opportunity and the right guidance, which is what we try to provide. When girls are given a proper education, they have more than just the power to make informed choices; they have the chance to make their own lives and the society they live in, better. Join us in our endeavour to bring more and more girls into the fold of education – read more about how you can become a part of the change. 3. Banking procedures In a broad sense, procedures are simply detailed instructions that tell readers the best way to perform a task. They show the method for completing something with steps and instructions for each aspect of the task. Procedures are written as specifically as possible so employees can follow them easily. Different methods can apply to each part of a business. Bank procedures are guidance provided by management for employees on how to complete transactions and processes. They are designed to assist an institution in succeeding and following regulatory and legal requirements. A procedure helps employees check human error and consistently complete tasks correctly. It also lets you improve your team’s efficiency and accuracy when completing recurring tasks. This way, there’s not much difference between a new employee and a veteran. Bank policy and procedures are the heart of any bank, fintech, or credit union company. It defines and clarifies administrative, compliance, lending, and operational procedures. These policies follow guidelines formulated by the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB), Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), Federal Reserve, Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) Does your bank have accurate, clear, and user-friendly policies and procedures? If not, you should learn how to create one today. But before we get into that, let’s talk about “policies and procedures.”  The policy is a set of guidelines – the “big picture” rules that clarify the culture of the bank.  Procedures, on the other hand, are a series of step-by-step tasks to get things done. Policy includes a Code of Risk Management, and Procedures involve opening an account and evaluating loan applications. The term “bank policy and procedure” is the comprehensive or systematic approach to managing a bank’s operations, ensuring alignment with its business objectives, and promoting a culture of compliance, risk management, and customer-centricity. Now, let’s learn how to write bank policies and procedures to ensure smooth operations, compliance with regulations, and customer satisfaction. Importance of Developing Bank Policies and Procedures There are several reasons why developing bank policies and procedures is worth it:  Unified approach among employees According to McKinsey, organizations with a clear policy see a soaring 40% boost in teamwork and alignment. When there is a clear policy and procedure in place, it eliminates confusion and departmental silos. With a clear policy and procedure in place, employees have a common understanding – and share the same goals and perspectives as the bank expects- that all have the same performance and behavior. Under these regulations, all employees will do the same thing, and as a result, the risk of confusion will drop. A sense of organization, teamwork, and success will develop.  Mitigate the risk of non-compliance Developing appropriate bank policies and procedures is a given for maintaining compliance. Policies and procedures serve to ensure that employees understand the importance of compliance and the consequences of non-compliance.  Building trust with regulators Have you ever considered that the rules and guidelines set out by your bank may just earn you a few extra points with regulators? Yes, indeed. Banks show seriousness about the law and keeping to proper boundaries through their policies and procedures. Apart from the law, bank managers build trust when they act transparently. Knowing that it’s important to develop proper policies and procedures to strengthen the bank’s credibility and build trust with regulators.  Proactive approach to risk management Banking can use policies and procedures even to forecast possible risks that might occur in the future. For instance, banks can take proactive security measures by implementing various security measures, ranging from alarm systems to CCTV surveillance and security guards. Program developers provide software updates and training to employees to secure and save their customers’ data. Banks always have to be one step ahead; if not, they might lose not just money but also their customers’ data, which is worse than money.  Help with employee training and development Bank policies and procedures help with employee training and development. With the right policy and procedure in place, everyone in the bank —from frontline staff to executives—will get the necessary skills and training initiatives to excel. 4. Legal Procedures i Overview of court procedure It can be seen in connection with the Indian legal system (as a criticism more than a compliment) that 'there is ample – sometimes excessive – due process; and one has to be patient and persevering'.41 Broadly, court procedure in India is governed by the CPC for civil matters and the CrPC for criminal matters. As discussed above, even where statutes create specialised tribunals and courts to deal with particular disputes, it is generally recognised that the principles contained in the CPC and CrPC would apply. This is often so because such provisions in the CPC and CrPC are recognised as the embodiments of the principles of fair play, natural justice and due process. ii Procedures and time frames The primary statute governing limitation is the Limitation Act, 1963. As a general rule, most suits, especially those relating to contracts and accounts, have a limitation period of three years for filing. Some suits relating to immovable property may fall within a longer limitation ranging from three to 30 years. The periods prescribed under the Limitation Act may not apply in the event a specific statute prescribes a period of limitation. Where a plaintiff approaches a court for injunctive relief, especially at an interlocutory stage, the court may require the plaintiff to demonstrate (quite aside from being within limitation) that the plaintiff has acted in a timely manner and has not acquiesced to the infringement of its rights. The Supreme Court, in Wockhardt Limited v. Torrent Pharmaceuticals Limited, clarified this position by stating that acquiescence cannot be equated with delay. There should not be mere silence or inaction on the part of the plaintiff but a refusal or failure to act despite knowledge of invasion and opportunity to stop it. A writ court may require a petitioner (although no limitation is prescribed for writs) to demonstrate that he or she has approached the court without delay, since a delay may disentitle a petitioner to relief. The CPC was amended by virtue of the Commercial Courts Act, 2015. According to the amended provisions of Order V Rule 1(1) and Order VIII Rules 1 and 10 of the CPC, a party is granted 30 days to file its written statement, and a grace period of 90 days is provided wherein a court can, after recording the reasons for the delay in filing and after imposing costs, allow a written statement to be taken on record. It was further held by the Supreme Court in the case of M/s SCG Contracts India Pvt Ltd v. KS Chamankar Infrastructure Pvt Ltd that the failure to file written statements within the statutory time period of 120 days in a commercial suit will result in the forfeiture of the right of the defendant to file a written statement, and the court would not be able to use its inherent powers to avoid the consequences emanating from the aforesaid provision. The CPC also curtails the number of adjournments that may be sought and attempts to curtail practices that are often perceived as dilatory, such as belated amendments to pleadings and belated production of documents. Notably, the Arbitration Act, as amended by the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2019 (the 2019 Amendment Act), mandates time-bound procedure for domestic arbitrations seated in India. It now provides that the pleadings in a case shall be completed within six months from the appointment of the arbitrator,52 and an arbitral award is required to be made within 12 months of the date of completion of the pleadings under Subsection (4) of Section 23. Parties may also agree, in writing, to have their dispute resolved by fast-track procedures, which would require the award to be made within six months of the date of entry of the arbitral tribunal upon reference. If the court passes any interim measure under Section 9 of the Arbitration Act, the proceedings must commence within 90 days of the date of the order. Pursuant to the enactment of the Commercial Courts Act, there is a time limit of 30 days for the submission of the written statement (extendable to 120 days),and 90 days from the date of conclusion of arguments for the pronouncement of judgment. It further provides that the appellate court should endeavour to dispose of appeals within six months of the date of filing of such appeal. The Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court in New India Assurance Co Ltd v. Hilli Multipurpose Cold Storage Pvt Ltd has clarified that there was no scope for extending the time for filing of written statements beyond the period of 120 days in commercial suits, as the provision with regard to such suits is mandatory. The Supreme Court in Shoraj Singh v. Charan Singh held that the timeline prescribed under Order VIII, Rule 1 of the CPC for filing the written statement is mandatory for the purposes of commercial cases filed before the commercial courts under the Commercial Courts Act. The IBC provides a period of 330 days from the insolvency commencement date as the period of the insolvency resolution process that culminates with the submission of a resolution plan to the NCLT. However, the Supreme Court of India has observed that the timelines prescribed under IBC are not mandatory and the time spent on legal proceedings during the CIRP can be excluded by the NCLT. According to the Economic Survey of the Government of India for FY 2021–22, the resolution process took an average of 428 days, after omitting the time excluded by NCLT. Furthermore, owing to the covid-19 pandemic, the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India on 29 March 2020 issued a notification directing that the period of lockdown imposed by the central government shall not be counted for the purposes of the timeline for any activity in relation to a CIRP. Despite these recent developments to reduce time frames, the time taken for the completion of a trial in civil and criminal proceedings may be several years. iii Class actions The CPC recognises that where there are numerous persons with the same interest in one suit, one or more of such persons may, with the permission of the court, sue or be sued, or may defend such suit on behalf of or for the benefit of all persons interested. The Companies Act, 1956 and the Companies Act, 2013 stipulate that a specified number of members or depositors may, if they are of the opinion that the management or control of the affairs of a company are being conducted in a manner prejudicial to the interests of the company or its members or depositors, file an application before the NCLT on behalf of the members or depositors. The Supreme Court and High Courts have, in exercise of their writ jurisdiction, long recognised the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to bring public interest litigations to espouse the cause of larger sections of society. The Consumer Protection Act, 2019 provides for the establishment of the Central Consumer Protection Authority, which is empowered to, inter alia, regulate matters relating to rights of consumers, and promote, protect and enforce the rights of consumers as a class. It further provides that a complaint with respect to goods or services, even where there are numerous consumers involved having the same interest, may be filed before a District Commission, with its permission, on behalf of or for the benefit of all interested consumers. IBC allows allottees under a real estate project to file an application for initiation of CIRP jointly either by not less than 100 allottees or 10 per cent of the allottees under the same real estate project. The Competition Act, 2002 also recognises class actions for seeking compensation for any loss or damage suffered on account of any anti-competitive practices in the relevant market. Under the Competition Act, 2002, class actions can be filed before the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT). iv Representation in proceedings The Indian Constitution guarantees the right of a person accused of an offence to be represented by a legal practitioner of his or her choice. In other proceedings, while litigants are typically represented by advocates enrolled under the Advocates Act 1961, there may be exceptions to the rule. For instance, the Family Courts Act, 1984 stipulates that a party may be represented by an advocate only if the court thinks that it is necessary for a fair trial. This provision of the Family Courts Act has now been challenged before the Rajasthan High Court. The Advocates Act empowers a court to permit any person who has not been enrolled as an advocate to appear before it in any particular case. v Service out of the jurisdiction The CPC and the CrPC contain provisions for service out of the territory of India. India has also entered into bilateral treaties and multilateral conventions for these purposes, including the Hague Convention on the Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters 1965 (the Hague Convention). Under the CPC, when a defendant resides outside India and no agent in India is empowered to accept service, summons or notice may be sent by courier or post service as approved by the appropriate High Court. This provision must, however, be read together with the procedure prescribed under the Hague Convention. The CrPC recognises bilateral arrangements and makes compliance with such an arrangement mandatory. It is prescribed that summons or warrants issued by a court in India should be served and executed in accordance with the bilateral arrangement, if any. In addition, the Ministry of Home Affairs in India has, by a circular dated 11 February 2009, clarified the procedure to be followed for the issuance of summons to a foreign resident (MHA Circular). Under the MHA Circular, all requests for service of summons, notices or judicial processes on persons residing abroad shall be addressed to the Under Secretary (Legal) of the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Ministry, after scrutinising the request, can forward it to the relevant foreign officer. vi Enforcement of foreign judgments A money decree obtained from a court of a jurisdiction notified by the Indian government as a reciprocating territory under the CPC can be enforced in India directly by filing an execution petition in a court of competent jurisdiction. As a result, judgments of courts not notified as reciprocating territories or decrees other than money decrees cannot be executed directly in India. A decree holder in such a case may file a fresh lawsuit in the Indian courts based on the foreign judgment. In both execution proceedings and fresh suits filed based on foreign judgments, parties may rely on Sections 13 and 14 of the CPC. In 2020, the central government issued an official gazette declaring the United Arab Emirates (UAE) a reciprocating territory for the purpose of Section 44-A of the CPC. The notification allows civil decrees and judgments passed by the specified courts of the UAE to be directly executed in India in a manner similar to a decree passed by a district court in India. Section 44 of the Arbitration Act prescribes that a foreign award that arises out of a commercial legal relationship and is made in one of the territories, in respect of which the Indian government declares that the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Awards (New York Convention) applies on satisfaction that reciprocal provisions are being made, may be enforced in India. In this regard, the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Act, 2015 (2015 Amendment Act) has clarified that a foreign award may be refused enforcement if it violates the public policy of India on the same grounds as described for setting aside awards that arise out of India-seated international commercial arbitrations. However, unlike domestic awards, foreign awards cannot be refused enforcement on the ground of patent illegality. vii Assistance to foreign courts Assistance may be given to foreign courts based on bilateral agreements with the reciprocating territories. In civil matters, the CPC provides for the service of foreign summons issued by certain specified courts only. In such cases, assistance is given when a defendant resides or works for gain or carries on trade or business within India and the summons itself may be a summons for the appearance of the defendant, production of documents or furnishing of information. Again, as discussed above, India is a signatory to the Hague Convention, key objective whereof is to improve the organisation of mutual judicial assistance by simplifying and expediting procedures. viii Access to court files Rules relating to access to court files may vary depending on the nature of the proceeding, who is seeking access and whether the proceeding is ongoing or concluded. In most cases, a person who is a party to the proceeding is allowed to search, inspect or have copies of all pleadings and other documents or records of the case. A third party seeking the information or record is not entitled to access court files as a matter of right and may need to apply to the court and show cause as to why it seeks such information or record. ix Litigation funding Disinterested third-party funding is not common in India. While some courts have found that third-party funding may be permissible, other courts have often declined to uphold such agreements on the grounds of public policy or professional ethics.85 It has been held in a recent Supreme Court judgment that there appear to be no restrictions on a third party funding a litigation and getting repaid after the outcome of the litigation as long as they are not lawyers. 5. Violance against women Violence against women in India refers to physical or sexual violence committed against a woman, typically by a man. Common forms of violence against women in India include acts such as domestic abuse, sexual assault, murder, female infanticide, and acid throwing.  According to the report of National Crime Report Bureau, domestic violence accounts for more than 30% of the crimes against women.  According to the National Crime Records Bureau, in 2011, there were more than 228,650 reported incidents of crime against women, while in 2021, there were 428,278 reported incidents, an 87% increase.  65% of Indian men believe women should tolerate violence in order to keep the family together, and women sometimes deserve to be beaten.  Statistics calculated from the National Crime Records Bureau capture reporting to the police, most violence against women is not reported to the police.  In January 2011, the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) Questionnaire reported that 24% of Indian men had committed sexual violence at some point during their lives.  India's Gender Gap Index rating was 0.629 in 2022, placing it in 135th place out of 146 countries Murders Dowry deaths A dowry death is the murder or suicide of a married woman caused by a dispute over her dowry. In some cases, husbands and in-laws will attempt to extort a greater dowry through continuous harassment and torture which sometimes results in the wife committing suicide. The majority of these suicides are done through hanging, poisoning or self-immolation. Bride burning, a form of dowry death, occurs when a woman is set on fire. This act is referred to as bride burning murder, and it is frequently staged to look like a suicide or accident. In some instances, the woman is set on fire in a manner that suggests she caught fire while cooking on a kerosene stove. Despite the illegality of dowry in India, the tradition of giving costly gifts to the groom and his relatives remains prevalent at weddings organized by the bride's family. A map of the reported dowry deaths in India, per 100,000 people (2012)Rising son in law in Bengal, painting by Gaganendranath Tagore - Indian Museum, Kolkata According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data, 6,589 dowry deaths were registered in the year 2021 all over the country, a 3.85% decline from 2020, with the highest number of dowry deaths from the state of Uttar Pradesh (2,222 dowry deaths) and the highest dowry death rate (per 1,00,000 population) in the state of Haryana. Year Reported dowry deaths 2008 8,172 2009 8,383 2010 8,391 2011 8,618 2012 8,233 2020 6,843 2021 6,589 Honour killings An honour killing is the murder of a family member who is considered to have brought dishonour and shame upon the family. Examples of reasons for honour killings include:  The refusal to enter an arranged marriage.  Committing adultery.  Choosing a partner that the family disapproves off.  Becoming a victim of rape. Village caste councils or khap panchayats in certain regions of India regularly pass death sentences for persons who do not follow their diktats on caste or gotra. The volunteer group known as Love Commandos from Delhi, runs a helpline dedicated to rescuing couples who are afraid of violence for marrying outside of caste lines. The most prominent areas where honour killings occur in India are the northern states —they're especially numerous in Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Honour killings have notably increased in some Indian states which has led to the Supreme Court of India, in June 2010, issuing notices to both the Indian central government and six states to take preventative measures against honour killings. Honour killings can be very violent, for example, in June 2012, a father decapitated his 20-year-old daughter with a sword upon hearing that she was dating a man who he did not approve of.Another example was in September 2013 when a young couple decided to get married after having a love affair and were later brutally murdered. Female infanticide Female infanticide is the selected killing of a newborn female child or the termination of a female fetus through sex-selective abortion. In India, there is incentive to bear a son due to their role in providing security for the family in old age and conducting rituals for deceased parents and ancestors. Conversely, daughters are viewed as a societal and economic burden. An illustration of this is the practice of dowry. The apprehension of being unable to afford a socially acceptable dowry and facing social ostracism can result in female infanticide in economically disadvantaged families. Pew Research Centre estimated that there are as many as 9 million females missing from the Indian population in the period 2000-2019 according to Indian government data. Contemporary advancements in medical technology enable the determination of a child's sex during the fetal stage. Following the identification of the fetus's sex through these modern prenatal diagnostic methods, families have the option to choose abortion based on gender. A study revealed that out of 8,000 abortions, 7,997 were performed on female fetuses. The fetal sex determination and sex-selective abortion by medical professionals now costs 1,000 crore Rupees (244 million US Dollars). Background:  The Preconception and Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act of 1994 (PCPNDT Act 1994) was modified in 2003 in order to target medical professionals. The Act has proven ineffective due to the lack of implementation.  Sex-selective abortions have totaled approximately 4.2-12.1 million from 1980 to 2010.  There was a greater increase in the number of sex-selective abortions in the 1990s than the 2000s.  Poorer families are responsible for a higher proportion of abortions than wealthier families.  Significantly more abortions occur in rural areas versus urban areas when the first child is female  Sexual crimes Rape India is perceived as one of the world's most dangerous countries for sexual violence against women. Rape is one of the most common crimes in India. Year Reported rapes 2008 21,467 2009 21,397 2010 22,172 2011 24,206 2012 24,923 2013 34,707 2014 36,735 2015 34,651 2016 38,947 2017 32,599 2018 33,356 2019 32,033 2020 28,046 2021 31,677 2022 30,948 2023 31,204 Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 defines rape as penile and non-penile penetration in bodily orifices of a woman by a man, without the consent of the woman.  According to the National Crime Records Bureau, one woman is raped every 20 minutes in India.  Incidents of reported rape increased 3% from 2011 to 2012.  Incidents of reported incest rape increased 46.8% from 268 cases in 2011 to 392 cases in 2012.  Rape accounted for 10.9% of reported cases of violence against women in 2016. Victims of rape are increasingly reporting their rapes and confronting the perpetrator. Women are becoming more independent and educated, which is increasing their likelihood to report their rape. 2001 to 2011 crime rates against Scheduled Castes, women and overall in India per 100,000 population Despite an increase in reported cases of rape, numerous incidents either remain unreported or have their complaints withdrawn, often stemming from concerns about compromising family honour. Many women face challenges in obtaining justice for rape cases as law enforcement may not provide a fair hearing, and medical evidence is frequently undocumented, allowing offenders to evade consequences within the current legal framework. After international news reported the gang rape of a 23-year-old student on a moving bus that occurred in Delhi, in December 2012, Delhi experienced a significant increase in reported rapes. The number of reported rapes nearly doubled from 143 reported in January–March 2012 to 359 during the three months after the incident. After the Delhi rape case, self defense programs run by NGOs like Survival Instincts and Krav Maga Global (KMG) were made mandatory in corporate organizations, and the International Women's Day programs started focusing on improving women's safety in workplaces, and homes. Marital rape In India, marital rape is not a criminal offense. India is one of fifty countries that have not yet outlawed marital rape.  20% of Indian men admit to forcing their wives or partners to have sex. Marital rape can be classified into one of three types:  Battering rape: This includes both physical and sexual violence. The majority of marital rape victims experience battering rape.  Force-only rape: Husbands use the minimum amount of force necessary to coerce his wife.  Compulsive or obsessive rape: Torture and/or "perverse" sexual acts occur and are often physically violent. Modesty related violence Violence against women related to modesty encompasses assaults intended to outrage a woman's modesty and insults to the modesty of women. In the period from 2011 to 2012, there was a 5.5% rise in reported assaults with the intent to outrage her modesty, with Madhya Pradesh contributing 6,655 cases, making up 14.7% of the national incidents. During the same period, reported insults to the modesty of women increased by 7.0%, with Andhra Pradesh recording 3,714 cases, constituting 40.5% of the national total, and Maharashtra documenting 3,714 cases, representing 14.1% of the national total. Insults to the modesty of Year Assaults with intent to outrage modesty women 2008 40,413 12,214 2009 38,711 11,009 2010 40,613 9,961 2011 42,968 8,570 2012 45,351 9,173 2013 70,739 12,589 2014 82,235 9,735 2015 82,422 8,685 Human trafficking and forced prostitution A mother who travelled from her village in Nepal to Mumbai, in India, with the aspiration of locating and rescuing her teenage daughter who had been trafficked into an Indian brothel. During the period between 2011 and 2012, a noticeable surge of 5.3% was observed in the occurrences of violations under the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act of 1956 in India. Within this alarming trend, Tamil Nadu reported a substantial 500 incidents, representing a significant 19.5% share of the total nationwide violations. Simultaneously, Andhra Pradesh documented 472 incidents, contributing significantly with an 18.4% share to the overall national statistic. This increase in reported violations underscores the pressing need for enhanced efforts and measures to address and curb the illicit activities falling under the purview of the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act of 1956 in various states across the country. Imported girls from foreign Violations of the Immoral Traffic Year countries Act 2008 67 2,659 2009 48 2,474 2010 36 2,499 2011 80 2,435 2012 59 2,563 2013 31 2,579 2014 13 2,070 2015 6 2,424 Domestic violence Main article: Domestic violence in India  Domestic violence is abuse by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as dating, marriage, cohabitation or a familial relationship.  Domestic violence is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, dating abuse and intimate partner violence (IPV).  Domestic violence can be physical, emotional, verbal, economic and sexual abuse.  Domestic violence can be subtle, coercive or violent. As politician Renuka Choudary says, in India, 70% of women are victims of domestic violence. The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) conducted in 2016 uncovered a concerning aspect: a substantial 86% of Indian women who experienced domestic violence chose not to disclose their ordeal, refraining from sharing it with friends or family members. This silence is intricately tied to the victims' internalization of social norms, leading them to believe that they are inadequate as wives and, consequently, deserving of the inflicted punishment. The pervasive acceptance of domestic violence among women is further highlighted by survey findings indicating that 45% of Indian women rationalize their husbands' abusive actions. The complexity of this issue is illuminated by the National Family Health Survey of 2019–21, pointing out the alarming acceptance of spousal abuse in the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana In these states, a striking 80% of wives express agreement that their husbands are justified in resorting to physical violence, a notably higher percentage compared to other regions in India. Equally disconcerting is the acknowledgment by 38% of Indian men admitting to engaging in physical abuse against their partners. In response to the widespread prevalence of domestic violence, the Indian government has implemented legislative measures, notably the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005. While these efforts signify a commitment to addressing the issue, the data underscores the complex interplay of societal attitudes and norms that contribute to the persistence of domestic violence, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to challenge and dismantle deeply ingrained beliefs and behaviors. Year Reported cruelty by a husband or relative 2008 81,344 2009 89,546 2010 94,041 2011 99,135 2012 106,527 2013 118,866 2014 122,877 2015 113,403 Forced child marriage Young girls face a heightened susceptibility to coerced early marriages, confronting a dual vulnerability owing to their status as both children and females. The plight of child brides is exacerbated by their limited comprehension of the significance and obligations associated with marriage. The factors contributing to such early unions encompass the prevailing perception that girls represent a burden on their parents, coupled with the apprehension that they might compromise their chastity prior to marriage. This multifaceted issue underscores the urgent need for comprehensive interventions and awareness programs to address the root causes and consequences of child marriages, recognizing the unique challenges faced by young girls caught in this distressing phenomenon. Around 7.84 million female children under the age of 10 are married in India. Acid throwing Acid throwing, also known as an acid attack or vitriolage, stands as a brutal form of violent assault disproportionately affecting women in India. This heinous act involves the intentional hurling of acid or corrosive substances onto an individual's body "with the intention to disfigure, maim, torture, or kill." Typically directed at the face, acid attacks cause severe burns, damaging the skin and often exposing or dissolving bone. The aftermath of such attacks is marked by enduring physical scars, potential blindness, and the onset of various social, psychological, and economic challenges. Recognizing the gravity of this issue, the Indian legislature has taken steps to regulate the sale of acid. However, despite these measures, women in India face a heightened risk of falling victim to acid attacks, constituting at least 72% of reported cases. Disturbingly, the country has witnessed a rising trend in acid attacks over the past decade. Between 2014 and 2018, National Crime Records Bureau data revealed that 1,483 victims registered cases of acid attacks in India. While the number of acid attacks continues to rise, there is a concerning decline in the number of people charged by the police. Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Delhi collectively account for 42% of all acid attack victims in India. Perpetrators of these horrific crimes often evade punishment, as exemplified by the fact that out of 734 cases that went to trial in 2015, only 33 cases resulted in completion. In a poignant response to this crisis, in 2018, Zainul Abideen ran a 720 km route known as the golden triangle in India, spanning from Delhi to Agra to Jaipur, to raise awareness about acid and rape attacks and advocate for women's safety. This initiative underscores the urgent need for widespread awareness and systemic changes to curb the alarming incidence of acid attacks and ensure justice for the survivors. Perpetuation The persistence of violence against women in India is deeply rooted in entrenched systems of sexism and patriarchy that permeate Indian culture. The cycle begins in early childhood, where young girls face unequal access to education compared to their male counterparts. Gender-based inequality manifests even earlier, with reports indicating that female children often receive less food and are provided with less nutritious diets lacking in essential elements like butter and milk and 80% of boys attend primary school, while only half of the girls are afforded the same opportunity. Education itself becomes a contributing factor to the perpetuation of gender disparities, as girls are informed about the inequities they will face in life, whereas boys remain uninformed and unprepared to treat women and girls as equals. As women progress into adulthood, the social climate continues to reinforce inequality, contributing to the prevalence of violence against them. Within the context of marriage, many women in India come to perceive violence as a routine aspect of their married lives. Those subjected to gender-based violence often face victim- shaming, being told that their safety is solely their responsibility and that any harm they endure is their own fault. Social and cultural beliefs, such as the importance of family honour, exert immense pressure on women to remain complicit in the face of abuse. When a woman decides to report an incident of gender-based violence or crime, access to adequate support is not guaranteed. Law enforcement officers and doctors may opt not to report cases due to fears of damaging their own honour or bringing shame upon themselves. Even when a victim seeks medical assistance, archaic and invasive methods like the notorious "two-finger test" are often employed, exacerbating the problem and causing psychological harm. In response to this pervasive issue, organizations like Dilaasa have emerged to combat the perpetuation of violence against women in India. Dilaasa, a hospital-based crisis center operated in collaboration with CEHAT, aims to provide proper care for survivors of violence against women and strives to address gender inequality. From 2000 to 2013, around 3,000 victims of sexual assault, domestic abuse, or other forms of gender-based violence have registered with Dilaasa, underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive efforts to break the cycle of violence and foster gender equality in India. Laws protecting women / Inheritance Laws Inheritance rights in India are shaped by a complex interplay of religious and statutory laws, resulting in different legal frameworks for women across Hindu, Muslim, and Christian communities. Traditionally, women’s inheritance rights were subordinate to men, but over time, various legal reforms have aimed to create a more equitable distribution of property. This blog delves into the inheritance rights of women in India under these three major religious laws, analysing their evolution, challenges, and modern applications. If you’re navigating these intricate laws, consulting a family lawyer in Delhi can help ensure your rights are protected. Inheritance Rights of Women Under Hindu Law The Hindu Succession Act of 1956 initially gave limited property rights to women. It was significantly amended in 2005 to ensure equal rights for women, marking a transformative moment in gender equality in Hindu inheritance laws. 1. Daughters as Coparceners: Prior to 2005, only male members were coparceners, meaning they had a birthright to ancestral property. With the amendment, daughters also became coparceners, giving them an equal share in the ancestral property. 2. Rights in Self-Acquired Property: A daughter has equal rights to inherit her parents’ self-acquired property, just like a son. If the deceased (father or mother) dies intestate (without a will), the property is equally divided among the heirs, including daughters. 3. Widow’s Rights: A widow is entitled to inherit her husband’s property, whether it is ancestral or self-acquired. She also has the right to maintenance from her husband’s property during her lifetime. Though the 2005 amendment ensures daughters receive equal property rights, challenges remain in its implementation, especially in rural areas where traditional patriarchal views still prevail. To fully understand how these rights apply to your case, seeking guidance from a seasoned family lawyer in Delhi is essential. Inheritance Rights of Women Under Muslim Law Islamic inheritance laws are based on the Quran and differ significantly from Hindu laws. The distribution of property under Muslim law is governed by two main schools: Sunni and Shia, with slight variations in the rules. 1. Daughters’ Share: Under Muslim law, daughters are entitled to inherit their father’s property but typically receive half the share of what a son inherits. For instance, if there’s one son and one daughter, the son will receive two-thirds, and the daughter one-third of the total property. 2. Widow’s Share: A widow’s share depends on the presence of other heirs. If the deceased husband has no children, the widow inherits one-fourth of his property. If there are children, she is entitled to one-eighth of the property. 3. Mother’s Rights: A mother is entitled to inherit one-sixth of her deceased son’s property if he has children. If there are no children, she inherits one-third of the property. Although these inheritance laws ensure women have a share in the property, the allocation of a smaller portion to daughters compared to sons often raises concerns about gender inequality. A family lawyer in Delhi well-versed in Muslim personal law can help navigate these provisions effectively. Inheritance Rights of Women Under Christian Law Inheritance rights for Christian women in India are governed by the Indian Succession Act of 1925. This law, unlike the personal laws of Hindus and Muslims, offers a relatively equitable distribution of property between male and female heirs. 1. Daughters’ Rights: Christian daughters inherit equally with sons. If a person dies intestate, the property is divided equally among the children, irrespective of gender. 2. Widow’s Rights: A Christian widow is entitled to one-third of her deceased husband’s property if there are children. If the deceased husband has no children, the widow inherits half of the property, and the rest goes to other relatives. 3. Mother’s Rights: Similar to the widow, a Christian mother has inheritance rights over her deceased child’s property if no will is left. The division of property ensures an equal share between male and female relatives. While the law offers gender parity, family disputes or the absence of a will can complicate inheritance cases. Having a family lawyer in Delhi on your side can assist in ensuring a fair outcome, especially when navigating through complex intestate cases. The Role of Legal Reforms and the Way Forward Legal reforms across all three religious laws have attempted to address the historical gender disparity in inheritance rights. However, challenges remain in terms of implementation, particularly in rural areas where customary practices often override statutory laws.  Hindu Law: The 2005 amendment significantly improved the status of daughters, but its implementation remains uneven.  Muslim Law: Though daughters inherit property, their share is still unequal to that of sons, reflecting a persistent gender gap in inheritance.  Christian Law: Christians benefit from a more gender-neutral legal framework, but familial disputes over property remain a significant challenge. Conclusion Understanding inheritance laws in India can be daunting, especially when they vary across different religious communities. Whether you are dealing with Hindu, Muslim, or Christian laws, it’s crucial to consult a family lawyer in Delhi who can offer you expert guidance, helping you navigate these intricate legal landscapes. Women’s inheritance rights have certainly evolved, but ensuring these rights are enforced often requires legal intervention, especially in contentious cases. A qualified family lawyer in Delhi can play a pivotal role in ensuring that women receive their rightful share of inheritance in accordance with the law. 6. Child Labour Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation worldwide, although these laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, and some forms of work undertaken by Amish children, as well as by Indigenous children in the Americas. Child labour has existed to varying extents throughout history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5–14 from poorer families worked in Western nations and their colonies alike. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining, and services such as news boys—some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell. As of 2023, in the world's poorest countries, around one in five children are engaged in child labour, the highest number of whom live in sub-saharan Africa, where more than one in four children are so engaged. This represents a decline in child labour over the preceding half decade. In 2017, four African nations (Mali, Benin, Chad and Guinea-Bissau) witnessed over 50 per cent of children aged 5–14 working. Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. The vast majority of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economies; children are predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories. Poverty and lack of schools are considered the primary cause of child labour. UNICEF notes that "boys and girls are equally likely to be involved in child labour", but in different roles, girls being substantially more likely to perform unpaid household labour. Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960 and 2003, according to the World Bank. Nevertheless, the total number of child labourers remains high, with UNICEF and ILO acknowledging an estimated 168 million children aged 5–17 worldwide were involved in child labour in 2013. History Preindustrial societies Child labour forms an intrinsic part of pre-industrial economies. In pre-industrial societies, there is rarely a concept of childhood in the modern sense. Children often begin to actively participate in activities such as child rearing, hunting and farming as soon as they are competent. In many societies, children as young as 13 are seen as adults and engage in the same activities as adults. The work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group. Pre-industrial societies were characterised by low productivity and short life expectancy; preventing children from participating in productive work would be more harmful to their welfare and that of their group in the long run. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school. This is especially the case in non-literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or apprenticing by competent adults.  Child labourers, Macon, Georgia, 1909  Children working in home-based assembly operations in United States (1923)  Two girls protesting child labour (by calling it child slavery) in the 1909 New York City Labor Day parade.  Arthur Rothstein, Child Labor, Cranberry Bog, 1939. Brooklyn Museum. Industrial Revolution Children going to a 12-hour night shift in the United States (1908) The early 20th century witnessed many home-based enterprises involving child labour. An example is shown above from New York in 1912. "The Factory", a poem by L. E. L. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late 18th century, there was a rapid increase in the industrial exploitation of labour, including child labour. Industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool rapidly grew from small villages into large cities and improving child mortality rates. These cities drew in the population that was rapidly growing due to increased agricultural output. This process was replicated in other industrialising countries. The Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed. Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal, working conditions. In coal mines, children would crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods. Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid-18th century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in the summer and 52 hours in winter, while servants worked 80-hour weeks. Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship. The children of the poor were expected to contribute to their family income. In 19th-century Great Britain, one-third of poor families were without a breadwinner, as a result of death or abandonment, obliging many children to work from a young age. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. A high number of children also worked as prostitutes. The author Charles Dickens worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in a debtor's prison. Child wages were often low, the wages were as little as 10–20% of an adult male's wage. Karl Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour, saying British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children". Letitia Elizabeth Landon castigated child labour in her 1835 poem "The Factory", portions of which she pointedly included in her 18th Birthday Tribute to Princess Victoria in 1837. Throughout the second half of the 19th century, child labour began to decline in industrialised societies due to regulation and economic factors because of the Growth of trade unions. The regulation of child labour began from the earliest days of the Industrial Revolution. The first act to regulate child labour in Britain was passed in 1803. As early as 1802 and 1819 Factory Acts were passed to regulate the working hours of workhouse children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days. Lord Shaftesbury was an outspoken advocate of regulating child labour. As technology improved and proliferated, there was a greater need for educated employees. This saw an increase in schooling, with the eventual introduction of compulsory schooling. Improved technology, automation and further legislation significantly reduced child labour particularly in western Europe and the U.S. Early 20th century Percentage children working in England and Wales % boys aged 10–14 Census year as child labour 1881 22.9 1891 26.0 1901 21.9 1911 18.3 In the early 20th century, thousands of boys were employed in glass making industries. Glass making was a dangerous and tough job especially without the current technologies. The process of making glass includes intense heat to melt glass (3,133 °F (1,723 °C)). When the boys are at work, they are exposed to this heat. This could cause eye trouble, lung ailments, heat exhaustion, cuts, and burns. Since workers were paid by the piece, they had to work productively for hours without a break. Since furnaces had to be constantly burning, there were night shifts from 5:00 pm to 3:00 am. Many factory owners preferred boys under 16 years of age. An estimated 1.7 million children under the age of fifteen were employed in American industry by 1900. In 1910, over 2 million children in the same age group were employed in the United States. This included children who rolled cigarettes, engaged in factory work, worked as bobbin doffers in textile mills, worked in coal mines and were employed in canneries. Lewis Hine's photographs of child labourers in the 1910s powerfully evoked the plight of working children in the American south. Hine took these photographs between 1908 and 1917 as the staff photographer for the National Child Labor Committee. Household enterprises Factories and mines were not the only places where child labour was prevalent in the early 20th century. Home-based manufacturing across the United States and Europe employed children as well. Governments and reformers argued that labour in factories must be regulated and the state had an obligation to provide welfare for poor. Legislation that followed had the effect of moving work out of factories into urban homes. Families and women, in particular, preferred it because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties. Home-based manufacturing operations were active year-round. Families willingly deployed their children in these income generating home enterprises. In many cases, men worked from home. In France, over 58% of garment workers operated out of their homes; in Germany, the number of full-time home operations nearly doubled between 1882 and 1907; and in the United States, millions of families operated out of home seven days a week, year round to produce garments, shoes, artificial flowers, feathers, match boxes, toys, umbrellas and other products. Children aged 5–14 worked alongside the parents. Home-based operations and child labour in Australia, Britain, Austria and other parts of the world was common. Rural areas similarly saw families deploying their children in agriculture. In 1946, Frieda S. Miller – then Director of the United States Department of Labor – told the International Labour Organization (ILO) that these home-based operations offered "low wages, long hours, child labour, unhealthy and insanitary working conditions". 21st century Map for child labour worldwide in the 10–14 age group, in 2003, per World Bank data. The data is incomplete, as many countries do not collect or report child labour data (coloured gray). The colour code is as follows: yellow (40%). Some nations such as Guinea-Bissau, Mali and Ethiopia have more than half of all children aged 5–14 at work to help provide for their families. Child labour is still common in many parts of the world. Estimates for child labour vary. It ranges between 250 and 304 million, if children aged 5–17 involved in any economic activity are counted. If light occasional work is excluded, ILO estimates there were 153 million child labourers aged 5–14 worldwide in 2008. This is about 20 million less than ILO estimate for child labourers in 2004. Some 60 per cent of the child labour was involved in agricultural activities such as farming, dairy, fisheries and forestry. Another 25% of child labourers were in service activities such as retail, hawking goods, restaurants, load and transfer of goods, storage, picking and recycling trash, polishing shoes, domestic help, and other services. The remaining 15% laboured in assembly and manufacturing in informal economy, home-based enterprises, factories, mines, packaging salt, operating machinery, and such operations. Two out of three child workers work alongside their parents, in unpaid family work situations. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants. Child labour predominantly occurs in the rural areas (70%) and informal urban sector (26%). Contrary to popular belief, most child labourers are employed by their parents rather than in manufacturing or formal economy. Children who work for pay or in-kind compensation are usually found in rural settings as opposed to urban centres. Less than 3% of child labour aged 5–14 across the world work outside their household, or away from their parents. Child labour accounts for 22% of the workforce in Asia, 32% in Africa, 17% in Latin America, 1% in the US, Canada, Europe and other wealthy nations. The proportion of child labourers varies greatly among countries and even regions inside those countries. Africa has the highest percentage of children aged 5–17 employed as child labour, and a total of over 65 million. Asia, with its larger population, has the largest number of children employed as child labour at about 114 million. Latin America and the Caribbean region have lower overall population density, but at 14 million child labourers has high incidence rates too. A boy repairing a tire in Gambia Accurate present day child labour information is difficult to obtain because of disagreements between data sources as to what constitutes child labour. In some countries, government policy contributes to this difficulty. For example, the overall extent of child labour in China is unclear due to the government categorising child labour data as "highly secret".China has enacted regulations to prevent child labour; still, the practice of child labour is reported to be a persistent problem within China, generally in agriculture and low-skill service sectors as well as small workshops and manufacturing enterprises. In 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor, where China was attributed 12 goods, the majority of which were produced by both underage children and indentured labourers. The report listed electronics, garments, toys, and coal, among other goods. The Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 survey reports that 76 countries pose extreme child labour complicity risks for companies operating worldwide. The ten highest risk countries in 2012, ranked in decreasing order, were: Myanmar, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Burundi, Pakistan and Ethiopia. Of the major growth economies, Maplecroft ranked Philippines 25th riskiest, India 27th, China 36th, Vietnam 37th, Indonesia 46th, and Brazil 54th, all of them rated to involve extreme risks of child labour uncertainties, to corporations seeking to invest in developing world and import products from emerging markets. Causes Young girl working on a loom in Aït Benhaddou, Morocco, in May 2008 Agriculture deploys 70% of the world's child labour. Above, child worker on a rice farm in Vietnam. The ILO suggests that poverty is the greatest single cause behind child labour. For impoverished households, income from a child's work is usually crucial for his or her own survival or for that of the household. Income from working children, even if small, may be between 25 and 40% of the household income. Other scholars such as Harsch on African child labour, and Edmonds and Pavcnik on global child labour have reached the same conclusion. While poverty is a significant factor, the relationship between poverty and child labor is complex. Research suggests that child labor generally decreases as household productive wealth (measured by agricultural per capita land holding in rural areas) increases. However, there can be a significant spike in the relationship between child labor and landholding at moderate levels of land per capita. Lack of meaningful alternatives, such as affordable schools and quality education, according to the ILO, is another major factor driving children to harmful labour. Children work because they have nothing better to do. Many communities, particularly rural areas where between 60 and 70% of child labour is prevalent, do not possess adequate school facilities. Even when schools are sometimes available, they are too far away, difficult to reach, unaffordable or the quality of education is so poor that parents wonder if going to school is really worth it. Cultural factors In European history when child labour was common, as well as in contemporary child labour of modern world, certain cultural beliefs have grounded it. Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill development of children. In many cultures, particular where the informal economy and small household businesses thrive, the cultural tradition is that children follow in their parents' footsteps; child labour then is a means to learn and practice that trade from a very early age. Similarly, in many cultures the education of girls is less valued or girls are simply not expected to need formal schooling, and these girls pushed into child labour such as providing domestic services. Macroeconomics Biggeri and Mehrotra have studied the macroeconomic factors that encourage child labour. They focus their study on five Asian nations including India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines. They suggest that child labour is a serious problem in all five, but it is not a new problem. Macroeconomic causes encouraged widespread child labour across the world, over most of human history. They suggest that the causes for child labour include both the demand and the supply side. While poverty and unavailability of good schools explain the child labour supply side, they suggest that the growth of low-paying informal economy rather than higher paying formal economy is amongst the causes of the demand side. Other scholars too suggest that inflexible labour market, size of informal economy, inability of industries to scale up and lack of modern manufacturing technologies are major macroeconomic factors affecting demand and acceptability of child labour.

Maharashtra Women's Policy: Objectives, Schemes, and Rights

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