FS1_FINALS-HANDOUTS-revised PDF

FSTUD 1- FIELD STUDY 1 Observations of Teaching- Learning in Actual School Environment TOPICS FOR FINALS Introduction to Curriculum Development What is a curriculum? It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was t...

FSTUD 1- FIELD STUDY 1 Observations of Teaching- Learning in Actual School Environment TOPICS FOR FINALS Introduction to Curriculum Development What is a curriculum? It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. Kerr defines curriculum as, 'All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999). Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from the pre-Spanish times to the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves as focus of emphases/priorities of the leadership at certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race. 1. As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and devoid of methods. Children were provided more vocational training and less academics (3 Rs) by their parents and in the houses of tribal tutors. 2. The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the Spanish colonization. The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish Missionaries. Education was religion-oriented. It was for the elite, especially in the early years of Spanish colonization. Access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized through the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the municipal government; and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the supervision of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory. Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and controlled. 3. The defeat of Spain by American forces paved the way for Aguinaldo’s Republic under a Revolutionary Government. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed for the time being but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The Burgos Institute in Malolos, the Military Academy of Malolos, and the Literary University of the Philippines were established. A system of free and compulsory elementary education was established by the Malolos Constitution. 4. An adequate secularized and free public school system during the first decade of American rule was established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Chaplains and non-commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as the medium of instruction. 5. A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission by virtue of Act No. 74. The implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. They were the Thomasites. Official Titular Year Official Name of Department Legal Bases Head Superior Commission of Primary 1863 Chairman Educational Decree of 1863 Instruction General Act. No. 74 of the Philippine Commission, 1901-1916 Department of Public Instruction Superintendent Jan. 21, 1901 1916-1942 Department of Public Instruction Secretary Organic Act Law of 1916 (Jones Law) Department of Education, Health Renamed by the Japanese Executive 1942-1944 Commissioner and Public Welfare Commission, June 11, 1942 Department of Education, Health Renamed by Japanese Sponsored 1944 Minister and Public Welfare Philippine Republic Renamed by Japanese Sponsored 1944 Department of Public Instruction Secretary Philippine Republic Department of Public Instruction Renamed by the Commonwealth 1945-1946 Secretary and Information Government Renamed by the Commonwealth 1946-1947 Department of Instruction Secretary Government E.O. No. 94 October 1947 1947-1975 Department of Education Secretary (Reorganization Act of 1947) Department of Education and 1975-1978 Secretary Proc. No. 1081, September 24, 1972 Culture 1978-1984 Ministry of Education and Culture Minister P.D. No. 1397, June 2, 1978 Ministry of Education, Culture and 1984-1986 Minister Education Act of 1982 Sports Department of Education, Culture 1987-1994 Secretary E.O. No. 117. January 30, 1987 and Sports Department of Education, Culture RA 7722 and RA 7796, 1994 1994-2001 Secretary and Sports Trifocalization of Education Management RA 9155, August 2001 (Governance of 2001 – present Department of Education Secretary Basic Education Act) 6. The high school system supported by provincial governments, special educational institutions, school of arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine institutes were established in 1902 by the Philippine Commission. In 1908, the Philippine Legislature approved Act No. 1870 which created the University of the Philippines. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  7. The Reorganization Act of 1916 provided the Filipinization of all department secretaries except the Secretary of Public Instruction. 8. Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in 1942. The Philippine Executive Commission established the Commission of Education, Health and Public Welfare and schools were reopened in June 1942. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese – sponsored Republic created the Ministry of Education. Under the Japanese regime, the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine History, and Character Education was reserved for Filipinos. Love for work and dignity of labor was emphasized. On February 27, 1945, the Department of Instruction was made part of the Department of Public Instruction. 9. In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94, the Department of Instruction was changed to Department of Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools. 10. In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by virtue of Proclamation 1081 and the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 y virtue of P.D. No. 1397. Thirteen regional offices were created and major organizational changes were implemented in the educational system. 11. The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports which later became the Department of Education, Culture and Sports in 1987 by virtue of Executive Order No. 117. The structure of DECS as embodied in EO No. 117 has practically remained unchanged until 1994 when the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and 1995 when the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) were established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree technical-vocational programs, respectively. 12. The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report provided the impetus for Congress to pass RA 7722 and RA 7796 in 1994 creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), respectively. 13. The trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to basic education which covers elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture and sports. TESDA now administers the post-secondary, middle-level manpower training and development while CHED is responsible for higher education. 14. In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education Act, was passed transforming the name of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to the Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field offices (regional offices, division offices, district offices and schools). RA 9155 provides the overall framework for (i) school head empowerment by strengthening their leadership roles and (ii) school-based management within the context of transparency and local accountability. The goal of basic education is to provide the school age population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens. The Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum Republic Act No. 10533 AN ACT ENHANCING THE PHILIPPINE BASIC EDUCATION SYSTEM BY STRENGTHENING ITS CURRICULUM AND INCREASING THE NUMBER OF YEARS FOR BASIC EDUCATION, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo The Instructional Cycle Implementing the Instructional Cycle This instructional cycle consists of three stages. These three items comprise the instructional cycle stages. Stage 1: Intended Instructional Outcomes Effective teachers begin the instructional cycle by identifying the content standards and benchmarks that the lesson or unit will address. Next, the content standards are translated into measurable learning outcomes. At this stage of the instructional cycle, the teacher has a clear idea of what students need to know, understand, and be able to do to meet the standards- based curriculum. It is important for teachers to keep in mind how they will assess the intended learning outcomes. Stage 2: Planning In the second stage, teachers should plan effective teaching strategies and instructional activities. It is also important that teachers plan on-going formal (e.g., standardized tests) and informal (e.g., teacher-made tests, portfolios) assessments to determine students’ progress. Once the learning outcomes, instruction, and assessment have been planned, the teacher will carry out the planned instruction. Stage 3: Assessment In this third stage, teachers actually implement their planned assessments to determine whether students have met the intended learning outcomes. It is important to understand that assessment is not something that occurs only at the end of the instructional cycle. Assessment is planned when the intended outcomes are conceptualized and implemented during instruction and at the end of instruction to determine whether students have mastered the intended learning outcomes. What is Curriculum Development ? Curriculum Development is the step-by-step process of designing and improving the course offered at schools, colleges and universities. Even though each institution will have its own process, the broad stages of the framework consist of analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo Curriculum refers to specific lessons and academic content taught in schools and educational institutes for a particular course or program. On the other hand, curriculum development is a process that aims to improve the curriculum by using various approaches. Few of the commonly used techniques include need and task analysis, objective design, choosing appropriate teaching and learning methods, choosing assessment methods, and forming the curriculum committee and curriculum review committee. Types of Curriculum Development Models: 1) Learner-centered design The learner-centered design focuses on the understanding that each learner has different characteristics. The teachers or instructors are to give opportunities to the learners to take ownership of a project or assignment. They require to create chances for independent learning with well-regulated liberty. This indicates that students take a more active role in the classroom, but it is to be done under the instructor's guidance. There are four distinct attributes of learner-centered design, which includes: A. Context- This refers to the assignments and tasks given in the classroom that should have real-world application. Consequently, the relevant context in student learning will help learners to connect with what they are learning. B. Construction - Learners should relate their own experiences and prior learning with new learning. C. Collaboration- Creating an environment and providing opportunities that encourage collaboration between classmates. Activities like group discussions and team assignments allows the learners to only form individuality but also expose to others’ opinions. D. Conversation- Exercises to improve learners' communication skills are mandatory, and hence instructors should employ them accordingly. 2) Subject-centered design Subject-centered design is a traditional approach to curriculum that focuses on a particular Subject matter or discipline rather than on the individual. Additionally, during the curriculum development process, this approach includes four subtypes of curriculum designs: subject-area design, discipline design, broad-field design, and correlation design. 3) Problem-centered design Problem-centered design is an approach that focuses on developing problem-solving skills, thinking and communication skills. This is a student-centric strategy wherein the learners are given problematic situations and encouraged to solve them after careful observation. Elements of Curriculum Development Curriculum strategy consists of various elements that form the basis of a robust curriculum Objectives of Curriculum: This is the core purpose of a curriculum design exercise. It asks and answers questions such as What are we trying to achieve with the curriculum and what is the goal or focus at this stage of FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo student learning? What is the knowledge we are trying to impart and what behavioural skills are we trying to inculcate in the students? 1. Content of Curriculum: Based on the objectives defined, this part lists the actual syllabus and topics to be covered. A curriculum developer has the tough job of balancing different factors that influence a curriculum – learning and developmental needs, cultural norms, government guidelines, school policies, etc. Overall continuity between the curriculum taught at the previous level and the one to be taught at the next level also needs to be taken into account. 2. Teaching/ Learning Methodologies: This part lays down how the curriculum will be rolled out. It deals specifically with instruction design. Which lessons will benefit more from interactive teaching styles and which from the traditional instruction methods? The objective is to arrive at the most effective teaching methods or strategies for the given behavioural, cognitive, and applicable knowledge to be imparted. This section also deals with the methods most suitable for the assessment of this knowledge. 3. Evaluation of Curriculum: Different from student learning assessment, the focus here is to evaluate if the designed curriculum meets the initial objectives laid out for it and achieves the desired results. Process Of Curriculum Development The curriculum development process consists of the following six stages. Stage 1: Assessing the educational needs Stage 2: Formulating objectives and learning goals Stage 3: Careful selection of learning experiences to accomplish these objectives Stage 4: The selecting the rich and valuable content through which teachers can offer the learning experiences. Stage 5: Organizing and integrating learning experiences with relevant content keeping in mind the teaching-learning process Stage 6: Timely and accurate evaluation of all the above phases. Principles of Curriculum Development The principles of the curriculum are norms, values, moralities, and philosophies that will benefit teachers, students, and the whole education system. The curriculum and instructional strategy are essential components of imparting knowledge to students. Totality Of Experiences Child-Centeredness Conservation And Creativity Integration Flexibility Flexibility FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  Utility Character Formation Mental Discipline Social Fulfillment The following are a few of the basic principles of curriculum development : 1) Principle of Totality of Experiences It is imperative to realize that curriculum does not merely indicate academic subjects traditionally taught in schools and colleges. It also includes the totality of experiences a student gains through several curricular, extra-curricular and co-curricular activities. 2) Principle of child-centeredness Instead of sticking to the predetermined curriculum, instructors must consider the child’s concerns, motives, and needs while developing the curriculum. In addition, while planning any curricular activities, educators must consider ways to enrich learners’ interests. 3) Principle of conservation and creativity While developing a curriculum, it is mandatory to include subjects and experiences that would help conserve cultural heritage. Furthermore, one of the most essential principles of curriculum development is that the curriculum cannot be static. On the contrary, it should be subject to modification as per the requirement aligned with the changing global educational trends and students’ needs. 4) Principle of integration The curriculum should be planned in such a way that varied subjects could be added at different stages of education. Similarly, the existing subjects should be able to integrate with other subjects apart from enabling the students to correlate with the content. 5) Principle of flexibility One of the ideal qualities that a curriculum should have is flexibility and dynamism, as this will be instrumental in serving the needs and concerns of individuals and society. Also, timely changes and appropriate modifications to the curriculum allows educators and learners alike to stay updated with academic goals. 6) Principle of utility Curriculum construction should follow the principle of utility, according to which educators must include content that is useful to the individual and society. In addition, the curriculum must consist of rich and valuable content that would be useful later in life. 7) Principle of character formation The goal of the curriculum is not just educating learners through bookish knowledge. It should also encourage the development of character and personality in students. Therefore, the curriculum must aid in students’ character training throughout the academic years. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo 8) Principle of mental discipline A significant task of the curriculum is to foster learners' various mental faculties or powers through cognitive training and practice. 9) Principle of social fulfillment Education aims to provide the overall development of the students through comprehensive teaching styles and content. Moreover, the curriculum should also consider adding the element of social life so that learners could gain insight into becoming responsible citizens. This gives us some basis to move on - and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features: 1. Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it. The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson. In what follows, we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice: 1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted. 2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students - product. 3. Curriculum as process. 4. Curriculum as praxis. Steps of Curriculum Development 1. Identify the Needs The first step in the curriculum development process is to understand the target audience and what their needs are. Though educators might be familiar with the standard developmental needs of students, swiftly changing environments generate newer learning requirements for them. Be it making the information more current, changing technology, or sudden changes in the learning environment with the pandemic, each of these developments warrants a change in the curriculum design. Being the ones implementing the curriculum, educators also receive first- hand insights and feedback on its merits and challenges. This puts them in a unique position of being able to identify any gaps in the curriculum, aligning with the ethos of the National Education Policy (NEP) which emphasizes the need for dynamic and responsive curriculum frameworks. 2. Build a Curriculum Development Team Building a curriculum is a team job. It needs the input and collaboration of Educators, Education policy experts, Content creators and designers, Government and school officials as well as Publishers of textbooks. This team needs a manager who can discuss and assign roles, list deliverables, set timelines, and most importantly keep everyone aligned and working toward the common goal of curriculum development in education. 3. Assess and Analyse the Requirements/ Needs This step is different from the first one in that, that the first step identifies the gaps in the curriculum and the needs of the students. This step is more curriculum-oriented. It works to identify the information and expertise required in the curriculum development process. It assesses what aspects of the curriculum design need reworking – product (new knonwledge), process (a different teaching method), or expertise (teacher training). FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo 4. List the Intended Outcomes Equipped with the information from steps 1 & 3, here, the team refines and re-articulates the goal and puts down the intended outcome. This detailed documentation puts down what new knowledge the student is getting, how it is imparted, and the resultant learning that takes place. It also covers the process, conditions, and outcomes at each stage of curriculum development. 5. Shortlist and Select Content The previous step feeds into this one. With a detailed road map of the desired outcome, the team now gets down to shortlisting and selecting the content. Factors such as current knowledge, skills, cultural implications, influence, and impact on the students play a key role in deciding this content. The detailing and depth of the topic as well as the sequence of information to be taught is also defined here. 6. Develop Teaching Methods Once the team has finalised the ‘What’ in the curriculum design, they next work on the ‘How’. At this stage, different teaching methods and strategies are evaluated to shortlist the most efficient one to drive the change in the curriculum and lead to the intended learning behaviours. Technology plays a big role today in engaging students and driving classroom learning. It has become one of the most resourceful allies for teachers not just in concept detailing but also in designing assessments. Smart Edtech providers such as Extramarks Assessment Center help teachers create effective assessments at each stage for better learning. 7. Finalise, Test, and Revise the Curriculum After all the hard work, it is time to take one final look at the changes introduced in the curriculum. This step is all about running the new curriculum through some test sites and getting feedback from other stakeholders. It makes sure that the changes align with the goals set at the beginning of this exercise before rolling it out. Some minor tweaks and realignment can make all the difference between a welcome change and a failed exercise. What is a Curriculum Guide? A curriculum guide is a structured document that delineates the philosophy, goals, objectives, learning experiences, instructional resources and assessments that comprise a specific educational program. Additionally, it represents an articulation of what students should know and be able to do and supports teachers in knowing how to achieve these goals. Accordingly, an exemplary guide is a tool that assists in planning and implementing a high quality instructional program. It: establishes a clear philosophy and set of overarching goals that guide the entire program and the decisions that affect each aspect of the program; establishes sequences both within and between levels and assures a coherent and articulated progression from grade to grade; outlines a basic framework for what to do, how to do it, when to do it and how to know if it has been achieved; allows for flexibility and encourages experimentation and innovation within an overall structure; FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  promotes interdisciplinary approaches and the integration of curricula when appropriate; suggests methods of assessing the achievement of the program's goals and objectives; provides a means for its own ongoing revision and improvement; and provides direction for procurement of human, material and fiscal resources to implement the program. The Curriculum Development Process The development of an effective curriculum guide is a multi-step, ongoing and cyclical process. The process progresses from evaluating the existing program, to designing an improved program, to implementing a new program and back to evaluating the revised program. Components of an Effective Curriculum Development Process A. Planning: 1. Convening a Curriculum Development Committee 2. Identifying Key Issues and Trends in the Specific Content Area 3. Assessing Needs and Issues B. Articulating and Developing: 4. Articulating a K-12 Program Philosophy 5. Defining K-12 Program, Grade-Level and Course Goals 6. Developing and Sequencing of Grade-Level and Course Objectives 7. Identifying Resource Materials to Assist with Program Implementation 8. Developing and/or Identifying Assessment Items and Instruments to Measure Student Progress C. Implementing: 9. Putting the New Program into Practice D. Evaluating: 10. Updating the Program 11. Determining the Success of the Program Role of RPMS-PPST in Teachers’ Learning and Development Understanding RPMS, PPST The RPMS is being implemented in consonance with the Civil Service Commission’s (CSC) Strategic Performance Management System (SPMS). It follows the four-phase cycle of SPMS prescribed in CSC Memorandum Circular No. 6, s. 2012 and aims to ensure that both teaching and non-teaching personnel focus work efforts toward achieving the Department’s vision, mission, values, and strategic priorities. As stipulated in DepEd Order No. 2, s. 2015 (Guidelines on the Establishment and Implementation of RPMS in DepEd), RPMS is a systemic mechanism to manage, monitor and measure performance, and identify human resource and FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo organizational development needs to enable continuous work improvement and individual growth. The PPST outlines the required skills and competencies of quality teachers, enabling them to cope with the emerging global frameworks. If the required skills and competencies are not met, various professional development interventions will be given to them. PPST helps assure parents and guardians that their children receive quality basic education from qualified professionals whose competencies are abreast with changes and advancements in the information age. Professional standards for teachers The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality reforms through a number of initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED Memorandum Order No. 52, s. 2007 and DepED Order No. 32, s. 2009. It emerged as part of the implementation of the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA), and was facilitated by drawing on the learning considerations of programs, such as the Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM), the Strengthening Implementation of Visayas Education (STRIVE) project and the Third Elementary Education Project (TEEP). The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has changed the landscape of teacher quality requirements in the Philippines. The reform process warrants an equivalent supportive focus on teacher quality – high quality teachers who are properly equipped and prepared to assume the roles and functions of a K to 12 teacher. The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers, which is built on NCBTS, complements the reform initiatives on teacher quality from pre-service education to in-service training. It articulates what constitutes teacher quality in the K to 12 Reform through well-defined domains, strands, and indicators that provide measures of professional learning, competent practice, and effective engagement. This set of standards makes explicit what teachers should know, be able to do and value to achieve competence, improved student learning outcomes, and eventually quality education. It is founded on teaching philosophies of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others. The professional standards, therefore, become a public statement of professional accountability that can help teachers reflect on and assess their own practices as they aspire for personal growth and professional development. Teacher quality in the Philippines The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers defines teacher quality in the Philippines. The standards describe the expectations of teachers’ increasing levels of knowledge, practice and professional engagement. At the same time, the standards allow for teachers’ growing understanding, applied with increasing sophistication across a broader and more complex range of teaching/learning situations. The following describes the breadth of 7 Domains that are required by teachers to be effective in the 21st Century in the Philippines. Quality teachers in the Philippines need to possess the following characteristics:  recognize the importance of mastery of content knowledge and its interconnectedness within and across curriculum areas, coupled with a sound and critical understanding of the application of theories and principles of teaching and learning. They apply developmentally appropriate and meaningful pedagogy grounded on content knowledge and current research. They display proficiency in Mother Tongue, Filipino and English to facilitate the teaching and learning process, as well as exhibit the needed skills in the use of communication strategies, teaching strategies and technologies to promote high-quality learning outcomes. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  provide learning environments that are safe, secure, fair and supportive in order to promote learner responsibility and achievement. They create an environment that is learning-focused and they efficiently manage learner behavior in a physical and virtual space. They utilize a range of resources and provide intellectually challenging and stimulating activities to encourage constructive classroom interactions geared towards the attainment of high standards of learning.  establish learning environments that are responsive to learner diversity. They respect learners’ diverse characteristics and experiences as inputs to the planning and design of learning opportunities. They encourage the celebration of diversity in the classroom and the need for teaching practices that are differentiated to encourage all learners to be successful citizens in a changing local and global environment. interact with the national and local curriculum requirements. They translate curriculum content into learning activities that are relevant to learners and based on the principles of effective teaching and learning. They apply their professional knowledge to plan and design, individually or in collaboration with colleagues, well- structured and sequenced lessons that are contextually relevant, responsive to learners’ needs and incorporate a range of teaching and learning resources. They communicate learning goals to support learner participation, understanding and achievement.  apply a variety of assessment tools and strategies in monitoring, evaluating, documenting and reporting learners’ needs, progress and achievement. They use assessment data in a variety of ways to inform and enhance the teaching and learning process and programs. They provide learners with the necessary feedback about learning outcomes that informs the reporting cycle and enables teachers to select, organize and use sound assessment processes.  establish school-community partnerships aimed at enriching the learning environment, as well as the community’s engagement in the educative process. They identify and respond to opportunities that link teaching and learning in the classroom to the experiences, interests and aspirations of the wider school community and other key stakeholders. They understand and fulfill their obligations in upholding professional ethics, accountability and transparency to promote professional and harmonious relationships with learners, parents, schools and the wider community.  value personal growth and professional development and exhibit high personal regard for the profession by maintaining qualities that uphold the dignity of teaching such as caring attitude, respect and integrity. They value personal and professional reflection and learning to improve their practice. They assume responsibility for personal growth and professional development for lifelong learning. The 7 Domains collectively comprise 37 strands that refer to more specific dimensions of teacher practices. Domain 1, Content Knowledge and Pedagogy, is composed of seven strands: 1. Content knowledge and its application within and across curriculum areas 2. Research-based knowledge and principles of teaching and learning 3. Positive use of ICT 4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy 5. Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking, as well as other higher-order thinking skills 6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and learning FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo 7. Classroom communication strategies Domain 2, Learning Environment, consists of six strands: 1. Learner safety and security 2. Fair learning environment 3. Management of classroom structure and activities 4. Support for learner participation 5. Promotion of purposive learning 6. Management of learner behavior Domain 3, Diversity of Learners, consists of five strands: 1. Learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences 2. Learners’ linguistic, cultural, socio-economic and religious backgrounds 3. Learners with disabilities, giftedness and talents 4. Learners in difficult circumstances 5. Learners from indigenous groups Domain 4, Curriculum and Planning, includes five strands: 1. Planning and management of teaching and learning process 2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning competencies 3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs 4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice 5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT Domain 5, Assessment and Reporting, is composed of five strands: 1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of assessment strategies 2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and achievement 3. Feedback to improve learning 4. Communication of learner needs, progress and achievement to key stakeholders 5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and learning practices and programs Domain 6, Community Linkages and Professional Engagement, consists of four strands: 1. Establishment of learning environments that are responsive to community contexts 2. Engagement of parents and the wider school community in the educative process 3. Professional ethics 4. School policies and procedures FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo Domain 7, Personal Growth and Professional Development, contains five strands: 1. Philosophy of teaching 2. Dignity of teaching as a profession 3. Professional links with colleagues 4. Professional reflection and learning to improve practice 5. Professional development goals Career stages Teacher professional development happens in a continuum from beginning to exemplary practice. Anchored on the principle of lifelong learning, the set of professional standards for teachers recognizes the significance of a standards framework that articulates developmental progression as teachers develop, refine their practice and respond to the complexities of educational reforms. The following statements, which define the work of teachers at different career stages, make explicit the elements of high-quality teaching for the 21st century. They comprise descriptors that have been informed by teachers’ understandings of what is required at each of the four Career Stages. The descriptors represent a continuum of development within the profession by providing a basis for attracting, preparing, developing and supporting teachers. Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers have gained the qualifications recognized for entry into the teaching profession. They have a strong understanding of the subjects/areas in which they are trained in terms of content knowledge and pedagogy. They possess the requisite knowledge, skills and values that support the teaching and learning process. They manage learning programs and have strategies that promote learning based on the learning needs of their students. They seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate their teaching practice. Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers are professionally independent in the application of skills vital to the teaching and learning process. They provide focused teaching programs that meet curriculum and assessment requirements. They display skills in planning, implementing, and managing learning programs. They actively engage in collaborative learning with the professional community and other stakeholders for mutual growth and advancement. They are reflective practitioners who continually consolidate the knowledge, skills and practices of Career Stage 1 teachers. Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers consistently display a high level of performance in their teaching practice. They manifest an in-depth and sophisticated understanding of the teaching and learning process. They have high education-focused situation cognition, are more adept in problem solving and optimize opportunities gained from experience. Career Stage 3 Teachers work collaboratively with colleagues and provide them support and mentoring to enhance their learning and practice. They continually seek to develop their professional knowledge and practice by reflecting on their own needs, and those of their colleagues and students. Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers embody the highest standard for teaching grounded in global best practices. They exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their own teaching practice and that of others. They are recognized as leaders in education, contributors to the profession and initiators of collaborations and partnerships. They create lifelong impact in the lives of colleagues, students and others. They consistently seek professional advancement and FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo relevance in pursuit of teaching quality and excellence. They exhibit commitment to inspire the education community and stakeholders for the improvement of education provision in the Philippines. What is Outcome Based Education? Outcome-based education is a system where all the parts and aspects of education are focused on the outcomes of the course. The students take up courses with a certain goal of developing skills or gaining knowledge and they have to complete the goal by end of the course. There is no specific style or time limit of learning. The student can learn as per their choice. The faculty members, moderators, and instructors guide the students based on the target outcomes. Benefits of Outcome-Based Education (OBE) for Students Brings clarity among the teachers and students Every student has the flexibility and freedom of learning in their ways. There is more than one method of learning Reduces comparison among the students as everyone has a different target Completely involves students taking responsibility for their goals Effective Questioning Techniques 1. Prepare your students for extensive questioning. Teachers who use lots of questions in a classroom might have to justify their use of questioning to students. Some students conclude that questions imply evaluation, monitoring, and efforts to control students. Students need to know that questions seek clarification and elaboration of students' ideas in order to make their thinking visible, and to help the teacher address misconceptions. 2. Use both pre-planned and emerging questions. Prepare your discussion by identifying the goal and pre-plan a number of questions that will help achieve the goal. Recall that there are a number of discussion types designed to introduce new concepts, focus the discussion on certain items, steer the discussion in specific directions, or identify student knowledge level on the topic. Questions derived from the discussion itself can help guide the discussion. 3. Use a wide variety of questions. It is best to begin a discussion by asking divergent questions, and moving to convergent questions as the goal is approached. Questions should be asked that require a broad range of intellectual (higher and lower order) thinking skills. Use Bloom's Taxonomy or Rhodes Typology for a guide to the type of questions you can ask. Avoid using simple YES or NO type questions as they encourage students to respond without fully thinking through an idea. 4. Avoid the use of rhetorical questions. Rhetorical questions are those to which answers are already known, or merely seek affirmation of something stated previously such as the following: Right?, Don't you?, Correct?, Okay?, and Yes? More often than not, rhetorical questions are unintentional, and are suggestive of habit or nervousness. 5. State questions with precision. Poor wording and the use of rapid-fire, multiple questions related to the same topic can result in confusion. Easy does it. Repeat the question, and explain it in other words if students don't seem to understand. One question at a time or else students won't know how to respond. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  6. Pose whole-group questions unless seeking clarification. Direct questions to the entire class. Handle incomplete or unclear responses by reinforcing what is correct and then asking follow-up questions.Ask for additional details, seek clarification of the answer, or ask the student to justify a response. Redirect the question to the whole group of the desired response is not obtained. 7. Use appropriate wait time. Wait time encourages all students to think about the response, as they do not know who is going to be called upon to answer the question.The teacher can significantly enhance the analytic and problem-solving skills of students by allowing sufficient wait times before responding, both after posing a question and after the answer is given. This allows everyone to think about not only the question but also the response provided by the student. Three to five seconds in most cases; longer in some, maybe up to 10 seconds for higher-order questions. 8. Select both volunteers and non-volunteers to answer questions. Female students frequently take longer to respond; give them adequate time to do so. Picking on the student who is first to raise his or her hand will often leave many students uninvolved in the discussion. Some teachers use a randomized approach where they pick student names from a hat, so to speak. This ensures equitable participation, and keeps students intellectually engaged. 9. Respond to answers provided by students. Listen carefully to your students as they respond; let them finish their responses unless they are completely missing the point. "Echo" their responses in your own words. Acknowledge correct answers and provide positive reinforcement. Identify incorrect responses and ask for alternative explanations from other students. Repeat student answers when the other students have not heard the answers. 10. Maintain a positive class atmosphere. Not all students will be completely clear in their thinking or enunciation and, invariably, some won't be paying attention. Nevertheless, avoid the use of sarcasm, unreasonable reprimands, accusations, and personal attacks. 11. Throw back student questions. Sometimes student will restate the teachers questions in their own words and ask the teacher for a response -- getting the teacher to do the intellectual work. When such an event occurs, restate the question, and pose it to the class. 12. Interrelate previous comments. As the discussion moves along, be certain to interrelate previous student comments in an effort to draw a conclusion. Avoid doing the work of arriving at a conclusion for your student. 13. Restate discussion goal periodically. Sometimes the purpose of a discussion will become clouded, and even go off topic. Periodically restate the goal of the discussion so that it is clearly before the students. It is particularly important to ask questions near the end of your discussion that help make it clear whether or not the goal has been achieved. Identify areas in need of clarification. 14. Take your time. Hard intellectual work takes considerable effort, and students might not be terribly familiar with the thought processes required to draw conclusions. Much of there education might have required them merely to parrot back things previously told them. Don't give up on students. If a discussion is worth doing at all, it is worth doing correctly. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  15. Equitably select students. Remember that males have a tendency to "jump up and shout out" responses whereas females tend to be more circumspect and, therefore, delayed in responding. Control situations where inequitable responding is likely to occur. Evaluating Assessments DepEd Order No. 8, s. 2015. Teaching and learning principles These principles are applicable across all disciplines and learning contexts, and are intended to illuminate why certain approaches to teaching support student learning. 1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning. 2. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know. 3. Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn. 4. To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned. 5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students’ learning. 6. Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual climate of the course to impact learning. 7. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to learning. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo Elements of Effective Teaching 1. Preparation and Planning Effective teachers possess and apply essential content and pedagogical knowledge, plan lessons that align with appropriate learning standards and relevant guidelines, and use high- quality curriculum and instructional materials. Teacher preparedness, reflected by certification status (a proxy for knowledge and skill base), predicts student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Podolsky et al., 2019). Preparing materials, planning activities, and managing workflow supports student learning and academics (LePage et al., 2005; Stronge, 2018). Implementing curricula and instructional materials aligned with rigorous academic standards leads to student learning gains (Chingos & Whitehurst, 2012; Kaufman et al., 2018). 2. Professionalism and Collaboration Effective teachers engage in high-quality professional learning, communicate regularly with students and their families, and collaborate with colleagues. High-quality professional learning contributes to growth in teachers’ knowledge and practice, which leads to improved student outcomes. Professional learning is effective when it focuses on content, incorporates active adult learning, supports collaboration, uses models of effective practice, provides coaching and expert support, offers feedback and reflection, and is of sustained duration (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). Teacher–family communication increases student engagement, including on-task behavior and classroom participation, which is associated with improved student achievement (Kraft & Dougherty, 2013). Teacher collaboration during professional development results in positive outcomes for both teachers and students (Sturko & Gregson, 2008; Gersten et al., 2010; Johnson Morris, 2008). 3. Learning Environment Effective teachers foster positive relationships with students and create a motivating and supportive classroom culture that affirms students’ strengths and maximizes their learning. Universal classroom management approaches—those implemented with an entire class—that support prosocial behavior and prevent or reduce inappropriate behavior lay the groundwork for effective instructional practices and student learning (Oliver et al., 2011). Proactive management—such as clearly stating expectations and anticipating when students may struggle—and culturally responsive teaching practices are associated with improvements in student behavior, engagement, and achievement (Larson et al., 2018; Simonsen et al., 2008). Classroom management that builds positive relationships and community increases students’ engagement, motivation, and learning (Brophy, 1998; Muñoz et al., 2013). 4. Teacher Expectations Effective teachers identify and address implicit biases and maintain high expectations for every student. Adopting interventions to support teachers’ expectations—such as those that create awareness that teacher expectations can be inaccurate and/or biased toward particular groups of students— raises teacher expectations and subsequent student achievement (de Boer et al., 2018; Rubie-Davies et al., 2015; Same et al., 2018). When teachers have high expectations for students, students tend to achieve higher academic outcomes (Same et al., 2018; Berns, 2016). When teachers have low expectations of students, these expectations can become a self-fulfilling prophecy that disproportionately hurts students of color and students from families with low income (Gersten et al., 2010). 5. Instructional Delivery Effective teachers use evidence-based instructional practices and vary their approaches to meet different student needs. Teachers’ use of multiple evidence-based instructional strategies— such as presenting lesson content at a rate or pace that promotes learning, relating new concepts to previous lessons, and pausing to give students time to think about concepts— increases instructional quality and student academic engagement (Lara-Alecio et al., 2012; Reddy et al., 2021). Evidence-based instruction that incorporates student well-being and is aligned with student needs increases their academic achievement (McCart & Choi, 2020). FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  Designing instruction based on students’ diverse needs is motivating and improves their academic outcomes (Goddard et al., 2015). 6. Assessment and Feedback Effective teachers provide positive and timely performance feedback to students and assess student learning progress to inform adjustments to instruction. Formative assessment—a process through which assessment-elicited evidence of student learning is gathered and instruction is modified in response to feedback—is positively associated with student motivation and achievement (Cauley & McMillan, 2010). Teachers’ use of formative assessment and frequent feedback contributes to students’ use of selfregulated learning strategies, such as tracking their learning progress (Makkonen & Jaquet, 2020). A combination of both positive and performance gap feedback increases student achievement (Faulconer et al., 2022). Research-based Principles of Learning & Teaching Strategies The following list presents the basic principles and teaching strategies that underlie effective learning. These principles are distilled from research from a variety in disciplines. 1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning 2. Students’ motivation determines, directs,and sustains what they do to learn. 3. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know. 4. To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned. 5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students’ learning. 6. Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual climate of the course to impact learning 7. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to learning. Determining SMART Learning Outcomes Writing SMART objectives. S pecific: concisely states what will be done and who will achieve it. It should be clear and tangible. M easurable: provides detail of how an action or skill will be measured. You can consider a tangible measure, such as a grade or score (but it is not required if it is clearly measurable criteria or standards). A ttainable: is possible within the timeframe and with the resources available. Can be achieved within the learning environment/s. R elevant: fits the purpose of the class, lesson, or program. Has relevance to the student’s learning goals. T ime-bound: has a specific timeframe for completion. Sets a realistic time within which to achieve the learning. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo Inductive and Deductive Teaching Methods What is deductive instruction? A deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach. This means that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then has the students practice using the concept. For example, when teaching a new grammar concept, the teacher will introduce the concept, explain the rules related to its use, and finally the students will practice using the concept in a variety of different ways. According to Bob Adamson, “The deductive method is often criticized because: a) it teaches grammar in an isolated way; b ) little attention is paid to meaning; c) practice is often mechanical.” This method can, however, be a viable option in certain situations; for example, when dealing with highly motivated students, teaching a particularly difficult concept, or for preparing students to write exams. What is inductive instruction? In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of student “noticing”. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works. Using the grammar situation from above, the teacher would present the students with a variety of examples for a given concept without giving any preamble about how the concept is used. As students see how the concept is used, it is hoped that they will notice how the concept is to be used and determine the grammar rule. As a conclusion to the activity, the teacher can ask the students to explain the grammar rule as a final check that they understand the concept. A. Assessment Strategies - DO 8 series of 2015 FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo The Global Teacher “Global competence in teachers is a set of essential knowledge, critical dispositions, and performances that help foster development of learners’ global competence. A globally competent teacher has knowledge of the world, critical global issues, their local impact, and the cultural backgrounds of learners; manifests intercultural sensitivity and acceptance of difference; incorporates this knowledge and sensitivity into classroom practice; and, develops the skills to foster these dispositions, knowledge, and performances in learners. The teacher models socially responsible action and creates opportunities for learners to engage in socially responsible action.” © NAFSA: Association of International Educators, 2015. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo What Does Global Competence Look Like in a Teacher? We began by gathering exemplary examples of knowledge, skills, and dispositions that spell out global competence in educators: 1. Understanding one’s own cultural identity and its influence on personal dispositions and classroom practice 2. Knowing and integrating global dimensions within the disciplines one teaches 3. Engaging students in learning about the world and in exploring their place in it 4. Using real-life global examples, materials, and resources when considering local, national, and human issues 5. Valuing the input of culturally and linguistically diverse learners, families, and colleagues, and modeling cultural sensitivity 6. Creating environments that encourage positive cross-cultural interaction 7. Modeling social responsibility in local and global contexts 8. Helping learners find appropriate actions to improve local and global conditions 9. Assessing learners’ global competence and providing growth opportunities based on their levels of development 10. Advocating for global education and social responsibility Teacher’s Philosophy of Education Derived from the Greek “philos,” which means love, and “sophos,” which means “wisdom,” the actual meaning of the word philosophy is “love of wisdom” (Johnson et. al., 2011). 1. Idealism Idealism is a school of philosophy that emphasizes that “ideas or concepts are the essence of all that is worth know- ing” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 87) Key Philosophers A. Plato Plato believed that truth was the central reality. However, Plato did not believe that people created knowledge, instead they “discovered it” (Johnson et. al., 2011). B. Socrates Socrates’ work is only known through the works of Plato. Plato observed Socrates questioning a slave boy to help him understand what he knew about a specific concept. This questioning technique became known as the Socratic Method and was explored in-depth in chapter one. When applied in classrooms, the Socratic method actively engages students in the learning process, improves understanding, and promotes higher-order thinking C. Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who believed in “freedom, the immortality of the soul, and the existence of God” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 88). He added valuable information about the important role of reason and its’ contributions to knowledge. According to his research, it is only through reason that we gain knowledge of and understand the world in which we live. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo Methods curricular focus is on ideas rather than the student or specific content areas. Lecture Discussion Socratic dialogue. Essential to these teaching methods is posing questions that generate thoughts and spark connections. Paul (n/d) suggests the following six types of Socratic questions: 1. Questions for clarification: How does this relate to our discussion? 2. Questions that probe assumptions: What could we assume instead? 3. Questions that probe reasons and evidence: What would be an example? 4. Questions about viewpoints and perspectives: What is another way to look at it? 5. Questions that probe implications and consequences: What are the consequences of that assumption? 6. Questions about the question: What was the point of this question? 2. Realism is a school of philosophy with origins in the work of Aristotle. This philosophy emphasizes that “reality, knowledge, and value exist independent of the human mind” (Johnson, 2011, p. 89). Realists argue for the use of the senses and scientific investigation in order to discover truth. The application of the scientific method also allows individuals to classify things into different groups based on their essential differences. Key Philosophers A. Aristotle is known as the father of realism and the Scientific Method. His pragmatic approach to understanding an object, by understanding is form, is an example of how he investigated matter. To understand this concept, consider the following example: A plant can exist without being physically present, but it still shares properties with all other plants (form). Finally, Aristotle was the “first to teach logic as a discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and aspects” (Cohen, 1999, p. 1). B. John Locke believed in the tabula rosa, or blank tablet, view of the mind. According to this view, a child’s mind is a blank slate when they are born. All the sensory experiences they have after birth fill up the slate through the impressions that are made upon the mind. Teaching Methods Demonstration Recitation Critical thinking Observation Experimentation 3. Pragmatism is “a process philosophy that stresses evolving and change rather than being” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 91). In other words, pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing so we learn best through experience. According to pragmatists, the learner is constantly conversing and being changed by the environment with whom he or she is interacting. There is “no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works” (Cohen, 1999, p.1). Based on what is learned at any point and time, the learner or the world in which he or she is interacting can be changed. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo Key Philosophers A. Charles Sanders Peirce is one of the first pragmatic thinkers. He introduced the pragmatic method in which students are supplied a procedure for constructing and clarifying meanings. In addition, this system helps to facilitate communication among students. B. John Dewey linked pragmatism to evolution by explaining that “human beings are creatures who have to adapt to one another and to their environment” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Therefore, learners within the classroom need to adapt to one another and their learning community. Teaching Methods Hands-on problem solving Experimenting Projects Cooperative Learning 4. Existentialism is a school of philosophy that “focuses on the importance of the individual rather than on external standards” (Johnson et. al., 2011, p. 93). Existentialists believe that our reality is made up of nothing more than our lived experiences, therefore our final realities reside within each of us as individuals. As such, the physical world has no real meaning outside our human experience. Key Philosophers A. Soren Kierkegaard was a Danish minister and philosopher.He is considered to be the founder of existentialism. B. Friedrich Nietzcshe stressed the importance of the individuality of each person. According to Johnson et. al. (2011), his work provided a “strategy to liberate people from the oppression of feeling inferior within themselves, and a teaching of how not to judge what one is in relation to what one should be” (p. 95). Methods the subject matter should be a matter of personal choice as each student is viewed as an individual by the teacher answers come from within the individual in an existential classroom, not from the teacher. students are actively involved in the learning experience. focus on creating opportunities for self-direction and self-actualization” start with the student, rather than the curriculum. 5. Essentialism is the educational philosophy of teaching basic skills. This philosophy advocates training the mind. Essentialist educators focus on transmitting a series of progressively difficult topics and promotion of students to the next level or grade. Subjects are focused on the historical context of the material world and culture, and move sequentially to give a solid understanding of the present day. This philosophy stresses core knowledge in reading, writing, math, science, history, foreign language, and technology. Key Philosophers: A. William C. Bagley (1874–1946) was one of the most influential advocates of essentialism. Bagley believed that education was not supposed to change society but to preserve it. At a conference for the American Association of School Administrators in FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  1938, Bagley “urged schools and educators to create what we know today to be vigilant in sticking to the core curriculum”. Methods: lecturing memorization repetition practice assessment 6. Perennialism Perennialism is identified as a very conservative theory of education. According to this theory of education, truth is universal and does not change. The literal definition of perennial means “everlasting” or something that “returns year after year.” As implied by its name, perennialism is based upon the belief that there are everlasting ideas and universal truths. Therefore, the primary goal of education within this philosophy is to search for and disseminate truth. In addition, this philosophy of education advocates for the cultivation of human intellect. Key Philosophers: A. Robert M. Hutchins was a chancellor of the University of Chicago who argued that the ideal education is one that is designed to develop the mind (Webb, 2010). To support the development of the mind, he proposed a curriculum based on the “Great Books” of Western civilization. B. Mortimer Adler proposed a curriculum that would be appropriate for all students. Within such a curriculum, students would be taught language, literature, mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts, history, geography, and social studies (Webb et. al., 2010). C. Allan Bloom wrote The Closing of the American Mind (1987). In this book, he talks about “cultural illiteracy” being a crisis in todays society. In order to address this crisis, he advocates teaching and learning about the “Great Books” because they provide knowledge and in- formation that has lasting significance (Webb et. al., 2010). Methods At the elementary level, a Perennialist teacher would be focusing on the management and teaching of basic educational skills. they are supposed to use the “Great Books” of Western civilization. Didactic Instruction Coaching Socratic Method teacher is seen as the authority figure in the classroom. teacher to disseminate the truth. The teacher can do this by acting as a seminar leader or coach. According to Adler (1984), as a seminar leader, the teacher illustrates the power of the literature being read through questioning. When done correctly, this questioning should help students think ration- ally. One of the most popular methods for questioning students is the Socratic Method. 7. Behaviorism. Behaviorism is an area of psychological study that focuses on observing and analyzing how controlled environmental changes affect behavior. The goal of behavioristic teaching methods is to manipulate the environment of a subject — a human or an animal — in an effort to change the subject’s observable behavior. From a behaviorist perspective, learning is defined entirely by FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo this change in the subject’s observable behavior. The role of the subject in the learning process is to be acted upon by the environment; the subject forms associations between stimuli and changes behavior based on those associations. The role of the teacher is to manipulate the environment in an effort to encourage the desired behavioral changes. Key Philosophers: A. Ivan Pavlov is perhaps most well-known for his work in conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone after pairing food with the sound over time. Pavlov’s research is regarded as the first to explore the theory of classical conditioning: that stimuli cause responses and that the brain can associate stimuli together to learn new responses. His research also studied how certain parameters — such as the time between two stimuli being presented — affected these associations in the brain. His exploration of the stimulus-response model, the associations formed in the brain, and the effects of certain parameters on developing new behaviors became a foundation of future experiments in the study of human and animal behavior (Hauser, 1997). Pavlov’s work with conditional reflexes was extremely influential in the field of behaviorism. His experiments demonstrate three major tenets of the field of behaviorism: Behavior is learned from the environment. The dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a tone after their environment presented the tone along with food multiple times. Behavior must be observable. Pavlov concluded that learning was taking place because he observed the dogs salivating in response to the sound of a tone. All behaviors are a product of the formula stimulus-response. The sound of a tone caused no response until it was associated with the presentation of food, to which the dogs naturally responded with increased saliva production. B. Edward Lee Thorndike is regarded as the first to study operant conditioning, or learning from consequences of behaviors. He demonstrated this principle by studying how long it took different animals to push a lever in order to receive food as a reward for solving a puzzle. He also pioneered the law of effect, which presents a theory about how behavior is learned and reinforced. One experiment Thorndike conducted was called the puzzle box experiment, which is similar to the classic “rat in the maze” experiment. For this experiment, Thorndike placed a cat in a box with a piece of food on the outside of the box and timed how long it took the cat to push the lever to open the box and to get the food. The first two or three times each cat was placed in the box there was little difference in how long it took to open the box, but subsequent experiments showed a marked decrease in time as each cat learned that the same lever would consistently open the box. C. John Broadus Watson was a pioneering psychologist who is generally considered to be the first to combine the multiple facets of the field under the umbrella of behaviorism. The foundation of Watson’s behaviorism is that consciousness — introspective thoughts and feelings — can neither be observed nor controlled via scientific methods and therefore should be ignored when analyzing behavior. He asserted that psychology should be purely objective, focusing solely on predicting and controlling observable behavior, thus removing any interpretation of conscious experience. Thus, according to Watson, learning is a change in observable behavior. D. B. F. Skinner Skinner was a psychologist who continued to influence the development of behaviorism. His most important contributions were introducing the idea of radical behaviorism and FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  defining operant conditioning. Skinner expounded on Thorndike’s law of effect by breaking down reinforcement and punishment into five discrete categories (cf. Fig. 1): Positive reinforcement is adding a positive stimulus to encourage behavior. Escape is removing a negative stimulus to encourage behavior. Active avoidance is preventing a negative stimulus to encourage behavior. Positive punishment is adding a negative stimulus to discourage behavior. Negative punishment is removing a positive stimulus to discourage behavior. Skinner gave examples of steps teachers should take to teach properly. A few of these steps include the following: 1. Ensure the learner clearly understands the action or performance. 2. Separate the task into small steps starting at simple and working up to complex. 3. Let the learner perform each step, reinforcing correct actions. 4. Regulate so that the learner is always successful until finally the goal is reached. 5. Change to random reinforcement to maintain the learner’s performance (Skinner, 1968). 8. Constructivism is a learning theory which holds that knowledge is best gained through a process of reflection and active construction in the mind (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005). Key Philosophers A. Jean Piaget is known as one of the first theorists in constructivism. His theories indicate that humans create knowledge through the interaction between their experiences and ideas. His view of constructivism is the inspiration for radical constructivism due to his idea that the individual is at the center of the knowledge creation and acquisition process. The vast majority of Piaget’s theories develop through working with children where he would challenge the idea that children are inferior thinkers compared to adults. His work provides evidence that children are not cognitively inferior to adults. He proves that children develop differently by establishing a theory involving cognitive stages. B. Lev Vygotsky’s work contains a central scope focused on the social aspects of acquiring knowledge. He suggests that one learns best through interacting with others. Through the process of working with others, learners create an environment of shared meanings with peers. By being immersed in the new environment, the learner is able to adapt subjective interpretations to become socially accepted. Vygotsky especially emphasizes that culture plays a large role in cognitive development. He believed infants were born with basic abilities to develop cognitively. Those basic abilities are then enhanced through interaction with others and eventually grow into more sophisticated mental processes. C. John Dewey’s perspective melds Piaget’s focus on the cognitive aspect of constructivism with Vygotsky’s focus on social learning. Methods hands-on approach instead of the traditional lecture style. The environment of the classroom should be supportive of each individual learner’s thinking and encourage a constant challenge. Instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Constructionism. An example of constructionism is an instructor teaching a class of learners about engineering by assigning them to build a bridge. The process the learners would embark on to learn how to build a bridge would in theory teach them all the nuances of engineering concepts. The learning would come mostly through trial and error as the learners adapted their past experiences to the current task. FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo  cooperative learning. Three examples of cooperative learning are reciprocal questioning, jigsaw classroom and structured controversies. Reciprocal questioning is where students work together to ask and answer questions. This technique is often prevalent through activities such as book discussion groups. Jigsaw classroom refers to assigning students to become experts on one part of a group project and teach it to the others in their group. Structured controversies are where students work together to research a particular controversy. large-scale lessons. teaching big topics and allowing each learner to find what pieces relate to them most. For example, an instructor teaching evolution does not choose a specific point in evolution to focus on, but rather gives an overarching explanation. Thus, a student who relates with natural selection is interested in the topic of their own will and chooses to write a paper on it and share with the class. 9. Linguistic Philosophy. Linguistic philosophy in the philosophy of education is the belief that language is at the root of all learning. In other words, according to linguistic philosophy, we learn best by using language. We know to think by thinking in terms, and we learn to understand the world around us by interpreting what we see and hear through the lens of language. This theory of learning has important implications for how educators should teach students. It means that teachers should give students opportunities to use language as a tool for learning and provide lots of feedback so students can understand how they are using language to think, learn, and communicate. Key Philosopher: A. Noam Chomsky is known as the ''father of linguistics''. He claims that it becomes possible for human child to learn a language for the linguistic faculty with which the child is born, and that the use of language for an adult is mostly a mental exercise. His ideas brought about a revolution in linguistics, dubbed as Chomskyan Revolution. According to him, the part of language which is innate to human being would be called Universal Grammar. References: Behaviorism by Bekki Brau, Nathan Fox, & Elizabeth Robinson. https://open.byu.edu/education_research/behaviorismt Constructivism by Bekki Brau. https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/constructivism Barman, B. (2014). The Linguistic Philosophy of Noam Chomsky. Philosophy and Progress, 51(1-2), 103–122. https://doi.org/10.3329/pp.v51i1-2.17681 FSTUD1 FINAL HANDOUTS by Elsie M. Zabalo