Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions (Buddhism) - PDF

B U l i D H I S ß1 p a n- Asian religion and philosophy, Buddhism was founded by Siddhärtha Gotama innortheast India about the 5th century BCE. Buddhism has playeda central role in the Eastern world and dur...

B U l i D H I S ß1 p a n- Asian religion and philosophy, Buddhism was founded by Siddhärtha Gotama innortheast India about the 5th century BCE. Buddhism has playeda central role in the Eastern world and during the 20th century has spread to the West. THE BUDDHA'S MESSAGE The teaching attributed to the BUDDHA GOTAMA was transmitted orally by his disciples, prefaced by the phrase “Evam me sutarp” (“Thus haveI heard”)i there- fore, it is difficult to say whether hisdiscourses were related as they were spoken. They usually allude, however, to the place, time, and community where he preachedi and there is concordance between various versions. An attempt was made by Buddhist councils in the first centuries after the Buddha's death to estab- lish his true and original teachings. It may be said that the Buddha based his entire teaching on the fact of human suffering. Existence is painful. The conditions that ma1‹e an individual are pre- cisely those that also give rise to suffering. Individuality implies limitation; limi- tation gives rise to desire; and, inevitably, desire causes suffering, since what is desired is transitory, changing, and perishing. It is the impermanence oftheobiect of craving that causes disappointment and sorrow. By following the “path” taught by the Buddha, the individual can dispel the “ignorance” that perpetuates this suffering. The Buddha's doctrine was not one of despair. Living amid theimper- manence ofeverything and being themselves impermanent, humans search for the way of deliverance, for that which shines beyond thetransitoriness of human existence—in short, for enlightenment. According to the Buddha, reality, whether ofexternal things or the psychophys- ical totality of human individuals, consists ina succession and concatenation of microseconds called dharrimas (these “components” ofreality are not to be con- Buddhlst TKIORk before fused with another sense of dhamnla, “law” or “teaching”). The Buddha depart- a statue o/ the Buddha ed from the main lines of traditional Indian thought in not asserting an essential attheHunting Temple, or ultimate reality in things. Hunting, China Moreover, the Buddha didnot want toassume the existence of the soul asa Tim Graham Photo Library/Getty metaphysical substance, but he admitted the existence of the self as the subject of Images 147 O 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM CONTENTS action ina practical and moral sense. Life isa stream of becoming,a series of TheBuddha's message 147 manifestations and extinctions. The concept of the individual ego isa popular de- Sangha, society, and state 149 lusion; the objects with which people identity themselves—fortune, social posi- Monastic institutions 149 Origin and development cat the tion, family, body, and even mind—are nottheir true selves. There is nothing per- sangha 149 manent, and, if only the permanent deserves to be called the self, or ÂTMAN, then Internal organization of the nothing isself. There can be no individuality withouta putting together of com- sangha 150 ponents. This isbecoming different, and there can be no way of becoming differ- Society and state 152 Historical development 154 ent withouta dissolution,a passing away. The early councils 154 To make clear the concept of no-sclf |ANÂTMAN), Buddhists setforth the thcory Develcapments within of the five aggregates or constituents hhandhas, or SKANDHAS) of human exist- India 154 ence: (1) corporeality or physical forms |rûpa), (2) feelings or sensations (vedaufi), Expansion ofBuddhism 154 Buddhism under theGuptas (3) ideations (snññd), (4) mental formations or dispositions sanhhäras, ors MsK- and Palas 155 ÂRAS), and (5) consciousnessl vitinâ na. Human existence is onlya composite of The decline of Buddhism in the five aggregates, none ofwhich is the self or soul. A person isina process of India 156 continuous change, with no fixed underlying entity. Contemporary revival lséi Sri Lanka and Southeast The belief in rebirth, ors sÀRA, asa potentially endless series of worldly exist- Asia 156 ences in which every being is caught up was already associated with the doctrine SriLanka 157 Of KARMA (literally “act,” or “deed”) in pre-Buddhist India, and it was generally ac- Southeast Asia 1fi7 cepted by both the THERAVÂoA and the MAHÂYÂNA traditions (the two main tradi- Central Asia and China 159 Central Asia 159 tions in Buddhism). According to the doctrine of karma, good conduct bringsa China 1éi0 pleasant and happy result and createsa tendency toward similar good acts, while Korea and Japanl éi2 bad conduct brings an evil result and createsa tendency toward repeated evil ac- K‹area 1€i2 tions. This furnishes the basic context forthe moral life of the individual. Japan 162 New schools of the Kamakura The acceptance by Buddhists of thc bclief in karma andrebirth while holding to period 163 the doctrine of no-self gave rise toa difficult problem: how can rebirth take place Tibet, Mcangralia, and the withouta permanent subject to be rebornî The relation between existences in re- Himalayan Kingdoms 163 birth has been explained by the analogy of fire, which maintains itself unchanged Tibet 163 Mongolia 165 in appearance and yet isdifferent in every moment—what may becalled the con- Buddhism intheWest 165 tinuity of an ever-changing identity. Buddhism inthecontemporary Conviction that the above arefundamental realities led the Buddha toformu- world 165 late the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: thc truth of misery, the truth that misery originates Modern trends 165 Challenges and within us from the craving for pleasure and for being or nonbeing, the truth that opportunities 167 this craving can be eliminated, and the truth that this elimination isthe result of a methodical way or path that must be followed. Thus, there must be an under- standing of the mechanism by whicha human being's psychophysical being evolves; otherwise, human beings would remain indefinitely in samsäza, in the continual flow of transitory existence. Hence, the Buddha formulated the law of dependent origination paticca-sam- u ppäda, or PRATITYA-SAMUTPÀDA), whereby one condition arises out of another, which inturn arises out of prior conditions. Every mode ofbeing presupposes an- other immediately preceding mode from which thesubsequent mode derives, ina chain of causes. According to the classical rendering, the 12 links in the chain are ignorance (avif |ä, karmic predispositions (sankhñras), consciousness (viïinäp o), form and body nânla-iñpa, the five sense organs and the mind |sn2öyatnna), con- tactl phassa, feeling-response vedanä), craving (taybd), grasping for an object upädäna, action toward life bhava, birth (JÀTI), and old age and death Jaiäma- nana. Thus, the misery that is bound up with all sensate existence is accounted forbya methodical chain of causation. The law of dependent origination of the various aspects of becoming remains fundamental in all schools of Buddhism. There are, however, diverse interpreta- tions. Given this law, the question arises as to how one may escape the continual- ly renewed cycle of birth, suffering, and death. Here ethical conduct enters in. It is not enough to know that misery pervades all existence and to know theway in which life evolves; there must also bea purification that leads to the overcoming ofthis process. Sucha liberating purification is effected by following the Noble EIGHTFOLD PATH constituted by right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditational attainment. The aim of religious practice is to be rid of the delusion of ego, thus freeing one- 148 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM self from thefetters of this mundane world. One who is successful in doing so is said to have overcome theround ofrebirths and to have achieved enlightenment. This is the final goal—nota paradise ora heavenly world. The living process is likened toa fire burning. Itsremedy is the extinction of the fire of illusion, passions, and cravings. The Buddha, the Enlightened One, is one who is no longer kindled or enflamed. Many terms areused to describe the state of the enlightened human being; the one that has become famous in the West isNIRVANA, translated as “dying out”—that is, the dying out in the heart of lust, anger, and delusion. But nirvana is not extinction, and indecd the craving for annihilation or nonexistence was expressly repudiated by the Buddha. Buddhists search not formere cessation but for salvation. Though nirvana is often presented negatively as “release from suffering,” it is more accurate to describe it ina more positive fashion: as an ultimate goal to be sought and cherished. The Buddha left indeterminate questions regarding the destiny of persons who have reached this ultimate goal. He even refused to speculate as to whether such purified saints, after death, continued to exist or ceased to exist. Such questions, he maintained, were not relevant to the practice of the path and could not in any event be answered from within the confines of ordinary human existence. Still, he often affirmed the reality of the religious goal. For example, he isreported to have said: “There isan unborn, an unoriginated, an unmade, an uncompoundedi were there not, there would be no escape from theworld ofthe born, the originat- ed, the made, and the compounded.” Inhisteaching, the Buddha strongly asserted that the ontological status (that is, whether it possesses existence) and character of the unconditioned nirvana can- not be delineated ina way that does not distort or misrepresent it. But what is more important isthat he asserted with even more insistence that nirvana can be experienced—and experlenced in this present existence—by those who, knowing theBuddhist truth, practice the Buddhist path. BuddhlSt lTlOTlk ITI Thailand be$glil$ OT SANGHA, SOCIETY, AND STATE his day's food. The Monastic institutions. The SANGHA is the assembly ofBuddhist monks that laity gain meritb has, from theorigins of Buddhism, authoritatively studied, taught, and preserved QTOVldlng food to the the teachings of the Buddha. In their communities monks have served the laity monks through example and, as directed by the Buddha, through the teachings of morali- VanBuchei—Photo Researchers ty (Päli: sila; Sanskrit: Si1a. In exchange fortheir ser- vlce the monks have received support from the laity, who thereby earn merit. Besides serving as the center of Buddhist propaganda and learning, the monastery of- fers the monk anopportunity to live apart from world- ly concerns,a situation that has usually been believed necessary or at least advisable in order to follow strict- ly the path that leads most directly to release. Ozigin and development o/thesangha. According to scholars of early Buddhism, atthe time ofthe Bud- dha in northeastern India there existed numerous reli- gious MENDICANTS or almsmen who wandered and begged individually or in groups. Thèse men had for- saken the life ofa householder and the involvement with worldly affairs that this entails in order to seeka doctrine and form ofpractice which would meaning- tully explain life and offer salvation. When sucha seek- er met someone who seemed to offer sucha salvatory message, he would accept him asa teacher (GoRo) and wander with him. The situation of thèse mendicants is summed up inthegreeting with which they met other religious wanderers. This greeting aske d, “Un der whose guidance have you accepted religious mendican- eye Who isyour master (sattha)î Who se dhamma is agreeable to you?” 149 ÖC 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM The groups of mendicants that had formed arounda teacher broke their wan- derings during the rainy season (v ssA) from July through August. At this time they gathered at various rain retreats vassavãsa, usually situated near villages. Here they would beg daily for their few needs and continue their spiritual quest. The Buddha and hisfollowers may well have been thefirst group to found sucha yearly rain retreat. After the Buddha's death his followers did not separate but continued to wander and enjoy the rain retreat together. In their retreats the followers of the Buddha's teachings probably built thcir own huts and lived separately, but their sense of community with other Buddhists led them togather biweekly at the time ofthe full and new moons torecite the rÁTIMOKM-IA, or declaration of their steadfastness in observing the monastic discipline. This ceremony, in which thelaity also par- ticipated, was called the uposatha. Within the first several centuries after the Buddha's death, the sangha came to include two different groups of monks. One retained the wandering mode ofex- istence, this group has beena very creative force in Buddhist history and contin- ues to playa role in contemporary Buddhism, particularly in Sri Lanka and South- east Asia. The other, much larger group gave up the forest life and settled in permanent monastic settlements (viHARAS). There appear to be two major reasons forthis change in the mode ofliving. First, the followers of the Buddha were able, through their confession ofa common faith, to build upa certain coherent organi- zation. Second, the laity gave meritorious gifts of land and raised buildings in which thefollowers of the Buddha might live permanently, assured ofa supply of thc staplcs of life and also fulfilling the Buddha's dircctive to minister to the laity. In this manner small vihazas were raised in northeastern India and adjoining ar- eas into which Buddhism spread. With thereign of King Asoxe, further develop- ments occurred. Aśoka tooka protective interest in the unity and well-being of the BuddhlSt monaStlC Community, and, asa result of his support and influence, Buddhism developeda more universal orientation. In the post-Aśokan period, Buddhist monasteries grew in size and acquireda great deal of wealth. By about the 5th century CE there developed ÃviNms, or monastic centers, such as Nãlandã inIndia. These were centers of Buddhist learn- ing and propaganda, drawing monks from China and Tibet and sending forth mis- sionaries to these lands. The institutions were open to the outside influence ofa resurgent HINDUISM, however, which weakened Buddhism prior to its disappear- ance from India in the 13th century. In all Buddhist countries, monasteries continued to serve as centers of missions and learning and as retreats. Different types of monastic establishments devel- oped inparticular areas and in particular contexts. In several regions there were at least two types of institutions. There werea few large public monasteries that usually functioned in greater or lesser accord with classical Buddhist norms. In addition, there were many smaller monasteries, often located in rural areas, that were much more loosely regulated. Often these were hereditary institutions in which therights and privileges of the abbot were passed on to an adopted disciple. In areas where clerical marriage was practiced—for example, in medieval SriLan- ka and in post-Heian Japan—a tradition of blood inheritance developed. Internal organization of the sangha. It appears that the earliest organization within Indian monasteries was democratic in nature. This democratic nature arose from two important historical factors. First, the Buddha didnot, as was the custom among theteachers of his time, designatea human successor. Instead, the Buddha taught that each monk should strive to follow the path that he had preached. Thus there could be no absolute authority vested in one person, for the authority was the dhamma that the Buddha had taught. Second, the region in which Buddhism arose was noted fora system oftribal democracy, or republican- ism, which was adopted by the early sangña. When anissue arose, all the monks ofthemonastery assembled. The issue was put before the body ofmonks anddiscussed. If any solution was forthcoming, it had to be read three times, with silence signifying acceptance. If there was debate, a vote might be taken or the issue referred to committee or the arbitration of the 150 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM elders ofa neighboring monastery. As the sangha developed,a certain division of labor and hierarchical administration was adopted. The abbot became thehead of this administrative hierarchy and was vested with almost unlimited powers over monastic affairs. The anti-authoritarian character of Buddhism, however, contin- ued to assert itself. In China and Southeast Asian countries there has traditional- ly beena popular distaste for hierarchy, making rules difficult to enforce in the numerous almost independent monastic units. As the Buddhist sangha developed, specific rules and rites were enacted that differ very little in all Buddhist monasteries even today. The rules by which the monks arejudged and the punishments that should be assessed are found in the ninaça texts (vizmya literally means “that which leads”). The VINAYA PITAm ofthe Theraväda canon contains precepts that were supposedly given by the Buddha as he judgeda particular situation. While in the majority of cases the Buddha's au- thorship can be doubted, the attempt is made torefer all authority to the Buddha and not to one ofhisdisciples. The heart of the vinaça texts is the Pätimokkha, which, in the course of the sangha's development, becamea list of monastic rules. The rules are recited by the assembled monks every two weeks, witha pause after each one so that any monk who hastransgressed this rule may confess and receive his punishment. While thenumber ofrules in the Pätimokhha differs in the various schools, with 227, 250, and 253, respectively in the Päli, Chinese, and Tibetan canons, the rules are essentially the same. The first part of the Pä- timokhha deals with the four gravest sINS, which necessarily lead to expulsion from themonastery. They aresexual intercourse, theft, murder, and exaggeration of one's miraculous powers. The other rules, in seven sections, deal with trans- gressions ofa lesser nature, such as drinking or lying. In the Theraväda countries—Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambo- dia, and Laos—the Buddhist monastic community is composed primarily of male monks andnovices (the order of nuns died out in the Theraväda world more than a millennium ago, and contemporary efforts to reestablish it have met with only minimal success), white-robed ascetics (including various types of male and fe- male practitioners who remain outside the sangha but followa more orless re- nunciatory mode oflife), and laymen and laywomen. In some Theraväda coun- tries, notably in mainland Southeast Asia, boys or young men were traditionally World dlstzibution of expected to join the monastery fora period of instruction and meditation. Thus, BuddhlSITI 151 O 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM the majority of men in these areas were involved with the monastic ethos. This practice has fostereda high degree of lay participation in monastic affairs. In the Mahäyäna and VAJRAYÃNA countries of China and Tibet there was tradi- tionallya stage of one year before the aspirant could becomea novice. This wasa year of probation when theaspirant did not receive ToNsURE and remained subject to governmental taxation and service, while receiving instructions and perform- ing menial tasks within the monastery. At the end of this one-year probationary period, the aspirant had to passa test, including the recitation of part ofa well- known siitra—thc length depending upon whether the applicant was male orfe- male—anda discussion on various doctrinal questions. In China, one usually did not progress beyond thenovice stage unless he or she was of exceptional charac- ter or was affiliated with thegovernment. According to vina ya rules, entry into the sangha is an individual affair, depen- dent upon thewishes of the individual and his family. In some Buddhist coun- tries, however, ordination was often under the control of the state, and the state conducted the examinations to determine entry or advancement inthesangha. In certain situations ordination could be obtained not only through such examina- tions but also by the favor of high officials or through the purchase of an ordina- tion certificate from thegovernment. This selling of ordination certificates was at times abused by the government in order to fill its treasury. The life ofa Buddhist monk wasoriginally one of wandering, poverty, begging, and strict sexual abstinence. The monks were supposed to live only on alms, to wear clothes made from cloth talcen from rubbish heaps, and to possess only three robes, one girdle, an alms bowl,a razor,a needle, and a water strainer used to fil- ter insects from the drinking water (soas not to kill or imbibe them). Most Bud- dhist schools still stress CELIBACY, although some groups, particularly in Tibet and Japan, have relaxed the monastic discipline, and some Vajrayãna schools have al- lowed sexual activity as an esoteric ritual that contributes to the attainment of release. Begging, however, has tended in all schools to become merelya symbolic gesture used to teach humility or compassion or to raise funds forspecial purpos- es. Also, the growth oflarge monasteries has often led to compromises on therule of poverty. While themonk might technically give up his property before entering the monastery—although even this rule is sometimes relaxed—the community of monks might inherit wealth and receive lavish gifts of land. This acquisition of wealth has ledattimes not only toa certain neglect of the Buddhist monastic ide- al but also to the attainment of temporal power. This factor, in addition to the self-governing nature of Buddhist monasteries and the early Buddhist connection with Indian kingship, has influenced the interaction of the sangha and the state. Society and state. Though Buddhism issometimes described asa purely mo- nastic, otherworldly religion, this is not accurate. In the earliest phases of the tra- dition the Buddha was pictured asa teacher who addressed not only renouncers but lay householders as well. Morcover, although he isnot depicted in the early texts asa social reformer, he does address issues of social order and responsibility. Throughout Buddhist history, Buddhists have put forth varying forms of social ethics based on notions of karmic justice (the “law” that good deeds will be re- warded with happy results while evil deeds will entail suffering for the one who does them)i the cultivation of virtues such as self-giving, compassion, and even- handedness; and the fulfillment of responsibilities to parents, teachers, rulers, and so on. Moreover, Buddhists have formulated various notions of coSMOGONY and cosMOLOGY that have provided legitimacy for the social hierarchies and politi- cal orders with which they have been associated. For the most part, Buddhism has playeda conservative, moderating role in the generally hierarchical social and po- litical organization of various Asian societies, but the tradition has on occasion given rise to more radical and revolutionary movements aswell. Over thecourse of Buddhism's long history, the relationship between the Bud- dhist community and state authority has taken many forms. The early Buddhist sangha in India appears to have been treated by Indian rulers asa self-governing unit not subject to their power unless it proved subversive or was threatened by internal or external disruption. Aśoka, the Buddhist king whose personal support 152 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM nd prestige helped Buddhism grow froma regional toa universal religion, ap- pears to have been applying this policy of protection from disruption when he intervened in Buddhist monastic affairs to expel schismatics. He came tobe re- membered, however, as the Dharmaraja, the great king who protected and propa- gated the teachings of the Buddha. In Theraväda countries Asoka's image asa supporter and sponsor of the faith has traditionally been used to judge political authority. In general, Buddhism in Theraväda countries has been either heavily favorcd or officially recognized by the government, so that the golden agc in which thcre isa creative interac- tion between the government and the monks hasbeen viewed as an ob- tainable goal. The snugLa's role in this interaction has traditionally been topreserve the dhamma andtoactasthespiritual guide and model, re- vealing to the secular power theneed forfurthering the welfare of the people. While the sangha and the government appear as two separate structures, there has been some intertwining; for monks (often of royal heritage) have commonly acted as temporal advisers, and the kings—at least in Thailand—occasio lyhave spent some time in the monastery. It should also be pointed out th uddhist monastic institutions have served asa link between therural peoples and the urban elites, helping to unify the various Theraväda countries. In China therelationship between thesergio and the state has fluctu- ated. At times Buddhism hasbeen seen asa foreign religion, asa poten- tial competitor with the state, or asa drain on national resources of men and wealth. Thèse perccptions have ledto sharp purges of Buddhism and torules curbing its influence. Some oftherules were an attempt to limit the number ofmonks andtoguarantee governmental influence in ordina- tion through state examinations and the granting of ordination certifi- cates. Conversely, at other times, such as during the early centuries of the T'ang dyn ty (618—845), Buddhism was almost considered the state religion. Th government createda commissioner of religion to earn merit forthe state by erecting temples, monasteries, and images in hou- or ofthe Buddha. In Japan, Buddhism has experienced similar fluctuations. During the period from the 10th to the 13th century, monasteries gained great land- ed wealth and temporal power. They formed large armies of monks and mercenaries that took part in wars with rival religious groups as well as in temporal struggles. By the 14th century, however, their power began to wane, and, under the Tokugawa regime that took control in the 17th century, Buddhist institutions became, toa considerable degree, instru- ments ofstate power and administration. Only n Tibet did Buddhists establisha theocratic polity that lasted for an exte ed period of time. Beginning in the 12th century, Tibetan monastic groups developed relationships with thepowerful Mongol khans that often gave them control of governmental affairs in Tibet. In the 17th century the DGE-LUGS-PA school establisheda monastic regime that was able to maintain more orless continual control until the Chinese occupation in the 1950s. During the immediate premodern period, each of the various Buddhist communities in Asia developed some kind ofworking relationship with the sociopolitical syst m in its area. Within the sweep ofWestern colonialism and es- pe a ly fter th establishment of new political ideologies and systems during Standing Buddha Sth the 19th nd 20th centuries, thèse older patterns of accommodation between hishands in themudrä Buddhism and state authority were serio sly challenged. In many cases bitter (symbolic gestuze) conflicts resulted—fore , betweenB d sts nd colonial regimes in Sri syrriboîizing “do not Lanka and Myanmar, between Buddhists and the Meiji reformers in Japan, and be- fight”,- in Bangkok, tween Buddhists and many different communist regimes. In some cases, as, for Tlialland instance, in Japan, thèse conflicts have been resolved and new modes ofaccom- Mimi Forsyth—Mcinkmeyer modation have been established. In other cases, such as that of Tibet, there has been no resolution. 153 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM Standing Buddha Cth HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT hishands in the The early councils. The early BUDDHIST COUNCILS |sÕfigitis, or “recitals”) were mudras çmbolizing concerned largely with the purity of the faith and practice of the monastic com- feazlessness, 2nd—4th munity. Unfortunately, legend and myth have so colored these accounts that century cz;from scholars cannot be sure when andwhere they took place or even who took part in them. Though many scholars deny itsvery existence, all Buddhist traditions Philadelphia Museum orArt— maintain thata council was called at Räjagaha (modern Räjgir) immediately after photograph, A.|. Wyatt, stafi pho- tographer the Buddha's death (the date of which isunknown). According to legend, this council (comprising 500 ARAHANTS, or accomplished monks) was responsible for the composition of the vina pa (code of monastic discipline), under the moms Upãli, and the dhamma i. e., the su teas, or BuddhiSt SCRIPTUREs), under the moms ÃNANDA, even though the latter was supposedly brought to trial at the same council. Though there were memorizers ofsuteas and the vinaya, as well as authorized commentators, during the period of the first three Buddhist coun- cils, the scriptures as such existed only in an inchoate oral form. More scholars are prone to accept the historicity of the second council that was held at Vesãlí (Sanskrit: Vaiśãll)a little more thana century after the Buddha's death. According to the tradition,a controversy arose betweena certain Yasa and the moults of Vajji. The 10 points of discipline observed by the Vajjian monks andopposed by Yasa permitted storing salt ina horn, eat- ing in the afternoon, and drinking buttermilk after meals. These and other rules were condemned by thecouncil as being too lax. Many scholars be- lieve the second council to have been closely associated with the contro- versy that led to the open division between two segments of the early community—the HĂSAŃGHiKA school, which displayed more liberal at- titudes, and the Sthaviravãda (Theravãda) school, which tooka more con- servative stance. According to Theraväda accounts,a third council was called by King Aśoka atPãțaliputta (Patna) about 250 BCE. Moggaliputta Tissa, presi- dent of the council, is said to have completed hisAbhidhazma (scholas- tic) treatise, the Ka th ãva tthu (“Points of Controversy”), during this council. It is also said thata controversy arose between two sects, the Sarvãstivädins and the Vibhajyavãdins (usually identified with the ear- ly Theravädins), over the reality of past and future states of conscious- ness cittas. After the Sarvästivãdin view that such states actually ex- ist was condemned, the sect supposedly withdrew from the lower GAŃGà (Ganges) valley to Mathur°a in the northwest. There it appears to have continued to develop asa transitional school between the older, more conservative schools and the nascent Mahãyäna (“Greater Vehi- cle”) movement. According to northern Buddhist traditions,a fourth council was held under King KANIȘKA, probably in the 1st century BE, at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. This council seems to have been limited to the composition of commentaries. Because it appears that the Sarvästivädin viewpoint was the only one represcntcd, scholars gcnera1ly conclude that this was a sectarian synod rather than an actual ecumenical Buddhist council. At any rate, the fourth council has never been recognized by southern Buddhists. Developments within India. Expansion ofBuddhism. The Buddha was a charismatic leader who discovered and proclaimeda religious message and foundeda distinctive religious community. Some ofthemembers ofthat com- munity were, like the Buddha himself, wandcring ascctics. Others werc lay- persons who venerated the Buddha, followed those aspects of his teachings that were relevant to them, and provided the wandering ascetics with the material support that they required. During the first several centuries after the Buddha's death, the story of his life was remembered and embellished, his teachings were preserved and developed, and the community that he had established becamea sig- nificant religious force. Many ofthefollowers of the Buddha who were 154 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM wandering ascetics began to settle in permanent monastic establishments and to develop the procedures needed to maintain large monastic institutions. At the same time, the Buddhist laity came toinclude important members oftheeco- nomic and political elite. During the first century of its existence Buddhism spread from its place of ori- gin in Magadha and Kosala throughout much ofnorthern India, including the ar- eas of Mathurã and Ujjayaní in the west. According to tradition, invitations to the Council ofVesãlï, held just overa century after the Buddha's death, were sent to monks living in many distant places throughout northern and ccntra1 India. By the middle of the 3rd century BCE, Buddhism had gained the favor ofa Mauryan king who had established an empire that extended from the HIMALAYAS in the north almost as farsouth as SriLanka. To the rulers of the kingdoms and republics arising in northeastern India, the patronage of sects with practices differing from orthodox Hinduism was one way ofcounterbalancing the enormous political power enjoyed by high-caste Hindus (BRAHMINS) İn the affairs of state. The first Mauryan emperor, Candra Gupta (c. 321—c. 297 BCE), patronized yAINISM and finally becamea Jain monk. His grandson, Aśoka, who ruled over the greater part of the subcontinent from about 270 to 230 BCE, became thearchetypal Buddhist king. Aśoka attempted to establish in his realma “true dhamma” based on the virtues of self-control, impartiality, cheer- fulness, truthfulness, and goodness. Though he didnotfounda state church, he did attempt to forgea Buddhist-oriented culture that would include Hindu, Jain, Äjïvika (Äjivaka), and Buddhist alike. Though Aśoka createda new ideal of king- ship that would have powerful repercussions throughout the later Buddhist world, the various problems posed bya state of vast dimensions proved greater than he could solve. Soon after Aśoka's death, the Mauryan empire began to crumble. Although Buddhists seem tohave suffered some persecutions during the subse- quent Suùga—Känva period (185—28 BCE), Buddhism succeeded in maintaining and even expanding itsinfluence. Buddhist monastic centers and magnificent Bud- dhist monuments such asthegreat STUPAS at Bhãrhut and Säñchi wcre established throughout the subcontinent, and these institutions often received royal patron- age. In the early centuries of the Common Era, Buddhism was especially flourish- ing in northwestern India, and from there it spread rapidly into Central Asia and China. Buddhism under the Guptas and Pãlas. By the time ofthe Gupta dynasty (c. 320—c. 600 CE), Buddhism inIndia was being affected by the revival of Brahmanic religion and the rising tide of BHAKTI (Hindu devotionalism). During this period, for example, some Hindus were practicing devotion to the Buddha, whom they re- garded as an AvATAR (incarnation) of the Hindu deity vISHNU. During the Gupta period some monasteries joined together to form monastic centers( HÀVIHÀRAS) that functioned as universities. The most famous ofthese, located at NÂLANDA, hada curriculum that went farbeyond thebounds oftradi- tional Buddhism. Nãlanda soon became theleading center for the study of Ma- hãyãna, which was rapidly becoming thedominant Buddhist tradition in India. Though Buddhist institutions seemed tobe faring well under the Guptas, vari- ous Chinese pilgrims visiting India between 400 and 700 CE could discern an in- ternal decline in the Buddhist community and thebeginning of the reabsorption of Indian Buddhism by Hinduism. Among these pilgrims were FA-HSIEN, Sung Yün, Hui-sheng, I-ching, and the 7th-century monk HSÜAN-TSANG, who found “millions of monasteries” in northwestern India reduced to ruins by the Huns,a nomadic Central Asian people. Many oftheremaining Buddhists were developing their own form ofTantrism (sss TANTRA). Buddhism survived the Huns' destruction of the monasteries, especially in the northeast, and flourished fora time under the Buddhist Päla kings |8th—12th cen- tury CE). These kings continued to protect the great monastic establishments, building such new centers as Odantapurï, near Nãlanda, and establishinga sys- tem of supervision for all such mnbövlńöros. Under thePãlas, Tantric Buddhism i. e., Vajrayäna) became thedominant sect. Adepts of this sect, called SIDDHAS, 155 ÕC 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM Reclining Buddha, lPtù identified nirvana with the passions, maintaining that one could “touch the century cz;in the deathless element with hisbody.” During this period, the university of Nälanda becamea center for the study of Tantric Buddhism and thepractice of Tantric Polonnaruwa, Sur magic and rituals. Under thePäla kings, contacts with China decreased as Indians Lanka began to turn their attention to Tibet and Southeast Asia. Robert Harding Picture Library/ The decline of Buddhism inIndia. With thecollapse of the Päla dynasty in Getty Images the 12th century, Buddhism suffered another defeat, and this time it did not re- cover. Though some pockets of Buddhist influence remained, the Buddhist pres- ence in India became so negligible that it could hardly be noticed. To some ex- tent, Buddhism was so tolerant of other faiths that it was simply reabsorbed bya revitalized Hindu tradition. Likewise, Buddhism inIndia, having become mainly a monastic movement, probably paid little heed tothelaity and, after the Muslim invaders sacked the Indian monasteries in the 12th century cE, Buddhists had lit- tle basis for recovery. After the destruction of the monasteries, the Buddhist laity showed little interest in restoring the “Way.” Contempoiaz revival. At the beginning of the 20th century Buddhism was virtually extinct in India. Since the early 1900s, however,a significant Buddhist presence has been reestablished. The incorporation of Sikkim in 1975 into the Re- public of India has brought into the modern Indian nationa small Himalayan so- ciety that hasa strong Buddhist tradition related to the Vajrayäna Buddhism ofTi- bet. Following the Chinese conquest of Tibet in the late 1950s, there was an influx of Tibetan Buddhists who establisheda highly visible Buddhist community innorthern India. More importantly, though,a number ofBuddhist societies were organized in the early decades of the 20th century by Indian intellectuals who found in Buddhism an alternative toa Hindu tradition that they could no longer accept. The mass conversion of large numbers ofpeople from theso-called sched- uled cASTES lformerly called UNTOUCHABLES),a movement originally led by BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR, began in the 1950s. In October 1956 Ambedkar and several hun- dred thousand of hisfollowers converted to Buddhism, and—although accurate figures are difficult to determine—the group has continued to grow. Some esti- mates indicate that the number ofcouverts is as high as four million. Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. The first clear evidence of the spread of Bud- dhism outside India dates from thereign of King Asoha (3rd century BCE). Accord- 156 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM ing tohisinscriptions, Aśoka sent Buddhist emissaries not only to many different regions of the subcontinent but also into certain border areas as well. It is certain that Aśokan emissaries were sent to Sri Lanka and to an area called Suvariyab- hümi that many modern scholars have identified with theMon country in south- ern Myanmar andcentral Thailand. SriLanka. According to the Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism took root in Sri Lanka with the arrival of Aśoka's son Mahinda and hissixcompanions. Sent as missionaries by the Mauryan emperor, these travelers converted King Devã- nampiya Tissa and many ofthenobility. Under King Tissa, the Mah°avih^ara mon- astery was built, an institution that was to become thecenter of Sinhalese ortho- doxy. Aíter Tissa's death (C. 207 BCE) Sri Lanka fell into the hands ofthe South In- dians until the time ofDuțțhagãmanï (101—77 BCE),a descendant of Tissa, who overthrew King Ețära. During this time, asa reaction to the threat posed by the South Indians, Buddhism and SriLankan political formations became closely in- tertwined. Again, it was probably because of this danger that the Pãli canon was first written down under King Vațțagämaiyï Abhaya inthe 1stcentury BCE. This king also built the Abhayagiri monastery, the main center of the various Mahãyä- na movements inSriLanka. These developments were openly supported by King Mahãsena (276—303 CE). Under Mahäsena's son, Śrï Meghavanna, the “Tooth of the Buddha” was brought to Abhayagiri and madc thenational symbol. During the 1stmillennium BE in SriLanka, the ancient Theraväda tradition co- existed with various forms ofHinduism, Mahãy°ana Buddhism, and Tantric Bud- dhism. Beginning in the 10th century, as Buddhism was declining in India, Sri Lanka becamea major locus ofa Theraväda Buddhist revival. As a result of this revival, Sri Lanka becamea Theraväda kingdom, witha sangha that was unified under Theraväda auspices anda monarch who legitimated his rule in Theraväda terms. The new Theraväda tradition that was established spread from SriLanka into Southeast Asia, where it exerteda powerful influence. In modern times SriLanka fell prey to the Western colonial powers (to the Por- tuguese in 1505—1658, the Dutch in 1658—1796, and finally the British in 1796— 1947). Under King Kittisiri Rajasiha (1747—81) the ordination lineage was once again renewed, this time by monks recruited from Thailand. The monastic community inSriLanka is now divided into three major bodies: (1) the Siam Nikaya, founded in the 18th century,a conservative and wealthy sect that admits only members oftheGoyigama, the highest Sinhalese caste, (2) the Amarapura sect, founded in the 19th century, which has opened its ranks to members oflower castes, and (3) the reformed splinter group from the Siam Ni- kaya called the Ramanya sect. Among thelaity several reform groups have been established. Among these the sArVODAYA community that is headed by A.T. Ari- yaratne is especially important. This group has established religious, economic, and social development programs that have hada significant impact on Sinhalese village life. Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia the Buddhist impact has been made invery different ways inthree different regions. In two of these (the region of Malaysia- Indonesia and the region on the mainland extending from Myanmar tosouthern Vietnam), the main connections have been trade routes with India and Sri Lanka. In Vietnam themain connections have been with China. It is certain that Bud- dhism reached these areas by the beginning centuries of the 1st millennium CE. With thehelp ofIndian missionaries such asthemonk Gunavarman, Buddhism had gaineda firm foothold on Java well before the 5th century CE. Buddhism was also introduced at about this time in Sumatra, and, by the 7th century, the king of Śrïvijaya on the island of Sumatra wasa Buddhist. When theChinese traveler I- ching visited this kingdom inthe7thcentury, he noted that HİNAYÀNA Buddhism was dominant in the area but that there were in additiona few Mahãyänists. It was also in the 7th century that the great scholar Dharmapăla from Nălanda vis- ited Indonesia. The Sailendra dynasty, which ruled over the Malay Peninsula anda large sec- tion of Indonesia from the 7th to the 9th century, promoted the Mahãyãna and Tantric forms ofBuddhism. During this period major Buddhist monuments were 157 ÕC 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM erected in Java, among them the marvelous BoxOBUDUx, which is per- haps the most magnificent of all Bud dhist st upas |b urial m onu- ments). From the7thcentury on- ward, Vajrayãna Buddhism spread rapidly throughout the area. King Kertanagara of Java |reigned 1268— 9 2) was cspeci ally devo ted to Tantric practice. In the Malay Peninsula and Indo- nesia, as in India, Buddhism gradu- ally lost its hold during the first half of the 2nd millennium CE.In many areas Buddhism was assimi- lated to Hinduism, forminga Hin- du-oriented amalgam that in some places (for example, in Bali) has per- sisted to the present. In most ofMa- laysia and Indonesia, however, both Hinduism and Buddhism were re- placed by IsLAM, which remains the Buddhist monk pauses dominant religion in the area. (In Indonesia and Malaysia, Buddhism exists asa WVÉIÌ0 GSMDR1Ef, living religion only among theChincse minority, but there isa growing commu- VOgetatiOn froma stupa nity of converts, with its greatest strength in the vicinity of Borobudur.) at Angkoz Wat, A second pattern of Buddhist expansion in Southeast Asia developed in the Cambodia mainland area that extends from Myanmar inthenorth and west to the Mekong yr›hn Spragens, }r.—Photo delta in the south and east. According to the local Mon and Burman traditions, Researchers this is the area of Suvarnabhùmi that was visited by missionaries from theAśo- kan court. It is known that, by the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE,Bud- dhist kingdoms were beginning to appear in this region. In Myanmar andThai- land—despite the presence of Hindu, Mahãyãna, and Vajrayãna elements—the more conservative Hïnayãna forms of Buddhism were especially prominent throughout the 1stmillennium CE.Farther to the east and south, in what is now Cambodla and southern Vietnam, various combinations of Hinduism, Mahäyana Buddhism, and Vajrayäna Buddhism became dominant. Throughout much ofthe history of Angkor, the great imperial center that dominated Cambodia and much ofthesurrounding areas for many centuries, Hinduism seems to have been the preferred tradition, at least among theelite. In the late 12th and early 13th centu- ries, however, the Buddhist King Jayavarman VIIbuilta new capital called Ang- korThom, witha temple complex that was dominated by Mahãyãna and Vajrayã na monuments; these monuments represent one of the high points of Buddhist architectural achievement. In mainland Southeast Asia, as in Sri Lanka,a Theraväda reform movement be- gantodevelop in the 11th century. Drawing heavily on the Therav°ada heritage that had been preserved among theMon insouthern Myanmar, aswell as on the new reform tradition that was developing in SriLanka, this revival soon estab- lished the Theravãda tradition as the most dynamic tradition in Myanmar, where theBurmans had conquered the Mon. By thelate 13th century the reform move- ment had spread to Thailand, where theThai were gradually displacing the Mon as the dominant population. Within another two centuries the Theraväda reform- ershad spread their tradition to Cambodia and Laos. The Theraväda preeminence that was thus established remained basically in- tact throughout the area during the remainder ofthe premodern period. The arriv- al of the Western powers in the 19th century, however, brought important chang- es. In Thailand, which retained its independence,a process of gradual reform and modernization took place. During the 19th century leadership in the reform and modernization process was taken bya new Buddhist sect, the Thammayut Ni- käya, which was established and supported by the reigning Chakri dynasty. More 158 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM recently, the reform and moderniza- tion process has become more di- versified and has affected virtually all segments of the Thai Buddhist community. In the other Theraväda countries in Southeast Asia, Buddhism has hada much more difficult time. In Myanmar, which endured an ex- tended period of British rule, the sangha and the structures of Bud- dhist society have been seriously disrupted. Under themilitary re- gime of General Ne Win, estab- lished in 1962, reform and modern- ization were limited in allareas of national life, including religion. In Laos and Cambodia, both ofwhich s uff ered an extended perio d of French rule followed by the devas- tation of the Vietnam War and the violent imposition of communist rule, the Buddhist community hasbeen severely crippled. During the late 20th Funeral coztege in century, howevcr, many signs ofa Buddhist revival have begun toappcar. SaigOn (now Ho Chl There aresome indications that Vietnam was involved in the early sea trade be- Minh City) o/ BuddhlSt tween India, Southeast Asia, and China and that Buddhism reached the country ITIORk Thich Qunng around thebeginning of the 1stmillennium CE,brought by missionaries traveling tuo, wùO 1f22f27OJÕ ted between India and the Chinese empire. The northern part of what isnow Viet- himself to uphold nam had been conquered by the Chinese empire in 111 BCE; it remained under claims oț BuddhiStS ITI Chinese rule until 939 CE. In the south there were two Indianized states, Funan Vietnam during the (founded during the 1st century CE) and Champa (founded 192 CE). In these areas ÑİO tR DTR NOT both Hinayäna and Mahãyãna traditions were represented. The traditions that AFF—Archive Photos most affected the long-term development of Buddhism in Vietnam, however, were ZEN and ruRE LAND traditions introduced from China into the northern and central sections of the country beginning in the 6th century CE. The first dùyönn (Zen, Vietnamese: thiên, or “meditation,” school was intro- duced by Vinïtaruci, an Indian monk who hadcome toVietnam from China in the6thcentury. In the 9th centurya school of “wall meditation” was introduced by the Chinese monk Vo Ngon Thong. A third major Zen school was established in the 11th century by the Chinese monk Thao Durong. From 1414 to 1428 Bud- dhism inVietnam was persecuted by the Chinese, who had again conquered the country. Tantrism, TAOISM, and coNrUCIANIsM were also filtering into Vietnam at this time. Even after the Chinese had been driven back,a Chinese-like bureaucra- cy closely supervised the Vietnamese monasteries. The clergy was divided be- tween the highborn and Sinicized (Chinese-influenced), on the one hand, and those in the lower ranks, who often were active in peasant uprisings. During the modern period these Mahäyäna traditions centered in northern and central Vietnam have coexisted with Theraväda traditions that have spilled over from Cambodia inthesouth. Rather loosely joined together, the Vietnamese Bud- dhists managed topreserve their traditions through the period of French colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. During thestruggle between North and South Vietnam in the 1960s and early '70s, many Buddhists worked toachieve peace and reconciliation, but they met with little success. Under thecommunist re- gime that completed its victory in Vietnam in theearly 1970s, conditions have been difficult, but Buddhism has persisted. Reports in the late 1980s and early ’90s indicated that new signs of vitality were beginning to appear. Central Asia and China. Csritra7 Asia. By the beginning of the Common Era, Buddhism had probably been introduced into eastern Turkistan. According to tradition,a son of Aśoka founded the kingdom ofKhotan around 240 BCE. The 159 ÕC 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM grandson of this king supposedly introduced Buddhism toKhotan, where it be- came thestate religion. On more secure historical grounds, it is clear that the support given by the Indo-Scythian king Kanișka ofthe Kushän țKușäna) dynasty, which ruled in northern India, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia in the 1stto 2nd century cE, encouraged the spread of Buddhism into Central Asia. Kanișka purportedly called an important Buddhist councili he patronized the Gandhãra school of Buddhist art, which introduced Greek and Persian elements lnto Bud- dhist iconography; and he supported Buddhist cxpansion withina vast region that cxtended farinto the Central Asian hcartland. In the northern part of Chinese Turkistan, Buddhism spread from Kucha (K'u-ch’e) to the kingdoms ofAgnideśa (Karashahr), Kao-ch'ang (Turfan), and Bharuka (Aksu). According to Chinese trav- elers who visited Central Asia, the Hïnayänists (at least at the time oftheir visits) were strongest in Turfan, Shanshan, Kashgar, and Kucha, while Mahäyäna strong- holds were located in Yarkand and Khotan. In Central Asia there was a confusing welter of languages, religions, and cul- tures, and, as Buddhism interacted with these various traditions, it changed and developed. sHAMANISM, ZOROASTRIANISM, NESTORIAN CHRISTIANITY, and Islam allpen- etrated these lands and coexisted with Buddhism. For example, some oftheMa- hãyãna BoDHiSATTVAs, such as AMITÂBHA, may have been inspired in part by Zoroas- trian influence. There isalso evidence of some degree of syncretism between Buddhism and MANICHAEISM, an Iranian dualistic religion that was founded in the 3rd century CE. Buddhism continued to flourish in parts of Central Asia until the llth century, particularly under the patronage of thc Uighur Turks. With theincreasingly suc- cessful incursions of Islam (beginning in the 7th century BE) and the decline of the T'ang dynasty (618—907) in China, however, Central Asia ceased to be the im- portant crossroads of Indian and Chinese culture that it once had been. Buddhism inthearea gradually becamea thing of the past. China. Although there are reports of Buddhists in China as early as the 3rd century BCE, Buddhism was not actively propagated in that country until the ear- ly centuries of the Common Era. Tradition has it that Buddhism was introduced after the Han emperor Ming Ti(reigned 57/58—75/76 CE) hada dream ofa flying golden deity that was interpreted asa vision of the Buddha. Accordingly, the em- peror dispatched emissaries to India, who subsequently returned to China with theSutrn in forty-two Sections, which was deposited ina temple outside the cap- ital of Lo-yang. In actuality, Buddhism entered China gradually, first primarily through Central Asia and, later, by way of the trade routes around and through Southeast Asia. The Buddhism that first became popular in China during the Han dynasty was deeply colored with magical practices, making it compatible with popular Chi- nese Taoism. Instead of the doctrine of no-self, early Chinese Buddhists taught the indestructibility of the soul. Nirvana becamea kind ofimmortality. They also taught the theory of karma, the values of charity and compassion, and the need to suppress the passions. Until the end of the Han dynasty, there was a virtual sym- biosis between Taoism and Buddhism anda common propagation of the means forattaining immortality through various ascetic practices. It was widely be- lieved that LAO-TZU, the founder of Taoism, had been reborn in India as the Bud- dha. Many Chinese emperors worshiped Lao-tzu and the Buddha on thesame al- tar. The first translations of Buddhist síitrns into Chinese—namely those dealing with such topics as breath control and mystical concentration—utilizeda Taoist vocabulary to make theBuddhist faith intelligible to the Chinese. After the Han period, in the north of China, Buddhist monks were often used by non-Chinese emperors fortheir political-military counsel as well as fortheir skill in magic. At the same time, in the south, Buddhism began to penetrate the philosophical and literary circles of the gentry. An important contribution to the growth ofBuddhism inChina during this period was the work oftranslation. The most important early translator was the learned monk xUMÃRA¡Iv , who, before he was brought to the Chinese court in 401 CE, had studied the Hindu v£DAS, the oc- cult sciences, and astronomy, as well as the Hinayãna and Mahäyäna sïitras. 160 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM During the 5th and 6th centuries DE Buddhist schools from India became estab- lished, and new, specifically Chinese schools began to form. Buddhism was be- cominga powerful intellectual force in China, monastic establishments were pro- liberating, and Buddhism was becoming well-established among thepeasantry. Thus, it is not surprising that, when theSuidynasty (581—618) established its rule overa reunified China, Buddhism flourished asa state religion. The golden age of Buddhism in China occurred during the T'ang dynasty. Though theT'ang emperors were usually Taoists themselves, they tended to fa- vor Buddhism, which had bccome extrcmely popular. Under theT'ang thc gov- ernment extended its control over the monasteries and the ordination and legal status of monks. From this time forward, the Chinese monk styled himself sim- ply cù'en, or “subject.” During this period several Chinese schools developed their own distinctive ap- proaches. Some ofthem produced comprehensive systematizations of the vast body ofBuddhist texts and teachings. There wasa great expansion in the number ofBuddhist monasteries and the amount ofland they owned. It was also during this period that many scholars made PILGRIMACES tO India, heroic journeys that greatly enriched Buddhism inChina, both by the texts that were acquired and by the intellectual and spiritual inspiration that was brought from India. Buddhism was never able to replace its Taoist and Confucian rivals, however, and in 845 the emperor Wu-tsung begana major persecution. According to records, 4,600 Bud- dhist temples and 40,000 shrines were destroyed, and 260,500 monks andnuns were forced to return to lay life. Buddhism inChina never rccovered completely from thegreat persecution of 845. It did maintain much ofits heritage, however, and continued to playa signif- fisprsssntation o/ icant role in the religious life of China. On the one hand, Buddhism retained its VaiSzavapa, the identity as Buddhism and generated new forms through which it was expressed. lokapäla (one of the Thèse included texts such as the yii 7u, or “recorded sayings,” of famous teachers Jour guaidians of the that were oriented primarily toward monks, as well as more literary creations cardinal di:reGtlOTlS) O$ such as the /ourusy to the West (written in the 16th century) and The Dream of the ziortñ,6 72—676 Ce; theRed Chainber (lsth century). On the other hand, Buddhism coalesced with in the heng-Hsien Ssu the Confucian—Neo-Confucian and Taoist traditions to forma complex multi- (shrine) in the Lung- religious ethos within which all three traditions were more orless comfortably men caves, China encompassed. Paolo Koch—Photo Researchers Among thevarious schools the two that retained the greatest vitality were the Ch'an school (better known intheWest by its Japanese name, Zen) which was noted foritsemphasis on meditation, and the Pure Land (Ching-t'u) tradition, which emphasized Buddhist devotion. The former school exerted the greatest influence among thecultured elite. It did so through various media, including the arts. Ch'an art- ists during the Sung dynasty (960—1279) used images of flowers, rivers, and trees, executed with sudden, deft strokes, to evoke an insight into the flux and EMP- TINESS of all reality. The Pure Land tradition exerteda greater influence on the population asa whole and was sometimes assOClated with SECitET SOCIETiEs and peas- ant uprisings. But the two seemingly disparate tradi- tions were often very closely linked. In addition, they were mixed with other Buddhist elements such as the so-called “masses forthe dead” that had originally been popularized by the practitioners of Esoteric (Vaj- rayäna) Buddhism. During the early decades of the 20th century, China experienceda Buddhist reform movement aimed atre- vitalizing the Chinese Buddhist tradition and adapting Buddhist teachings and institutions to modern condi- tions. However, the disruptions caused by the Sino- 161 ÖC 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM japanese War and the subsequent establishment ofa communist government have not been helpful to the Buddhist cause. The Buddhist community was the victim of severe repression during the Cultural Revolution {1966—69). Iśorea and Japan. Korea. Buddhism was first introduced into the Korean re- gion when it was divided into the three kingdoms ofPaekche, Koguryö, and Silla. After Buddhism was brought to the northern kingdom ofKoguryö from China in the4th century, it gradually spread throughout the other Korean kingdoms. As of- ten happened, the new faith was first accepted by the court and then extended to the peoplc. After the unification of thc country by the kingdom ofSilla in the 660s, Buddhism began toflourish throughout Korea. The monk wöNHYO {617—686) was one of the most impressive scholars and reformers of his day. He was married and taught an “ecumenical” version of Buddhism that included all branches and sects. He tried to use music, literature, and dance to express the meaning ofBud- dhism. Another scholar of the Silla era was Ği-sang (625—702), who went toChina and returned to spread the Hwaóm (Chinese HUA-YEN) sect in Korea. The Chinese Ch'an sect (Zen) was introduced in the 8th century and, by absorbing the Korean versions of Hua-yen, T’IEN-T'Ai (Tendai;a rationalist school), and Pure Land, gradu- ally became thedominant school of Buddhism inKorea, as it did in Vietnam. Early Korean Buddhism was characterized bya this-worldly attitude. It empha- sized the pragmatic, nationalistic, and aristocratlC aspects of the faith. Still, an in- digenous tradition of shamanism influenced the development of popular Bud- dhism throughout the centuries. Buddhist monks danced, sang, and performed therituals of shamans. During the Koryò period (935—1392), Korean Buddhism reached its zenith. Dur- ing the first part of this period the Korean Buddhist community was active in the publication of the TTipitaka Koreana, one of the most inclusive editions of the Buddhist sutras up to that time. After 25 years of research,a monk bythename of Uich'ön (1055—1 l0l; See DAIGAK GUKSA) published an outstanding three-volume bibliography of Buddhist literature. Uich'òn also sponsored the growth of the T’ien-t’ai sect in Korea. He emphasized the need forcooperation between Ch'an and theother “Teaching” schools of Korean Buddhism. Toward theend oftheKoryö period, Buddhism began to suffer from internal corruption and external persecution, especially that promoted by theNeo-Confu- cians. The government began to put limits on the privileges of the monks, and Confucianism replaced Buddhism asthereligion of the state. The Yi dynasty (1392—1910) continued these restrictions, and, since the end of World War II, Bud- dhism inKorea has been hampered by communist rule in North Korea and by the great vitality of Christianity in South Korea. Despite these challenges, Buddhists, particularly in South Korea, have both preserved the old traditions and initiated new movements. Japan. The Buddhism that was initially introduced into Japan in the 6th cen- tury from Korea was regarded asa talisman (charm) forthe protection of the coun- try. The new religion was accepted by the powerful Soga clan but was rejected by others, thus causing controversies that resembled the divisions caused by the in- troduction of Buddhism inTibet. In both countries, some believed that the intro- duction of Buddhist statues had been an insult to the native deities, resulting in plagues and natural disasters. Only gradually were such feelings overcome. Though theBuddhism oftheSoga clan was largely magical, under the influence of Prince Shõtoku, who became regent of the nation in 593, other aspects of Bud- dhism were emphasized. Shötoku lectured on various scriptures that emphasized the ideals of the layman and monarch, and he composeda “Seventeen-Article Constitution” in which Buddhism was adroitly mixed with Confucianism as the spiritual foundation of the state. In later times he was widely regarded as an in- carnation of the bodhisattva AVALOKITEŚVARA. During theNara period (710—784), Buddhism became thestate religion of Japan. Emperor Shömu actively propagated the faith, making theimperial capital, Nara—with its “Great Buddha” statue (Daibutsu)—the national cult center. Bud- dhist schools imported from China became established in Nara, and state-subsi- dized provincial temples \kokubun¡i made thesystem effective at the local level. 162 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM After the capital was moved toHeian-kyö (modern Kyöto) in 794, Buddhism continued to prosper. Chinese influence continued to play an important role, particularly through the intro- duction of new Chinese schools that became dominant at the royal court. MOUNT HIEI and MOUNT KOv became thecenters for the new Ten- dai and Esoteric |SHINGON) schools of Buddhism, which were characterized by highly sophisticated philosophies and complex and refined liturgies. Moreover, Buddhism interacted with SHINTÖ and local traditions, and various distinctively Japa- nese patterns of Buddhist-oriented folk religion became very popular. New schools of the Kamakura peTlod. There wasa turning point in the 12th and 13th centu- ries in Japanese history and in the history of Japa- ne se Buddhism in particular. Late in the 12th century the imperial regime with itscenter at Heian collapsed, and a new feudal government, or shogunate, established its headquarters at Ka- makura. Asa part of the same process,a number ofnew Buddhist leaders emerged and established schools of Japanese Buddhism. Thèse reformers included proponents of the Zen traditions such as EISAI and DÔGEN; Pure Land advocates such as HÖNEN, SHINRAN, and Ippen; and NICHIREN, the founder ofa new school that gained considerable popularity. The distinctively Japanese traditions thèse creative reformers and founders established became—along with many very diverse synthetic expressions of Buddhist-Shintö piety—integral components ofa Buddhist-oriented ethos that structured Japanese religious life ZenB uddhlst iTlOnk into the 19th century. Also during this period many Buddhist groups allowed Tinging the temple bcJî their clergy to marry, with the result that temples often tell under the control of particular families. mo:nastezy In japon Under theTokugawa shogunate (1603—1867), Buddhism became an arm ofthe Paolo Koch—Photo Researchers government. Temples were used forregistering the populace; this was one way of preventing the spread of Christianity, which thefeudal government regarded asa political menace. However, this association with the Tokugawa regime made Buddhism quite unpopular at the beginning of the Meiji period( 1S68—1912), at least among theelite. At that time, in order to set up Shintö as the new state reli- gion, it was necessary for Japan's new ruling oligarchy to separate Shintö from Buddhism. This led to the confiscation of temple lands and the defrocking of many Buddhist priests. During theperiod of ultranationalism (c. 1930—45), Buddhist thinkers called for uniting the East in one great “Buddhaland” under the tutelage of Japan. After the war, however, Buddhist groups, new and old alike, began to emphasize Buddhism asa religion of peace and brotherhood. During thepostwar period the greatest vis- ible activity among Buddhists has been among thenew religions such as söK - GAKKAI (“Value Creation Society”) and RISSHÖ-KÔSEI-KAI (“Society for Establishing Righteousness and Friendly Relations”). Tibet, Mongolia, and the Himalayan Eingdoms. Tibet. Buddhism, accord- ingtotheTibetan tradition, was first given recognition in Tibet during the reign of Srong-brtsan-sgam-po {c. 627—c. 650s. This king had two queens who were early patrons of the religion and were later regarded in popular tradition as incarnations of the Buddhist savioress TARÉ. The religion received active encouragement from Khri-srong-lde-btsan, during whose reign (c. 755—797) the first Buddhist monas- tery in Tibet was built at Bsam-yas (Samye), the first seven monks were ordained, 163 O 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM and the celebrated Indian Tantric master PADMASAMBHAVA was invited to Tibet. Padmasambhava iscredited with subduing the spirits and DEMONS associated with BON, the indigenous religion of Tibet, and with subjugating them totheservice of Buddhism. At the time, influences from Chinese Buddhism were strong, but it is recorded that at the Council ofBsam-yas (792—794) it was decided that the Indian tradition should prevail. Followinga period of suppression that lasted almost two centuries (from the early 800s to the early 1000s), Buddhism inTibet enjoyeda revival. During the 11th and 12th centuries many Tibetans traveled to India to acquire and translate Buddhist texts and to receive training in Buddhist doctrine and practice. With the assistance of the renowned Indian master ATïŚA, who arrived in Tibet in 1042, Buddhism became established as the dominant religion. From this point forward Buddhism was theprimary culture of the elite, was a powerful force in the affairs of state, and penetrated deeply into all aspects of Tibetan life. One of the great achievements of the Buddhist community inTibet was the translation into Tibetan ofa vast corpus of Buddhist literature, including the Bka'-g yur (“Translation of the Buddha Word”) and Bstnzi-’gyur (“Translation of Teachings”) collections. A major development occurred in the late 14th or early 15th century whena great Buddhist reformer named TsONG-xrtA-PA established the DcE-LUGS-rA school, known more popularly as the Yellow Hats. In 1578, representatives of this school succeeded in converting the Mongol Altan Khan, and, under the khan's sponsor- ship, their leader (the so-called third DALAI LAMA) gained considerable monastic power. In the middle of the 17th century the Mongol overlords established the fifth Dalai Lama asthetheocratic ruler of Tibet. The fifth Dalai Lama instituted the high office of Panchen Lama fortheabbot of the Tashilhunpo monastery, located to the west ofLhasa. The Panchen lamas were regarded as successive incarnations of AMITÂBHA. The Manchus inthe18th ÍmQOffÕf7t SltUS änd routes o/ expans1oI1 Of sarîy BuddhlSlTi 164 0 2006 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.  BUDDHISM century and subsequently the British, the Nationalist Chinese, and the Chinese communists have all tried to exploit the division of power between the Panchen and the Dalai lamas fortheir own ends. In 1950 Chinese forces occupied Tibet, and in 1959 the Dalai Lama fled to India after an unsuccessful revolt. The Chi- nese communists then took over his temporal powers. The Dalai Lama's follow- ers are now based in Dharmsala, India, and in 1995 the Da1a1 Lama andtheChi- nese government each identifieda different boy as the llth Panchen Lama. Mongolia. The distinctive form ofBuddhism that developed in Tibet has ex- erteda strong influence on ncighboring areas and peoples. Most important was the conversion of the Mongol tribes to the north and east of Tibet. There aresome indications that Buddhism was present among theMongols as early as the 4th century, and during the 13th century close relationships developed between the Mongol court in China and some oftheleaders of TIBETAN BUDDHISM. Kublai Khan himself becamea supporter of the Tibetan form ofBuddhism. Kublai Khan's Ti- betan advisers helped to developa block script for the Mongolian language, and many Buddhist texts were translated from Tibetan into Mongolian. In general, however, the religion failed to gain widespread popular support during this period. In 1575a new situation developed when theAltan Khan accepted the Dge-lugs- pa version of the Tibetan tradition and supported its spread among hisfollowers at all levels of Mongol society. Over thecenturies Mongolian scholars translateda large corpus of texts from Tibetan, and they produced their own sophisticated original texts. The Mongols based their Buddhist doctrine, practice, and commu- nalorganization on Tibetan models, but they developed and adapted them ina distinctive way. Between 1280 and 1368 China was part of the Mongol empire, and the Mongols established their variant of Tibetan Buddhism in China. When they no longer held power in China, they continued to maintain the traditions they had devel- oped in their homeland in theCentral Asian steppes. During the 20th century, however, Mongolian Buddhism was undermined by the communist regimes that ruled in the Mongol areas of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia, and China. Buddhism intheWest. During the long course of Buddhist history, Buddhist influences have from time to time reached the Western world, and there are occa- sional references to what seem tobe Buddhist traditions in the writings of the Christian cHURCH FATHERS. Not until the modern period, howev