Freedom Movement, Northeast India Politics PDF

# Unit-1 ## Geopolitical and Historical Profile of North-East in the 19th Century The term North East has basically emerged out of politico-administrative intervention of British colonialism. Initially, the region was looked as a buffer zone and a frontier of Bengal. Gradually, the British realize...

# Unit-1 ## Geopolitical and Historical Profile of North-East in the 19th Century The term North East has basically emerged out of politico-administrative intervention of British colonialism. Initially, the region was looked as a buffer zone and a frontier of Bengal. Gradually, the British realized the strategic importance of the region and decided to annex it in order to protect the colonial interests and to prevent Chinese influence in the frontier region. The expression "North-East" first appeared in the report of Alexander Mackenzie's Memorandum on the North-East Frontier of Bengal in 1869 which was submitted to Lieutenant Governor Sir William Grey. Mackenzie defined the North-East Frontier of Bengal as 'a term sometimes to denote a boundary line, and sometimes more generally to describe a tract. The term 'geopolitics' had become popular in Germany in the inter-war years, 1919-1939. It denoted "mobilization of and knowledge for the purposes of the state" and the application of knowledge and techniques of political geography to the problems of international relations in particular. It also includes the foreign policy of the German State' and the relevant issues related to the utilization of geography in the service of the national government. Rudolf Kjellen, the Swedish Political Scientist, originally coined the German language term 'Geopolitik' in 1898 in his "The ideas of 1914-A Perspective on World History in 1915. Even though the term Geopolitik was coined by Kjellen, the real father of geopolitical thought in Germany was the German geographer Friedrick Ratzel (1844-1904). The focal point of Ratzel's political geography is that "the state is a particular type of spatial organism, consisting of a piece of humanity and a portion of the earth.....the state's geographical and political expansion have all the distinctive characteristics of a body in motion which expands and contracts alternatively in regression and progression.". The object of this movement is always the conquest of space with a view to the foundation of states. Under the leadership of General Karl Haushofer, the Institute of Geopolitik was established at Munich in 1924. The German geopolitik ended with the defeat of Germany in 1945 and the death of Karl Haushofer in 1946. The North Eastern part of India possesses a distinct regional geopolitical character and integration has been a fundamental problem here because of its isolated location, diverse physiographic character, more ethnic diversity, economic backwardness, huge disparity in the levels of development, insurgency problem, linguistic and cultural hegemony and boundary disputes etc. Since 1826 after the annexation of Assam, the British started exploiting the natural resources and accordingly formulated strategies to achieve its ends. The region has been an area of geo-political rivalry since the days of the colonial intervention. The disturbing past and colonial geopolitics have led to the present political instability in the region. The robust commercial potential of Assam such as tea, coal, oil and other forest products led the British to set up the Brahmaputra Valley as a direct colony of East India company and integrated the region with the global market economy. The lucrative economic prospect and agrarian surplus in the plains of Assam led the British to concentrate more on the plains than on the hills since the system of production in the hills was shifting mode of cultivation with no surplus. The total acreage under tea plants, mature and immature, increased from 2,311 acres in 1841 to about 8,000 acres by 1859, and the output increased from 29, 267 ibs to more than 1.2 million ibs. By 1859, the Government came forward to take up road construction work to facilitate the tea industry. Several European investors attempted to develop other resources as exemplified in early forties by Mr. Becher's Shellac factory. A European owned rubber press was set up at Tezpur to process the juice collected from wild rubber trees. In 1828 coal mining was started and a thousand maunds were raised in the same year. Steady demand for coal from the Government steamers and the Assam Company 's tea factory led to a more regular exploitation of the coal mines from 1847 onwards. They also expanded the already existing frontier trade routes with the Kachins and the Chins and open commercial traffic with China through Upper Burma. The growing colonial economy in the Brahmaputra Valley in the form of tea, petroleum, coal, rubber, jute increased revenue from improved agriculture on the foothills of the border area. Though iron was found extensively in Assam-Khasi Hills, Naga Hills and South Mikir Hills, no attempt was made for the excavation of the iron deposits because of the competition of English iron. Petroleum was excavated at Digboi field in Assam in September 1890 at depth of 662 by Assam Railways and Trading Company Limited and the earliest experiments in exploiting it were made at Nahar Poong in the Jaipur field and near Makum, where a considerable amount of oil was extracted in 1868. The three oil-bearing tracts were subsequently acquired by the Assam Oil Company set up for the purpose, who constructed large refineries at Digboi. The British restored the frontier huts which became centers for collection of raw materials for export of primary forest products and also distribution centers for British goods. Attempts were made to popularize the British Indian tea among the hill tribes of the Eastern Himalaya and capture the market of Central Asia. Rubber and opium were the main articles of exchange. In 1886, there were three licensed shops beyond the inner line in Lakhimpur district and their number gradually increased. The British Government resorted to the blockade system by which the tribes were prevented to visit the plains in order to buy their necessary commodities from the markets of adjoining areas. The British did not extend their rule in the hills but consolidated their position on the frontier territory already under their possession and secured effective administration there. For this purpose, the government appointed the Kotokis mainly to deal with the Nyishis, Adis, Akas and other hill tribes in the frontiers. In fact, these Kotokis were like political officers who simultaneously performed as ambassadors. The duties of the Kotokis were to proceed to the hills on any occasion when required to do so in connection with the tribes, to render aid, in furnishing information on the tribes, in interpreting any matter and also to assist the Deputy Commissioner when he landed to the countries bordering the hills of the tribes. The historical base of the geopolitical analysis of the North Eastern region is drawn from the medieval period, i.e., from the mid twelfth century because from then onwards the socio-economic processes were strong enough to fight for politico-territorial adjustments. The whole Brahmaputra Valley was divided into numerous but independent principalities. The process of restructuring started in the West and extended in the East where it experienced stiff opposition from the tribes living in splendid isolation. The Turko-Afghan invasion of Kamrup in 1206, by Bakhtyar Khalji, Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Gour of Bengal, Ghiyasuddin Aulia left deep trajectories in Assam. The famous Poa Mecca was founded by Aulia who is worshipped as a saint in the state and believed to be the first Muslim to spread Islam there. The Tai Ahom Kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley was founded by Sukapha spanning for six centuries. The conquest enacted by the Tai Ahom was not an invasion but gradual and peaceful penetration without causing displacement of the local inhabitants. The expansion of Ahom kingdom started in 1512 AD with a successful expedition into Panbari in the Habung country on the North bank of the Brahmaputra. The Ahoms annexed the Chutia Kingdom in 1523 and placed it under the Governor of Sadiya. Then they moved westward occupying the territories lying to the west of the river Subansiri to the Bharoli on the north and from the Dhansiri to the Lophill valley on the South bank of the Brahmaputra. The Morans and the Borahis were segmentary to the Bodo-Kachari race who set up a territory of their own on the east of the river Burhi Dihing in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The Borahis were a small community inhabited in the upper course of the Dihing who were the earliest tribe to be conquered by the Ahoms. They were employed as cooks, keepers of fowls, fuel gatherers and minor works. The real founder of the Koch political power was Visva Sinha who set up a strong united and independent monarchy about 1515. He sought to remove the vestiges of Muslim rule in old Kamrup by revamping the damaged temples. The rise of the Mongloid Koch power marked a new epoch in the history of Kamrup not only politically but also socially and culturally. But the political primacy in north eastern India which was shifting from Koches to the Ahoms turned into a strongest power in the Brahmaputra Valley due to their conquests under Sukhampha. But it started receding under the reign of Nara Narayan. On the other hand, Koch Bihar reached the zenith of political power and territorial expansion under him. It was through Koch Bihar that Assam's political relations with the Mughals began. For quite sometime, Mughal and Koch alliance took place for their mutual interest but since 1581, partition took place in Koch Bihar and as a result, it was divided into two parts: Sonkosh river remained as the dividing line wherein the west of the river including Koch Bihar and parts of Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and Ranjpur remained as Koch Bihar with Kamtapur as the capital. The east of the river up to Bamadi came to be known as Bamadi. Assam was the last Mongloid state in North-Eastern India to experience the brunt of Mughal imperialism after Koch Bihar and Kamrup. The river Barnadi marked the eastern boundary of Kamrup. But after occupying it, the Mughals penetrated east of that river up to Singri and also up to the mouth of river Bharali and Kolong river on North and South bank of the river Brahmaputra. In 1636, open war took place between the Ahoms and the Mughals after an interval of twenty one years. The prime cause of the Ahom-Mughal war was not political but economic due to the Mughal's commercial greed rather than political enmity. In the second half of the sixteenth century, under the teachings of Srimanth Shankardev and his successor Adhavdeva, Damodordeva, Golapdeva and other numerous Vaishavite sects exerted influence in upper and lower Assam. It was considered as a political menace and also against the interests of the state as it blocked the military recruitment and supply of labour. Gadadhar Singha intended to destroy the power of the Vaishnavite satras and reduced the influence of Vaishnavism. But his son Rudra Singha immediately after his accession reversed his father's intolerance and drastic policy towards Vaishnava goisains and rehabilitated the displaced pontiffs and monks to their original satras. The first challenge to the Ahom monarchy came from the disciples of Moaamara satra, which was founded by Aniruddha Bhuyan. The Moamaria rebellion first started in 1769 on a religious pretext and soon assumed political dimensions which swayed the whole Brahmaputra Valley. It is desoni- political movement in the history of whole North East India and made for the people and by the people". This movement brought the message of equality and fraternity in communal life which were transmitted to the people in their own language. In the last decades of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century, Assam experienced a state of intense anarchy. It was due to the political and military weakness of the Ahom monarchy, the Burmese was able to extend their sway over the Brahmaputra Valley. Gaurinath Singh, the Ahom King keenly appealed to the British rulers for helping him in getting rid of the Burmese atrocities as his reign was marked by several disturbances and insurrections. In response to this, Lord Cornowallis had decided to send British troops in the Brahmaputra Valley with a view to repulsing the Burmese forces back from the territory of Assam. The British initially was averse in annexing the entire region of Assam due to colossal economic cost coupled with the fear of potential Burmese attack. David Scott, the then Commissioner of Assam recommended that the Lower Assam be annexed permanently to British dominion, while upper Assam, the territory from Biswanath to the river Buridihing be placed under an Ahom prince on terms to be specifically laid down. As the annexation of upper Assam would not be economically beneficial, the British placed more focus on Lower Assam which had the potential to yield a revenue of more than three lakhs of rupees. Due to this, in upper Assam, for a brief period, the British decided to reinstate Purandar Singha (1833-1838) with a condition to pay tributes of Rupees 50000 to the company. But due to his incompetency and inability to pay the tribute, Purandar Singha was deposed in 1838. It ended six hundred years of Ahom rule in upper Assam and the area became an integral part of the British India. Along with the Burmese, the Singphos, the Khamtis and the Moamorians also indulged in hostile activities against the British and the people of Assam. In 1817, Burmese suzerainty was established in Manipur; they invaded Assam and reached on the frontiers of Cachar and Sylhet. The three successive Burmese invasions in 1817, 1819, and in 1821 made the Burmese defacto rulers of the region. However, internal dissent and incompetence of kings and chiefs of the region and to prevent the Burmese atrocities, the British plunged into action. Under the command of Colonel Richard, they successfully expelled the Burmese out of the Brahmaputra Valley and subsequently occupied Guwahati without much resistance in 1825. With British intervention, the Burmese retreated from Cachar into Manipur and from Manipur, they were expelled by 1826. Cachar was one of the first kingdoms which was occupied by the British followed by Jayantia. It is located between Naga Hills on the East and Khasi and Jayantia Hills on the west. It is believed that Cachar first came into contact with the British in the year 1726 AD. In 1819, the British prevented Burma from capturing Cachar. In South Cachar or Cachar proper, the British placed Govindo Chandra on the throne as the King in 1824. This was done by the British as per a treaty made at Badarpur. Ironically, he was murdered by his enemy in 1930. As the Prince did not possess natural heir to succeed him, the British did not allow him to choose any heir. By applying the Doctrine of Lapse, the colonial administration annexed the plain portions of Cachar in 1832. In 1874, Assam was made a Chief Commissioner's Province by slicing Muslim majority Bengali speaking Sylhet district from Dhaka division of Bengal and tagged it with Assam. Cachar was also included into the Chief Commissionership in the same year and the post of Superintendent was re-designated as the Deputy Commissioner. R. Stuart was the first DC of the district of Cachar. Hailakandi sub division was created on June 1, 1869. Although the British Indian Government had colonised the whole of the North-East region, it was able to install more or less stable political rule only in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya. In the border state of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura, the British experienced severe resistance from the native groups. The hilly tracts of North-Cachar Hill and Mikir Hills were then ruled by a powerful general, Tularam Senapati who many a time, made failed attempts in throwing the King Govindo Chandra and to capture power in South Cachar. The British instead of helping the King forced him to appoint Tularam as the commander of his forces and also the Governor of North Cachar. However, Tularam's power was reduced by the British subject to the fulfilment of an agreement signed by him. At the death of Tularam on October 1851, the British made repeated efforts to annex his territory and finally accomplished it in 1853. The British ruler by pensioning off the successor of Tularam on the plea that Tularam's descendants were not in a position to protect their people. The British signed many agreements with the native Chiefs and eventually deprived them of their territories. The Khasi hills were conquered by the British in 1833 which were inhabited by a tribe of the same name. There were 25 of these chiefs called Siems who exercised independent jurisdictions and paid no tribute. According to the Census of 1901, the Khasis numbered 107, 500. Diwan Singh the Raja of Chera, was persuaded to relinquish land for the station of Cherapunji according to a Treaty concluded in 1829. In the same year, an Engagement was made with Sardars of Birangpunji, by which they bound themselves to be the subjects of Diwan Singh. In 1876, the Birangpungi villages were brought under the direct control of the British. The Jaintia hills constituted a petty Hindu principality which was annexed in 1835. The inhabitants called Syntengs, a cognate tribe of the Khasis were subjected to a moderate tax against which they revolted in 1860 and 1862. The headquarters of the district was changed from Cherrapunji to Shillong in 1864. The ruler of the Jayantia territory at the time of British annexation was Ram Singh who had provided assistance to the British troops during the war against the Burmese. So long as Ram Singh was alive, he was allowed to rule over the territory under the British guidance, but soon after his death, the Government dethroned his successor Rajendra Singh, in the pretext of his incapacity to protect the subjects, and in 1835, the territory of Jaintia too was annexed. The formation of the Jayantia Darbar in 1900, the Khasi-National Durbar in 1923 and the Khasi States Federation in 1934 were the early landmarks of the growing politicization. This process was marked by a conflict between the Siems and those who grabbed communal land with their connivance on the one side and the commoners on the other. The Government of Assam told the Simon Commission that the Khasis had a keen desire to come under the reforms, though the Chiefs and their subjects might not favour it. The Garo hills which lied to the extreme of the mountain range dividing the Brahmaputra and the Surma Valley came into contact with the British towards the close of the 18th century after the British East India company had secured the Diwani of Bengal from the Mughal emperor. Unlike the Mughals, the zaminders were not disturbed in the internal management of their estates. Rather, they were entrusted the responsibility of keeping the hill Garos in check with the help of their retainers. Thus in the beginning, the intermittent conflict between the zaminders and the Garos went on unabated. The resistance of the Garos against misappropriation of their resources and indignation of their customary rights by the British soon transformed into a broad based struggle for a homeland. Given the strong resistance, the British annexed the Garo Hills in 1873. Captain Williamson was the first Deputy Commissioner of the unified district. Muttak and the territories around Sadia were excluded from the British rule in the beginning. These were put under the rule of Bar Senapati who had also helped the British during their war with the Burmese. According to a Treaty, he was asked to pay a tribute of Rs. 12000 per year to the British government for his rule. On his inability to pay such a heavy amount, it was reduced to Rs. 1800 per year, but only for the term of his life. In another treaty signed in 1835, he was asked to supply a contingent of troops for whose armaments he was given ammunition and three hundred muskets. After his death in 1839 Captain Vetch assumed direct management of the entire country. The Muttak tract was added to the British territory in 1842 and was transferred to the district of Lakhimpur. Between 1866 and 1904, the British brought most of the Naga-inhabited areas under the colonial administration of Assam. They found it difficult to conquer the entire Naga Hills since it was not administered by a single king, Chief or clan. In addition, the British experienced casualty of their members in dealing with the Nagas. J. Bultler, the first officer of the Naga hill district which was created in 1867 lost his life in a fight with the Lotha Nagas in 1869. The raid of Angami Nagas of Mezuma upon the Arung Naga village of Gumaigaju in North Cachar in 1877 led to an intervention by the British wherein Carnegi, a political officer was killed in an accident. Finally, a comprehensive administrative organization of the Naga Hill district was set up as per the memorandum submitted by Charles A. Eliot, the Chief Commissioner of Assam in 1891. The princely state of Manipur came under the control of colonial administration due to the internal crisis in the 1880s and the early part of the 1890s. The British exercised control over the princely states of Manipur and Tripura without annexing its territory by appointing a British political agent 'to ensure suzerainty to monitor any political activity considered detrimental to British interests. In 1898, the South and the North Lushai Hills combined into one administrative unit as Lushai Hill district within Assam. The district was brought under the Assam Frontier Tract Regulation of 1880 but the Chin area remained with Burma. However, the British were not able to penetrate into the frontier region of present Arunachal Pradesh bordering Tibet. It was initially not considered on the grounds of economic non-viability and inadequate knowledge about the hill tracts. The British in order to make a stable frontier with China and explore the trade route, had to take a series of expeditions from Sadiya, Balipara and Lakhimpur to bring the frontier tribes under its political control. As a part of systematic move, the British did not allow unity between hills and valley in spite of the geographical contiguity and historical linkages between the people of the hills and plains. The British adopted a policy of exclusion to govern the frontier of the North East as well as other Northeastern hill areas. The perceived cultural differences between the hills and the plains both in religious and customary sense were well evident from the memorandum submitted by the Naga communities to the Simon Commission. The mindset earlier was viewed by W.W Hunter as he used the term " Non-Aryan population" to refer to those tribes as he 'stressed their incompatibility with the Aryan population' Christianity penetrated into the region during the time of colonial expansion in the 19th century especially in the Khasi, Garo, Naga and Mizo Hills. The British officials allowed Christian missionaries to operate in these areas. Thus as many as 86 percent of the population of Mizoram, 67 percent of Nagaland and 47 percent of Meghalaya were the Christians in the 19th century.