Functions of Management PDF

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT PLANNING TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES The Nature of Planning Managers often face overwhelming activities that can cloud their judgment. When confronted with multiple simultaneous situations, it is easy to lose sight of important concerns. To mi...

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT PLANNING TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES The Nature of Planning Managers often face overwhelming activities that can cloud their judgment. When confronted with multiple simultaneous situations, it is easy to lose sight of important concerns. To minimize mistakes in decision-making, planning is essential. A plan provides a methodical way of achieving desired results, serving as a guide in the implementation of activities. Without a plan, minor tasks may receive undue attention, hindering the accomplishment of objectives. Definitions of Planning Various experts define planning in ways that suit specific purposes. For our purpose, planning can be defined as selecting the best course of action to achieve the desired result. The primary focus is on the desired result, with the chosen course of action being the means to realize the goal. In simple terms, planning means deciding the best way to get what you want. The main focus is on what you want to achieve, and then figuring out the steps to get there. Planning at Various Management Levels Engineer managers can occupy positions at different management levels, each requiring specific planning activities. Top management is involved in strategic planning, which determines the major goals of the organization and the policies and strategies for obtaining and using resources to achieve those goals. This level of planning considers the entire company, its objectives, and its resources. The output of strategic planning is a strategic plan that outlines long-range goals and the actions needed to achieve them. Example: The CEO and senior executives meet to discuss the company’s vision for the future. The strategic plan serves as a roadmap, detailing the steps needed to reach the company’s vision of sustainability, ensuring everyone in the organization knows their role in achieving these long-range goals. Middle management engages in intermediate planning, determining the contributions subunits can make with allocated resources. This planning supports the strategic plan by setting goals for subunits and creating plans to achieve them. Example: Increasing sales of 30%. They analyze the strategic plan set by top management to understand how their specific regions or departments can contribute to the company's goal of increasing online sales by 30% over the next two years. Lower management focuses on operational planning, determining how specific tasks can be accomplished on time with available resources. This planning supports both the strategic and intermediate plans. Example: Production supervisors and team leaders engage in operational planning. By focusing on operational planning, lower management ensures that day-to-day activities align with both the strategic goals set by top management and the intermediate goals set by middle management. The Planning Process The planning process involves several steps, depending on the management level. Generally, it includes: 1. Setting goals The first step in the planning process is to establish goals. Goals provide a sense of direction and purpose, guiding the organization towards its desired outcomes. Clear goals help ensure that everyone within the organization understands their role in achieving the overall objectives. 2. Developing strategies or tactics to reach those goals Once goals are set, the next step is to develop strategies or tactics to achieve them. (Difference between strategies and tactics). Strategies are long-term plans formulated by top management to ensure that the organization reaches its objectives. Tactics, on the other hand, are short-term actions taken by middle and lower management to address immediate challenges and support the overall strategies. Tactics are more focused and specific, often involving day-to-day operations. 3. Determining the resources needed; and Resources include both human (personnel) and nonhuman (equipment, materials) elements. The quality and quantity of these resources must be accurately assessed to avoid wastage and ensure optimal performance. 4. Setting standards. Standards are benchmarks or criteria against which actual performance is compared. They provide a way to monitor progress and make necessary adjustments if  performance deviates from the plan. Standards can be quantitative, such as production targets, or qualitative, such as customer satisfaction levels. For instance, a company might set a standard for the minimum number of units produced per worker per day. If actual production falls below this standard, the company can investigate the cause and take corrective action, such as additional training or process Types of Plans Each type serves a specific purpose and helps in addressing different aspects of organizational management. Functional Area Plans Plans may be prepared according to the needs of the different functional areas. Among the types of functional area plans are the following: 1. Marketing plan- this is the written document or blueprint for implementing and controlling an organization's marketing activities related to a particular marketing strategy. 2. Production plan - this is a written document that states the quantity of output a company must produce in broad terms and by product family. 3. Financial plan - it is a document that summarizes the current financial situation of the firm, analyzes financial needs, and recommends a direction for financial activities. 4. Human resource management plan - it is a document that indicates the human resource needs of a company detailed in terms of quantity and quality and based on the requirements of the company's strategic plan. Plans with Time Horizon: 1. Short-Range Plans: These plans cover a period of less than one year and are primarily concerned with the immediate tasks and goals. First-line supervisors and lower management typically handle these plans. 2. Long-Range Plans: These plans span more than one year and are undertaken by middle and top management. They focus on achieving long-term goals and setting the direction for the organization’s future. Plans According to Frequency of Use: 1. Standing Plans: These plans are used repeatedly in recurring situations and provide consistent guidance for managers. They include: o Policies: Broad guidelines to aid managers in decision-making about recurring situations. o Procedures: Detailed series of actions to be taken in specific situations. o Rules: Specific statements that either require or forbid certain actions. 2. Single-Use Plans: These plans are developed for unique, non-recurring situations and are not intended for repeated use. They include: o Budgets: Plans that set forth projected expenditures for certain activities and explain where the required funds will come from. o Programs: Single-use plans designed to coordinate a large set of activities. o Projects: Smaller in scope than programs, projects are single-use plans prepared to support a specific program or initiative. Making planning effective Planning is done so that some desired results may be achieved. At times, however, failure in planning occurs. Planning may be made successful if the following are observed: 1. recognize the planning barriers 2. use of aids to planning. The planning barriers, according to Plunkett and Attner, are as follows: 1. Potential obstacles that could hinder the planning process 2. Manager's inability to plan 3. Improper planning process 4. Lack of commitment to the planning process 5. Improper information 6. Focusing on the present at the expense of the future 7. Too much reliance on the planning department 8. Concentrating on only the controllable variables Among the aids to planning that may be used are: Utilize tools and resources 1. Gather as much information as possible 2. Develop multiple sources of information 3. Involve others in the planning process ORGANIZING TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES REASONS FOR ORGANIZING o Facilitate the implementation of plans. o Break down the total job into manageable tasks. o Assign specific tasks to individuals. o Facilitate assignment of authority, responsibility, and accountability. ORGANIZING DEFINED ✔ Organizing is a management function which refers to “the structuring of resources and activities to accomplish objectives in an efficient and effective manner.” ✔ The result of the organizing process is the structure. THE PURPOSE OF THE STRUCTURE 1. It establishes task and authority relationships for individuals and departments. 2. It determines formal reporting structures, hierarchy levels, and span of control. 3. It organizes individuals into departments and departments into the organization. 4. It coordinates efforts vertically (authority) and horizontally (tasks). KEY CONSIDERATIONS WHEN STRUCTURING AN ORGANIZATION: 1. Division of Labor 2. Delegation of Authority 3. Departmentation 4. Span of Control 5. Coordination FORMAL ORGANIZATION ✔ According to Nickels and others, it is the structure that details lines of responsibilities, authority, and position. ✔ According to Kast (1979), it is the planned structure, and it represents the deliberate attempt to establish patterned relationships among components that will meet the objectives effectively.  ✔ The formal structure is described by management through: 1. Organization Chart 2. Organizational Manual 3. Policy Manuals FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS ✔ Formal Group – It is a part of the organization structure that is assigned to perform specific tasks aimed at achieving organizational objectives. ✔ Informal Group - It is not a part of the formal organization, and it does not have a formal performance purpose. TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES 1. Functional Organization o A form of departmentalization in which everyone engaged in one functional activity, such as engineering or marketing, is grouped into one unit. ADVANTAGES 1. Efficient resource use 2. Unified direction 3. Excellent intra-department communication 4. High-quality problem-solving 5. Skill specialization  6. Career progression DISADVANTAGES 1. Poor inter-departmental communication. 2. Delays in decision-making at top levels 3. Routine tasks, low motivation 4. Difficulty in problem responsibility assignment 5. Limited employee awareness of organizational goals. 6. Limited general management training for employees. 2. Product or Market Organization o Organizes a company by divisions focusing on specific products or customer types. ADVANTAGES 1. Flexibility 2. Customer-focused 3. Cross-functional coordination 4. Clear responsibility 5. Emphasis on product goals DISADVANTAGES  1. Resource duplication 2. Less technical depth 3. Poor inter-divisional coordination 4. Reduced top management control 5. Competition for resources 3. Matrix Organization o An organizational structure in which each employee reports to both a functional or division manager and to a project or group manager. ADVANTAGES 1. Efficient resource use 2. Adaptability 3. Development of management skills 4. Interdisciplinary cooperation 5. Motivating task assignments DISADVANTAGES 1. Dual chain of command. 2. Conflict between divisions and functions 3. Excessive meetings, limited action 4. Need for human relations training 5. Power struggles TYPES OF AUTHORITY 1. Line Authority o A manager’s right to tell subordinates what to do and then see that they do it. o Line departments perform tasks that reflect the organization’s primary goal and mission. 2. Staff authority o A staff specialist’s right to give advice to a superior. o Staff departments include all those that provide specialized skills in support of line departments. Classifications of Staff Officers: a. Personal staff b. Specialized staff 3. Functional authority o A specialist’s right to oversee lower-level personnel involved in that specialty, regardless of where the personnel are in the organization. THE PURPOSE OF COMMITTEES Committees serve to achieve organizational goals when existing formal groups are inadequate. They are formal groups formed for specific purposes. Committees are particularly valuable to engineering and manufacturing firms. CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMMITTEES 1. Ad hoc committee — one created for a short-term purpose and have a limited life.  2. Standing committee — it is a relatively permanent committee that deals with issues on an ongoing basis. STAFFING Staffing The management function that determines human resource needs, recruits, selects, trains, and develops human resources for jobs created by an organization. The Staffing Procedure 1. Human resource planning 2. Recruitment 3. Selection 4. Induction and orientation 5. Training and development 6. Performance appraisal 7. Employment decisions 8. Separations Human Resource Planning Activities for Human Resource Planning 1. Forecasting – assessment of future human resource needs Methods of Forecasting a. Time series methods – use historical data to make forecast b. Explanatory or casual models – attempt to identify major variables in the past Types of Explanatory Models: i. Regression model ii. Econometric model iii. Leading indicators c. Monitoring methods – provide early warning signals of significant changes to assess impact and plan responses 2. Programming – translating the forecasted human resource needs to personnel objectives and goals 3. Evaluation and Control – monitoring human resource action plans and evaluating their success Recruitment – attracting qualified persons to apply for vacant positions in the company Source of Applicants 1. Organization’s current employees 2. Newspaper advertising 3. Schools 4. Referrals from employees 5. Recruitment firms 6. Competitors Selection - The act of choosing individuals most likely to succeed on the job - Its purpose is to evaluate each candidate and pick the most suited for the position Ways of Determining the Qualifications of a Job Candidate 1. Application Blanks – provides information about a person’s characteristics 2. References – written by other people that provides information of applicant 3. Interviews – gathering information by asking relevant questions 4. Testing – evaluation of future behavior or performance of an individual Types of Tests a. Psychological Tests – an objective, standard measure of a sample behavior Classifications: i. Aptitude test – capacity or potential ability to learn ii. Performance test – current knowledge of a subject iii. Personality test – personality traits as dominance, sociability, and conformity iv. Interest test – interest in various fields of work b. Physical Examination – given to assure that the health of the applicant is adequate to meet the job requirements Induction and Orientation Induction - The new employee is provided with information about the company - His duties, responsibilities, and benefits are relayed to him - Personnel and health forms are filled up, and passes are issued - The company history, products and services, and the organization structure are explained Orientation - The new employee is introduced to the immediate working environment and co-workers - The location, rules, equipment, procedures, training plans, and performance are discussed - The new employee undergoes the “socialization process” Training and Development – learning that is provided to improve performance on the present job Training Program for Nonmanagers 1. On-the-job training – the trainee is placed in an actual work situation under a trainer 2. Vestibule school – the trainee is placed in a situation almost exactly similar as the workplace 3. Apprenticeship program – a combination of ojt and experiences with classroom instruction in particular subjects 4. Special courses – taken to provide more emphasis on education rather than training Training Program for Managers 1. Decision-making skills a. In-basket b. Management games c. Case studies 2. Interpersonal skills a. Role-playing b. Behavior modeling c. Sensitivity training d. Transactional analysis 3. Job knowledge a. On-the-job experiences b. Coaching c. Understudy 4. Organizational knowledge a. Position rotation b. Multiple management Performance Appraisal – the measurement of the performance of employees Purpose for Performance Appraisal 1. To influence employee performance and development 2. To determine merit, pay increases 3. To plan for future performance goals 4. To determine training and development needs 5. To assess the promotional potential of employees Ways of Appraising Performance 1. Rating scale method 2. Essay method 3. Management by objectives method 4. Assessment center method 5. Checklist method 6. Work standards method 7. Ranking method 8. Critical-incident method Employment Decisions 1. Monetary rewards - given to employees whose performance is at par or above standard requirements 2. Promotions - given as a reward for competence and ambition - refers to the movement by a person into a position of higher pay and greater responsibilities 3. Transfer - refers to the movement of a person to a different job with similar level of responsibility - made to provide growth opportunities or to get rid of poor performing employee 4. Demotion - refers to a movement from one position to another which has less pay or responsibility attached - used as a form of punishment or as temporary measure to keep an employee Separation Voluntary Separation - when made voluntary, the organization’s management must find out the real reason - if the presence of a defect in the organization is determined, corrective action is necessary Involuntary Separation or Termination - last option that the management exercises when an employee’s performance is poor or when he/she committed an act that violates the company rules and regulations - usually made after training efforts fail to produce positive results COMMUNICATING Communicating is a vital function of the engineer manager. Organizations cannot function properly without effective communication. What is communication? Morris Philip Wolf and Shirley Kuiper define communication as a process of sharing information through symbols, including words and message. " FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION 1. Information function- used for decision-making at various work levels in the organization. 2. Motivation function- to motivate employees to commit themselves to the organization's objectives. 3. Control function- when properly communicated, reports, policies, and plans 4. Emotive function- when feelings are repressed in the organization, employees are affected by anxiety, which, in turn, affects performance. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS The communication process consists of eight steps which are as follows: develop an idea, encode, transmit, receive, decode, accept, use, and provide feedback. Develop an Idea- The most important step in effective communication is developing an idea. Encode- The next step is to encode the idea into words, illustrations, figures, or other symbols suitable for transmission. Transmit- After encoding, the message is now ready for transmission through the use of an appropriate communication channel. Receive- The next step is the communication process is the actual receiving of the message by the intended receiver. Decode- means translating the message from the sender into a form that will have meaning to the recipient. Accept- The next step is for the receiver to accept or reject the message. Sometimes, acceptance (or rejection) is partial. Use- The next step is for the receiver to use the information. Provide Feedback- The last step in the communication process is for the receiver to provide feedback to the sender. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION Communication consists of two major forms: 1. Verbal and 2. Nonverbal Verbal Communication Verbal communications are those transmitted through hearing or sight. These modes of transmission categorize verbal communication into two classes: oral and written. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is a means of conveying message through body language, as well as the use of time, space, touch, clothing, appearance, and aesthetic elements. THE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION Various factors may impede the efficient flow of communication. The barriers to communication may be classified generally as: 1. personal barriers 2. physical barriers 3. semantic barriers Personal barriers Are hindrances to effective communication arising from a communicator's characteristics as a person. Physical barriers Refers to interferences to effective communication occurring in the environment where the communication is undertaken. Semantic Barriers A semantic barrier may be defined as an "interference with the reception of a message that occurs when the message is misunderstood even though it is received exactly as transmitted" OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION 1. Use feedback to facilitate understanding and increase tbe potential for appropriate action. 2. Repeat messages in order to provide assurance that they are properly received. 3. Use multiple channels so that the accuracy of the information may be enhanced. 4. Use simplified language that is easily understandable and which elimjnates the possibility of people getting mixed-up with meanings. TECHNIQUES FOR COMMUNICATING IN ORGANIZATIONS Downward Communication -Downward communication refers to message flows from higher levels of authority to lower levels. Upward Communication -Upward communication refers to messages from persons in lower-level positions to persons in higher positions. Horizontal Communication -Horizontal communication refers to messages sent to-individuals or groups from another of the same organizational level or position. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM -Management information systems are useful mean of communication The Purposes of MlS: a. To provide a basis for the analysis of early warning signals that can originate both externally and internally. b. To automate routine clerical operations like payroll and inventory reports.  c. To assist managers in making routine decisions like scheduling orders, assigning orders to machines, and reordering supplies. d. To provide the information necessary for management to make strategic or nonprogrammed decisions. MOTIVATION What is motivation? Motivating refers to the act of “giving employees reasons or incentives to work to achieve organizational objectives”. Motivation on the other hand, refers to the “process of activating behavior, sustaining it, and directing it toward a particular goal”. Factors Contributing to Motivation: 1. Willingness to do a job. People who like what they are doing are highly motivated to produce the expected output. 2. Self-confidence in carrying out a task. When employees feel that they have the required skill and training to perform a task, the more motivated they become. 3. Needs satisfaction. People will do their jobs well if they feel that by doing so, their needs will be satisfied. Theories of Motivation 1. Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory ▪ Psychologist Abraham Maslow theorized that human beings have five basic needs which are as follows: Physiological, Security, Social, Esteem, and Self-actualization. These needs are hierarchical, which means that one need will have to be satisfied first before the other need.  Physiological Needs. Those that are concerned with biological needs like food, drink, rest, and sex fall under the category of physiological needs. Security Needs. These needs include freedom from harm coming from elements or other people, financial security which may be affected by the loss of job or the breadwinner in the family, etc. Social Needs. After satisfying physiological and security needs, the employee will now strive to secure love, affection, and the need to be accepted by peers. Esteem Needs. They refer to the need for a positive self-image and self-respect and the need to be respected by others. Self-Actualization Needs. The fifth and topmost level needs in the hierarchy involves realizing our full potential as human beings and becoming all that we are to be. 2. Herzberg's two-factor theory The two-factor theory is one developed by Frederick Herzberg indicating that a satisfied employee is motivated from within themselves to work harder and that a dissatisfied employee is not self-motivated. 3. Expectancy theory Expectancy theory is a motivation model based on the assumption that an individual will work depending on his perception of the probability of his expectations to happen. 4. Goal setting theory The Goal Setting Theory of motivation, developed by Edwin Locke in the 1960s, posits that setting specific and challenging goals leads to higher performance and motivation.  Clarity: Goals should be clear and specific. Vague or general goals are less motivating because they don't provide a clear direction. Challenge: Goals should be challenging yet attainable. Goals that are too easy do not motivate, while goals that are too difficult can be discouraging. Commitment: Individuals must be committed to the goal. Greater commitment leads to higher motivation and effort. Feedback: Regular feedback helps individuals track their progress towards the goal and make necessary adjustments. Task Complexity: The complexity of the task should be considered. For complex tasks, it's important to set smaller, intermediate goals. Techniques of Motivation 1. Motivation through Job Design o A person will be highly motivated to perform if they are assigned to a job they like. Job design may be defined as “Specifying the tasks that constitute a job for an individual or a group”. ▪ The two approaches to job design: 1. Fitting People to Jobs – Routine and repetitive tasks make workers suffer from chronic dissatisfaction. To remedy this, management may employ Realistic job previews, Job rotations, and limited exposure to tedious jobs. 2. Fitting Jobs to People – Instead of changing the person, management may consider changing the job. This may be achieved by Job enlargement where two or more specialized tasks work in a flow combined into a single job, or Job Enrichment where efforts are made to make jobs more interesting, challenging, and rewarding. 2. Motivation through Rewards o Properly administered reward systems can improve job performance and satisfaction ▪ The two categories of Rewards: 1. Intrinsic Rewards – Those which are internally experienced payoffs which are self-granted. Examples include a sense of accomplishment, self-esteem, and self-actualization. 2. Extrinsic Rewards – Those which refer to payoffs granted to the individual by another party such as money, benefits, promotions, recognition, status symbols, praise, etc. 3. Motivation through Employee Participation o When employees participate in deciding various aspects of their jobs, their personal involvement is carried up to the point where the task is completed. ▪ Employees may participate in the following specific activities: Setting goals Making decisions Solving problems Designing and implementing organizational changes ▪ The two most popular approaches are Quality Control Circles and Self-managed Team. 4. Other Motivation Techniques o Some popular motivation techniques include: ▪ Flexible work schedules – An arrangement where employees determine their own arrival and departure times within specified limits. ▪ Family support services – Companies may provide day care facilities for children of employees and other such services to lessen the burden of employees burdened with family obligations. ▪ Sabbaticals – A leave that is given to an employee after a certain number of years of service. (E.g., an employee that is allowed to go on leave for two months to one year with pay to give the, time for family, recreation, and travel.) LEADING Leading is that management function which "involve influencing others to engage in the work behaviors necessary to reach organizational goals”. Leading refers to the function, leadership refers to the process. How leaders influence others Engineer managers are expected to maintain effective work forces. To be able to do so, they are required to perform leadership roles. Leaders are said to be able to influence others because of the power they possess. Power Power refers to the ability of a leader to exert force on another. Bases of Power The power possessed by leaders may be classified according to various bases. They are as follows: a. Legitimate Power. A person who occupies a higher position has legitimate power over persons in lower within the organization. A supervisor, for instance. can issue orders to the workers in his unit Compliance can be expected. b. Reward Power. When a person has the ability to give rewards to anybody who follows orders or requests he is said to have reward power. Rewards may be classified into two forms: material and psychic. c. Material rewards. Refer to money or other tangible benefits like cars. house and lot. etc. Psychic rewards consist of recognition, praises, etc.  d. Coercive Power. When a person compels another to comply with orders through threats or punishment, he is said to possess coercive power. Punishment may take the form of demotion, dismissal, withholding of promotion, etc. e. Referent Power. When a person can get compliance from another because the latter would want to be identified with the former, that person is said to have referent power. f. Expert Power. Experts provide specialized information regarding their specific lines of expertise. This influence called expert power, is by people with great skills in technology. Traits of Effective Leaders There are certain leadership traits identified by researchers and which may be useful in developing effective leaders. These traits are as follows: a. Personal Drive. Persons with drive are those identified as willing to accept responsibility, possess vigor, initiative, persistence, and health. b. The Desire to Lead. there are some persons who have all the qualifications for leadership. yet they could become leaders because they lack one special requirement the desire to lead. c. Personal Integrity. A person who is well-regarded by others as one who has integrity possesses one trait of a leader. d. Self-Confidence. The activities of leaders require moves that will produce the needed outputs. The steps of conceptualizing, organizing, and implementing will be completed if sustained efforts are made. For the to be continuous and precise. self-confidence is necessary. e. Analytical Ability. A leader with sufficient skill to determine the root cause of the problem may be able to help the subordinate to improve his production. f. Knowledge of the Company, Industry or technology. A leader who is well-informed about his company. The industry where the company belongs. and the technology utilized by the industry, will be in a better position to provide directions to his unit. g. Charisma. When a person has sufficient personal magnetism that leads people to follow his directives, this person is said to have charisma. h. Creativity. A good leader should be creative. i. Flexibility. People differ in the way they do their work. One will adapt a different method from another person’s method Leadership Skills a. Technical Skills. These are skills a leader must possess to enable him to understand and make decisions about work processes, activities, and technology.  b. Human Skills. These skills refer to the ability of a leader to deal with people, both inside and outside the organization. c. Conceptual Skills. These skills refer to -the ability to think in abstract terms. to see how parts fit together to form the whole. Behavioral approaches to leadership styles Those in positions of leadership exhibit a pattern of behavior that is unique and different from other patterns. This total pattern of behavior is called leadership style. According to the ways leaders approach people to motivate them. Ways leaders approach people There are two ways, a leader may approach people to motivate them. 1. Positive leadership When the leader's approach emphasizes rewards, the style used is positive leadership. 2. Negative leadership When punishment is emphasized by the leader, the style is said to be negative leadership. Ways Leaders Uses Power Autocratic Leaders. Leaders who make decisions themselves, without consulting subordinates are called autocratic leaders. Motivation takes the form of threats, punishment, and intimidation of all kinds. Participative Leaders. When a leader openly invites his subordinates to participate or share in decisions, policy-making and operation methods, he is said to be a participative leader. Free-Rein Leaders. Leaders who set objectives and allow employees or subordinates relative freedom to do whatever it takes to accomplish these objectives, are called free-rein leaders. they are also referred to as laissez faire leaders. Leaders Orientation Toward Tasks and People Leaders may be classified according to how they view tasks and people. Consequently, a leader may either be: (l) employee oriented or (2) task oriented.  Employee Orientation. A leader is said to be employee oriented when he considers employees as human beings of “intrinsic importance and with individual and personal need” to satisfy. Task Orientation, A leader is said to be task-oriented if he places stress on production and the technical aspects of the job and the employees are viewed as the means of getting the work done. Contingency approaches to leadership style The contingency approach is “an effort to determine through research which managerial practices 'and techniques are appropriate in specific situations. Fiedler's Contingency Model. According to Fred Fiedler, "leadership is effective when the leader's style is appropriate to the situation. Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model situational leadership model developed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests that the most important factor affecting the selection of a style is the development (or maturity) level of subordinate. The leader should match his or her style to this maturity level. Path-Goal Model of Leadership. The path-goal model of leadership espoused by Robert J. House and Terence R. Mitchell, stipulates that leadership can be made effective because leaders can influence subordinate's perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment. Vroom's Decision-Making Model. Model of leadership is one that prescribes the proper leadership style for various situations, focusing on the appropriate degrees of delegation of decision-making authority. CONTROLLING Controlling is a crucial function of management, particularly in engineering management, where precision, efficiency, and adherence to standards are essential. The controlling function involves monitoring performance, comparing actual results with planned objectives, and taking corrective actions as necessary to ensure that goals are achieved. Key Aspects of Controlling 1.Setting Performance Standards Establish clear, measurable performance standards based on organizational goals. These standards serve as benchmarks against which actual performance can be compared 2. Measurement of Actual Performance Collect and measure data on actual performance. Use various tools and techniques Such as key performance indicators, performance appraisals, and financial statements to gather accurate data. 3. Comparison of Performance Against Standards Compare the measured performance with the established standards. Identify any deviations from the standards. 4. Analyzing Deviations Determine the reasons for deviations. Understand whether they are due to  Internal factors (e.g., inadequate training, poor communication) or external factors (e.g., market changes, supply chain disruptions). 5. Taking Corrective Actions Develop and implement strategies to correct any deviations. This might involve adjusting processes, reallocating resources, additional training, or revising goals. 6. Feedback Loop Ensure that feedback is provided to employees and stakeholders. Use the feedback to refine and improve future planning and performance standards. Importance in Engineering Management Quality Control -Ensuring that products and services meet the required standards and specifications. Cost Control -Keeping projects within budget by monitoring expenses and making necessary adjustments. Time Management- Ensuring that projects are completed on schedule, which is critical in engineering projects where delays can be costly. Risk Management- Identifying potential risks early and taking steps to mitigate them. Efficiency Improvement-Continuously improving processes to enhance productivity and efficiency. Tools and Techniques in Controlling Control Charts- Used for monitoring the quality of processes and identifying any variations that may need correction. Budgetary Control- Involves managing financial resources by comparing actual expenditure with the budget. Audits- Regular examinations of processes and systems to ensure compliance with standards and regulations. Performance Appraisals- Assessing employee performance and providing feedback to guide improvements. Management Information Systems (MIS)- Using technology to collect, process, and analyze data for better decision-making. Challenges in Controlling Dynamic Environments- Rapid changes in technology and market conditions can make it difficult to maintain control. Complexity of Projects- Engineering projects often involve complex processes and multiple stakeholders, complicating the control function. Resistance to Change-Employees and teams may resist corrective actions, especially if they involve significant changes to established processes. Effective controlling in engineering management ensures that projects are completed successfully, within scope, time, and budget, while maintaining high standards of quality and safety.