Interview In Research PDF

INTERVIEW IN RESEARCH Good interviewers appreciate the importance of Body Language. A few general guidelines for the developing positive working interviewer include...

INTERVIEW IN RESEARCH Good interviewers appreciate the importance of Body Language. A few general guidelines for the developing positive working interviewer include facing the client, appearing The Interviewer relationships. There is no formula for attentive, minimizing restlessness, and displaying The most pivotal element of a clinical interview developing positive working relationships during appropriate facial expressions. But even these is the person who conducts it. A skilled an interview; however, attentive listening, guidelines are subject to cultural interpretation, and a interviewer not only is a master of the appropriate empathy, genuine respect, and client may not feel understood if an interviewer technical and practical aspects of the interview cultural sensitivity play significant roles. Positive unknowingly communicates disinterest through body but also demonstrates broad-based wisdom working relationships are always a function of the language. Furthermore, the client’s body language can interviewer’s attitude as well as the interviewer’s be misinterpreted by an interviewer whose knowledge about the human interaction interviewing actions (Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, of the client’s cultural background is deficient. entails. 2009). General Skills Specific Behaviors ➔ The interviewer should have acquired some Vocal Qualities. Skilled interviewers have mastered general skills to serve as a foundation for Eye contact not only facilitates listening, but it also the subtleties of the vocal qualities of language—not interviewing in any context. These general skills communicates listening. That is, when the client just the words but how those words sound to the client’s focus on the interviewer’s own frame of mind notices the interviewer’s continuous, appropriate ears. They use pitch, tone, volume, and fluctuation in rather than any particular set of techniques. eye contact, the client feels heard. Of course, their own voices to let clients know that their words and ➔ Sommers-Flanagan and Sommers-Flanagan culture plays a significant role in the meaning of eye feelings are deeply appreciated. And these interviewers (2009) describe several such requirements: contact. In some cultures, eye contact that lasts too also attend closely to the vocal qualities of their clients. long or is too intense may communicate threat, Quieting yourself does not simply mean that seduction, or other messages that an interviewer the interviewer shouldn’t talk much during the would be wise to avoid. On the other hand, scarce, inconsistent eye contact may be viewed by some Verbal Tracking. Effective interviewers are able to interview. Rather than the interviewer’s speech, clients as inattentive or insulting. Like so many repeat key words and phrases back to their clients to what should be quieted is the interviewer’s other aspects of the clinical interview, eye contact is assure the clients that they have been accurately internal, self-directed thinking pattern. To the a specific behavior that requires cultural knowledge heard. Interviewers don’t do this in a mechanical way; extent that interviewers are preoccupied by their and sensitivity on the part of the interviewer, both as instead, they weave the clients’ language into their own. own thoughts, they will struggle in the the sender and receiver of eye contact. In addition, interviewers skilled at verbal tracking fundamental task of listening to their clients. monitor the train of thought implied by clients’ patterns Simply put, the voice in the interviewer’s own of statements and are thus able to shift topics smoothly mind should not interrupt or drown out the voice rather than abruptly. of the client. Listening may seem like a simple enough task, but Being self-aware is another important skill for it can be broken down into even more fundamental the interviewer. The type of self-awareness that building blocks of attending behaviors (many should be maximized is the interviewer’s ability to described in Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010). know how he or she tends to affect others interpersonally and how others tend to relate to him or her.  The interviewer should carry out all these attending Directive Versus Non-directive Styles Referring to the Client by the Proper Name. It behaviors naturally and authentically (Ivey et al., - Interviewers who use a directive style get sounds simple enough, but using the client’s name 2010). Beginners may need to make deliberate correctly is essential (Fontes, 2008). Inappropriately exactly the information they need by attempts to incorporate such behaviors, but with using nicknames or shortening names, omitting a asking clients specifically for it. Directive experience, they should occur more effortlessly. As “middle” name that is in fact an essential part of the questions tend to be targeted toward they do, clients will respond more positively. first name, or addressing a client by first name rather specific pieces of information, and client than a title followed by surname are presumptuous responses are typically brief, sometimes mistakes that, for some clients, can jeopardize the COMPONENTS OF THE INTERVIEW as short as a single word (e.g., “yes” or sense of comfort with the interviewer. Especially with Rapport “no”). clients of certain ethnicities or ages, the misuse of names in this way may be disrespectful and may be - Rapport refers to a positive, comfortable - On the other hand, interviewers who use a received as a microaggression. relationship between interviewer and non-directive style allow the client to client. When clients feel a strong sense of determine the course of the interview. rapport with interviewers, they feel that the Without direction from the interviewer, a interviewers have “connected” with them client may choose to spend a lot of time Observing Client Behaviors. All of the previously and that the interviewers empathize with on some topics and none on others. described interviewer behaviors, and many other important decisions the interviewer makes, can be their issues. In this situation, clients tend informed by behavioral observations of the client by the to disclose more information and invest Specific Interviewer Responses interviewer (Kamphaus & Dever, 2016; Leichtman, themselves further in the interview - Ultimately, interviewing technique consists 2009). Typically, when psychologists write a report process than they might have otherwise. of what the interviewer chooses to say. summarizing the results of an assessment, that report contains at least a brief section describing the behavior Some specific efforts interviewers can The interviewer’s questions and comments of the client during the process. make to enhance the client’s experience of can span a wide range and serve many rapport. purposes. There are numerous common That behavior can vary widely: 1. Interviewers should make an effort to put categories of interviewer responses: - Some clients are calm while others are nervous the client at ease, especially early in the open-and-closed ended questions, - Some are easygoing while others are hostile interview session. clarification, confrontation, paraphrasing, - Some stay on task while others stray in random 2. Interviewers can acknowledge the unique, reflection of feeling, and summarizing. directions unusual situation of the clinical interview. From (Othmer & Othmer, 1994; Sommers-Flanagan & - Some are emotional while others are stoic and the client’s perspective, the interview Sommers-Flanagan, 2009). so on. experience is unlike any other interaction. Observing client behaviors during the interview 3. Interviewers can enhance rapport by allows the psychologist to consider not only what noticing how the client uses language and Open and Closed-Ended Questions. the client said but how they said it, and that “how” then following the client’s lead. Interviewers Whether a question is open-or component can offer important information to the should pick up on the client’s vocabulary and, closed-ended can have a great impact on psychologist about responding during the interview as much as possible, speak in similar terms the information a client provides an and understanding the client. (Othmer & Othmer, 1994). interviewer.  Open-ended questions - allow for Reflections of feeling. Intended to make PRAGMATICS OF THE INTERVIEW individualized and spontaneous responses clients feel that their emotions are The interviewer encounters quite a few decisions from clients. These responses tend to be recognized, even if their comments did not long before the client arrives for the interview. relatively long, and although they may Many of these decisions involve the setting in explicitly include labels of their feelings. include a lot of information relevant to the which the interview will take place and the professional behaviors the interviewer plans to use client, they may lack details that are Summarizing. It involves tying together during the interview itself. important to the clinical psychologist. various topics that may have been Closed-ended questions - allow for far less discussed, connecting statements that Note Taking elaboration and self-expression by the client may have been made at different points, There are good reasons for taking notes. but yield quick and precise answers. and identifying themes that have recurred Written notes are certainly more reliable than Open-ended Questions - consists of a during the interview. Like many of the the interviewer’s memory. Many clients will non-directive interviewing style. other responses described in this section, expect the interviewer to take notes and may Close-ended Questions - consists of directive summarizing lets clients know that they feel as though their words will soon be forgotten interviewing style have been understood but in a more if the interviewer is not taking notes. On the comprehensive, integrative way than, say, other hand, there are also drawbacks to taking Clarification. The purpose of a clarification notes. The process of note taking can be a paraphrasing single statements. question is to make sure the interviewer has distraction, both for the interviewer, who may fail an accurate understanding of the client’s to notice important client behaviors while comments. Clarification questions not only Conclusions. The conclusion can take a looking down to write, and for the client, who enhance the interviewer’s ability to “get it,” number of different forms, depending on may feel that the interviewer’s notebook is an they also communicate to the client that the the type of interview, the client’s problem, obstacle to rapport. interviewer is actively listening and processing the setting, or other factors. In some what the client says. cases, the conclusion can be essentially Audio and Video Recordings similar to a summarization. Or the Unlike note taking, recording a client’s interview Confrontation. Interviewers use confrontation interviewer might be able to go a step requires that the interviewer obtain written when they notice discrepancies or further by providing an initial permission from the client. While obviously inconsistencies in a client’s comments. providing a full record of the entire session, conceptualization of the client’s problem Paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is not prompted recordings can, with some clients, hinder that incorporates a greater degree of by the interviewer’s need to resolve or clarify openness and willingness to disclose detail than a brief summarization what a client has said. Instead, paraphrasing information. As with note taking, an explanation statement. In some situations, the of the rationale for the recording, as well as its is used simply to assure clients that they are conclusion of the interview may consist of intended use and a date by which it will be being accurately heard. When interviewers a specific diagnosis made by the erased or destroyed, is typically appreciated by paraphrase, they typically restate the content interviewer on the basis of the client’s the client. of clients’ comments, using similar language. response to questions about specific criteria. Or the conclusion may involve recommendations.  The Interview Room 1. Structured interviews Characteristics: The size of the room, its furnishings, and its consist of a predetermined set of questions Combination of predetermined questions decor are among the features that may differ. As that are asked in a specific order. These and open-ended discussions. a general rule, “when choosing a room, it is questions are typically closed-ended, allowing Allows for follow up questions to clarify and useful to strike a balance between professional for straightforward quantitative analysis. expand on responses. formality and casual comfort” That is, the interview room should subtly convey the Advantages: Characteristics: message to the client that the clinical interview Provides richer data while maintaining is a professional activity but one in which Fixed format with no deviation from the set questions. some consistency. warmth and comfort are high priorities. Questions are often dichotomous (yes/no) Facilitates exploration of complex issues. or multiple-choice. Confidentiality Disadvantages: High reliability due to standardization. To inform their clients about confidentiality, and Variability in questions can complicate data especially to correct any misconceptions such analysis. Advantages: as those described earlier, interviewers should Facilitates easy comparison across Requires skilled interviewers to navigate routinely explain policies regarding responses. the conversation effectively (Statistics confidentiality as early as possible. Interviewers Solutions, 2023; StudySmarter, 2023). who discuss confidentiality and its limits with Reduces interviewer bias and enhances interview clients demonstrate competent and validity. 3. Unstructured Interviews ethical practice. Efficient for large sample sizes. (American Psychological Association, 2002). Unstructured interviews are the most flexible Disadvantages: type, lacking a fixed set of questions. The Types of Interviews in Research Limited depth and flexibility; may miss conversation flows spontaneously based on Interviews are a fundamental qualitative nuanced responses. the participant’s responses. research method used to gather detailed Can feel overly formal, potentially information from participants. The type of Characteristics: impacting participant comfort (Scribbr, interview chosen can significantly influence Open-ended questions that encourage 2022; Enago, 2023). the data collected and the overall research detailed storytelling. outcomes. Below are the primary types of The interviewer adapts the conversation 2. Semi-Structured Interviews interviews commonly used in research, along according to participant cues. with their characteristics, advantages, and Semi-structured interviews blend elements of disadvantages. both structured and unstructured formats. Advantages: While there is a set of core questions, the Allows for in-depth exploration of Structured Interviews, Semi-structured interviewer has the flexibility to explore topics participant experiences and perspectives. Interviews, Unstructured Interviews, and in more depth based on participant responses. Can uncover unexpected insights. Focus Group. Disadvantages: Guidelines for Crafting Interview 5. Incorporate Probing Questions. Challenging to maintain focus; may lead to Questions Plan follow-ups - Prepare follow-up questions off-topic discussions. Creating effective interview questions is to delve deeper into participants' responses. Data analysis can be complex due to crucial for gathering meaningful data in Probing can help clarify points or explore variability in responses (Enago, 2023; research. This guide outlines best practices topics further. Use prompts like "Can you tell Scribbr, 2022) for formulating questions that elicit detailed me more about that?" or "How did that make and insightful responses from participants. you feel?" to encourage elaboration. 4. Focus Groups 6. Structure Your Questions Logically. Focus groups involve a moderated discussion 1. Define the Purpose of the Interview. Organize content - Arrange questions in a with multiple participants discussing a specific Before crafting questions, clarify the objectives logical sequence, starting with general topics of your interview. Understanding what before moving to specific issues. This topic. This format captures group dynamics information you seek will guide the approach helps build rapport and makes and collective insights. development of relevant questions that align participants feel more comfortable as they with your research goals. progress through the interview. Characteristics: 2. Use Open-Ended Questions. 7. Test Your Questions. Participants engage in dialogue, allowing Pilot interviews - Conduct practice interviews Encourage elaboration - Frame questions to for interaction and exchange of ideas. to assess the effectiveness of your questions. allow participants to express their thoughts in Typically guided by a facilitator who detail. Open-ended questions prompt richer This process allows you to identify any manages the discussion flow. responses and deeper insights. For example, ambiguities or areas needing adjustment instead of asking, "Did you enjoy your before the actual interviews begin. Advantages: experience?" consider asking, "What aspects 8. Be Flexible During the Interview. Generates diverse perspectives and rich of your experience did you find most Adapt as needed - While having a prepared qualitative data. enjoyable?" set of questions is essential, be open to Can reveal social dynamics and shared 3. Avoid Leading Questions. following interesting leads that arise during the experiences. Maintain neutrality - Ensure your questions do conversation. not suggest a desired answer. Leading 9. Respect Participant Comfort. Disadvantages: questions can bias responses and Create a safe environment - Ensure that Group think may occur, where individuals compromise the validity of your data. For participants feel comfortable sharing their conform to dominant opinions. instance, instead of asking, "Why do you think thoughts by fostering an open and respectful Smaller sample sizes may limit this method is ineffective?", ask, "What are atmosphere. This can enhance the quality of generalizability (Statistics Solutions, 2023; your thoughts on this method?" the responses you receive. Scribbr, 2022). 4. Be Clear and Concise. Simplify language - Use straightforward language to avoid confusion. Complex or jargon-heavy questions can alienate participants and hinder communication. Aim for clarity to ensure that all participants understand the questions posed.  QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Five Features of Qualitative Research Assumptions of Qualitative One response is that you would like to Research understand how people cope in their 1. Studying the meaning of people’s lives, in real-world settings. Because qualitative their real-world roles. ➔ Qualitative researchers are studies can attend to the contextual richness of concerned primarily with processes, these settings, your research will enable you to 2. Representing the views and perspectives rather than outcomes or products. study the everyday lives of many different kinds of the people (labeled as participants) in the ➔ Qualitative researchers are of people and what they think about, under study. interested in meaning­ how people many different circumstances (Yin, 2016). make sense of their lives, 3. Explicitly attending to and accounting for experiences, and their structures of What is Qualitative Research? real-world contextual conditions. the world. an investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality ➔ The qualitative researcher is the 4. Contributing insights from existing or new primary instrument for data by examining it in a holistic way or by concepts that may help to explain social collection and analysis. Data are examining components of that reality within behavior and thinking. mediated through this human their contextual setting. instrument, rather than through 5. Acknowledging the potential relevance of inventories, questionnaires, or How different is this from Quantitative multiple sources of evidence rather than machines Research? relying on a single source alone. ➔ Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically When to use qualitative research? goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record 1. When there is not enough behavior in its natural setting. information/literature to allow you to develop ➔ Qualitative research is descriptive frameworks. in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and 2. When you are in the process of correctly understanding gained through identifying problems or opportunities. words or pictures. ➔ The process of qualitative research 3. When you want to establish new theories. is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, 4.When assessing behavioral issues, hypotheses, and theories from emotional, attitudinal and personality factors. details.  Adequacy of Qualitative Methods Dealing with Qualitative Data Observations Adequacy in Scientific Research ➔ Transforming qualitative data into (watching & recording) ❖ Truth Value quantifiable data or The researcher may take notes, photos, ❖ Applicability ➔ Internalizing the meaning of the or videos to document the behavior. ❖ Consistency qualitative data Observations can provide a unique insight ❖ Neutrality -Thick description into the behavior and experiences of -Emerging themes individuals or groups. Criteria for Adequacy A qualitative Inquirer will ask, Challenges: time consumption, potential for CRITERIA QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE How can I translate the cultural knowledge missed details, and subject behavior changes of my informants into a cultural description due to awareness of being observed. Truth Value Credibility Internal Validity my colleagues will understand? Applicability Fittingness External Validity Document Analysis A quantitative Inquirer will ask, (reports, diaries, letters, etc.) Consistency Auditability Reliability How can I interpret the results and report These documents can provide insight into them so that my colleagues will Neutrality Confirmability Objectivity the experiences, opinions, and behaviors. understand? It can be used to complement other Credibility: When others can recognize the qualitative data collection techniques and METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION experience by reading about it. can help provide a historical context to the In-depth Interviews (face-to-face or research. Fittingness: When findings "fit" into online) Challenges: can be challenging if the contexts outside the study situation and Allow researchers to ask open-ended documents are hard to access or interpret. when the audience views the findings as questions, listen to free-form answers, Additionally, the researcher needs to be meaningful and applicable in terms of their and uncover more precise information. careful not to take the documents at face own experience. Challenges: time-consuming, costly, and only value and must consider the context in which Auditability: When another researcher can sample a very small percentage of a target they were created. clearly follow the "decision trail" used by the population. investigator. In addition, another researcher SAMPLING METHOD could arrive at the same or comparable but Focus Groups 1. Purposive Sampling (Specific criteria) not contradictory conclusions given the (Group of people/ conversational 2. Convenience Sampling (Availability) researcher's data, perspective, and style) 3. Snowball Sampling (Chain referrals) situation. The group is led by a moderator who 4. Theoretical Sampling (Grounded theory) Confirmability: When auditability, guides the discussion and asks questions. fittingness, and credibility have been Challenges: can be challenging to organize, established. Based on engagement and it can be difficult to get a diverse group of participants to attend at one time. between researcher and subjects.  QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Analyzing Qualitative Data QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS: APPROACHES 1. Data Collection The six (6) step strategy for qualitative 2. Transcribing Data - Verbatim data analysis by Creswell and Creswell Phenomenological Approach 3. Draw meanings from the responses (2017) The researcher looks to gather 4. Seek Patterns information that explains how individuals 5. Develop Categories experience a phenomenon and how they 6. Construct Themes feel about it. This model recognizes that 7. Propositions/Hypotheses Development there is no single objective reality; instead, (3-6 is the Qualitative process) everyone experiences things differently. How do you analyze qualitative Grounded Theory Approach data? To develop a theory surrounding a social Review your data. Before beginning issue. This theory seeks not only to any analysis, it is important that you identify problems in social scenes, but understand the data you have collected also to define how people deal with those by reviewing them several times. problems. Organize your data. Once you have reviewed your data and are familiar Ethnography with what you have, organize your data Researchers pursuing this study format so that they are more manageable and will immerse themselves into the culture easy to navigate. they are researching. The qualitative data Code your data. Coding is the process is gathered through direct observation of of identifying and labeling themes — and interaction with — participants who within your data that correspond with belong to that culture. the evaluation questions you want to answer. Themes are common trends or 1. Raw Data Case Study ideas that appear repeatedly 2. Organizing and Preparing Data for To conduct the case study, the researcher throughout the data. Analysis may draw upon multiple sources of data, Interpret your data. Interpretation 3. Reading Through All Data such as observation, interviews and involves attaching meaning and 4. Coding the Data documents. All participants chosen must significance to your data. Start by 5. Themes/Description share a unifying factor, which means they making a list of key themes. Revisit 6. Interrelating Themes/Description all must have a direct or indirect your review notes to factor in your 7. Interpreting the Meaning of connection to the research question or initial responses to the data. Themes/Descriptions subject being studied.  PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHODS Example: Insider’s stance - staying close to the Phenomenology participant’s account of their experiences and explore individual experiences to describe the representing their experiences in a way which is essence of a phenomenon. ‘true’ to the participant’s understanding. Critical Lens (outsider) - stepping back from PURPOSE FOCUS METHODS OF METHODS OF DATA DATA ANALYSIS participant’s accounts and asking questions like COLLECTION ‘What assumptions underpin this account?’ and Determine A particular In-depth Search for ‘Why are they making sense of their experiences the essence phenomenon unstructured meaning units in this way (and not that way)?’ This stance has of as lived or interviews; that reflects the been described as a hermeneutics of suspicion. phenomenon experienced; Purposive various aspects and sampling of the perceived by minimum of 5 experience; IPA STEPS: people individuals integration of who have the meaning Identify statements that relate to the topic experienced units into a Researcher separates relevant from irrelevant the “typical” information. phenomenon experience Interpretative Phenomenological Break relevant information into small Analysis segments that each reflect a single, specific ➔ It is based on a model of the person as a thought. ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Group statements into “meaning units” self-reflective, self-interpretative being; In-depth The subjectivity of the data leads to that is, we have experiences – we fall in Researcher groups the segments into understanding difficulties in establishing reliability and love, become ill, become parents, etc. – categories that reflect the various aspects of individual validity of approaches and information. (“meanings”) of the phenomenon as it is and we reflect on those experiences and phenomena. experienced. It is difficult to detect or to prevent attempt to make sense of them; we In-depth researcher induced bias. interpret them. Seek divergent perspectives understanding Researcher looks and considers the various There can be difficulty in ensuring pure seeks patterns in the data, but is theoretically of individual bracketing - this can lead to interference in ways in which different people experience the bounded. phenomena. the interpretation of the data. phenomenon It is wed to a phenomenological epistemology The presentation of results - the highly which gives experience primacy. Construct a composite Rich data qualitative nature of the results can make Researcher uses various meanings identified is about understanding people's everyday Unique them difficult to present in a manner that is to develop an overall description of the usable by practitioners. experience of reality, in great detail, so as to perspective phenomenon as people typically experience gain an understanding a phenomenon in Phenomenology does not produce it. question generalizable data. Because the samples The final result is a general description of the are generally very small, can we ever say phenomenon as seen through the eyes of the that the experiences are typical? people who have experienced it firsthand. Focus on common themes despite diversity in the individuals and settings studied. GROUNDED THEORY 3. Selective coding. Categories and their Advantage Grounded Theory Research interrelationships are combined to - The researcher should not predetermine a - Seeks patterns in the data, but is form a storyline that describes what priori about what he or she will find, and theoretically bounded. happens in the phenomenon being what and how social phenomena should be - Aims to generate a plausible and useful studied. viewed. theory of the phenomena that is 4. Development of a theory. Develop a Therefore, the value of Grounded Theory is that grounded in the data. theory, in the form of a verbal statement, it avoids making assumptions and instead - Is a design of inquiry from sociology in model, series of hypotheses, to explain the adopts a more neutral view of human action in phenomenon in question and explain how a social context. which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or certain conditions lead to certain actions or Disadvantage interaction grounded in participants’ interactions and how those interactions - Grounded Theory fails to recognize the views. lead to other actions, and so on. embeddedness of the researcher and thus - Involves using multiple stages of data - Based entirely on the collected obscures the researcher’s considerable collection and the refinement and data. agency in data construction and interrelationship of categories of (Collect > Analyze > Collect > Analyze > to form theory) interpretation. information. Grounded Theory Research IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF UNDOCUMENTED Grounded Theory (Steps) Purpose IMMIGRANT COLLEGE STUDENTS (Wongyai, Choa & Espiritu, 2009) 1. Open coding. Reducing the data to a - Derive a theory that explains a process small set of themes that appear to Focus Purpose - Explored the process within which describe the phenomenon under - A process, including human actions and undocumented immigrant college students navigate investigation. interactions and how they result from and their educational and career pursuits. influence one another. Focus - The process of negotiating identity as an - Data is divided into segments and then undocumented immigrant and as a college student. scrutinized for commonalities that Methods of Data Collection Methods of Data Collection - In-depth interviews reflect categories or themes. - Interviews and any other relevant data with 11 English-speaking undocumented immigrants - After data is categorized, it’s further sources. who are enrolled in an American university. examined for subcategories that Methods of Data Analysis Methods of Data Analysis characterize each category - The transcripts were analyzed and yielded - The prescribed and systematic method 36 open categories and 12 axial categories 2. Axial coding. Making interconnections of coding the data into categories and across four selective categories. among categories and subcategories. To identifying interrelationships - Participants described how their identity determine the ff. about each category. developed as they negotiated between - The continual interweaving of data Conditions their initial understanding of the social and Context collection and data analysis cultural messages they received regarding Strategies that people use to manage it or - Construction of a theory or model based their status and the personal meaning they carry it out on the analysis. gave to their positive and negative Consequences of such categories experiences as students in the United States.  Case studies PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS OF REFUGEE CHILDREN: THE - The researcher develops an in-depth CASE OF TWO CHILDREN (Valenzuela-Perez, Couture, Arias-Valenzuela, 2014) analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more Purpose - Explore the psychological needs of two individuals. Latino refugee children. - Cases are bounded by time and activity, Focus - Case of two refugee children: A Mexican and researchers collect detailed 9-‐year-‐old girl and a Colombian 11-‐year-‐ old boy were recruited. information using a variety of data Methods of Data Collection - Interview with the collection procedures over a sustained parents, the children’s work with the Flower of Needs, period of time. and the children’s work with the story. Methods of Data Analysis - The transcriptions of the Purpose interview with the parents and of each audio-‐recorded story session were analyzed; The psychological needs - Understand one person, of the children were identified. Similarities and organization, situation in great differences were noted. depth. Focus - One case or a few cases within its/their natural setting. Methods of Data Collection - Observations, interviews, relevant written documents and/or audio-visual material. Methods of Data Analysis - Categorization and interpretation of data in terms of common themes; synthesis into an overall portrait of the case/s. NARRATIVE ANALYSIS AND QUALITY McAdams (2008) suggests that there are Hiles and Čermák (2008) list the following IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH six agreed principles which can be drawn among types of narrative: from narrative psychology concerning ➔ Oral vs. Written narratives; What is Narrative? personal narratives: ➔ Fictional vs. Historical/personal ➔ concerned with the structure, content, narratives; and function of the stories that we tell Principle 1: The self is storied. ➔ Life-story narratives vs. Isolated event each other and ourselves in social narratives; interaction. Principle 2: Narratives integrate lives and ➔ Crafted vs. Spontaneous narratives; ➔ It accepts that we live in a storied world provide a coherent account of ➔ Public vs. Private narratives. and that we interpret the actions of the individual ‘scenes’ in the Michele Crossley’s approach to narrative others and ourselves through the narrative. analysis (Crossley, 2007) typically uses stories we exchange. interview data but is not necessarily confined ➔ Through narratives we not only shape Principle 3: Narratives are told in social to this. relationships. the world and ourselves but they are Carry out McAdam’s style of narrative shaped for us through narrative. interview or select some other form of Principle 4: Narratives change over time. (Murray, 2003, p. 95) narrative data. Principle 5: Narratives are cultural texts and Transcribe interview using According to Murray (2003) reflect the culture and its ways secretarial/playscript method. ➔ Narrative functions to provide order of talking narratively. where there is disorder. Step 1. ➔ The narrator attempts to bring Principle 6: Some narratives are better than Reading and familiarization, i.e. a others. Narratives are process of persistent engagement. organisation to something essentially intrinsically intertwined with Step 2. disorganised and, consequently, lacking morality. Some personal Identifying important concepts to meaning. Disruptions to life due to look for. narratives reflect personal, financial, health or other Step 3. psychologically more healthy problems provide challenges to selves. Identifying narrative tone. everyday routine. Step 4. ➔ Narratives help to restore order and Identifying narrative themes and meaning. images. ➔ Narrative psychology has adherents in Step 5. How to do narrative analysis Weaving a coherent story together the fields of clinical and health Any data which contains personal Step 6. psychology where such stressors are narratives might be suitable for analysis. Writing-up as a research report. commonplace among clients. Crossley’s Analytic Method for Narrative Analysis When to use narrative analysis What quality criteria apply to qualitative The reader should readily appreciate - used when the data are narrative in research? the relevance of the study: it should nature. A brief list of possibilities for studies have some impact on them. - Any data with a story-like quality. The includes: narrative may be the product of one ➔ Is the study original or innovative in any The writing style of the report is person or in interaction with others way? important in all of this and so the including researchers. ➔ Are research questions addressed which writing should be fluid and lucid. In - A series of life-events is described but are theoretically, practically or socially addition, the author must give the important? the data go beyond a chronological detail and evidence which will ➔ Are the claims the researcher makes account of these events. convince the reader of the credibility convincingly established by the study? - A rich, detailed account frequently ➔ Does the study contribute a new of the research findings and the interspersed with a range of comments of perspective on the issues addressed? interpretations provided by the a more personal nature. ➔ Does the study resolve important previous researcher. - Various sorts of data meet these criteria uncertainties in the field? (diaries, autobiographies, etc.) but many psychologists prefer data produced in Denscombe (2002) suggested the narrative interviews. following possibilities which overlap the 11 quality criteria for a qualitative ones just mentioned: report Ensuring Quality in Qualitative ➔ Contributes to new knowledge. research ➔ Uses precise and valid data. 1. Perspective ownership - The - Qualitative research largely originated ➔ Data collected and used in justifiable researcher takes responsibility in intellectual traditions which assume ways. for the perspective presented in ➔ Findings are produced from which that the only knowledge that can be the report. This includes a generalisations can be made. obtained is influenced by our personal commentary on any subjectivity perspectives, culture and language. and bias which may be involved. Qualitative research should Mainstream scientific psychology acknowledge the context in which the seeks knowledge ‘unsullied’ by these 2. Connecting theory - method - The data are collected and its implications things – an impossibility from a report describes, constructs, for the data analysis. qualitative perspective (Yardley, 2017) and explains the relationship between the theory involved and The target audience for the report the method of data collection should find a personal connection with and analysis. its contents. Elliott et al. (1999) refer to this as ‘resonance with the reader’. 3. Meaning is the analytic focus - The 7. Balance of description/ qualitative method is about interpretation - Qualitative meaning rather than, say, research is based both on a effects and causes. So meaning description of the data and an dominates in the qualitative interpretation of that data. One report. without the other is not balanced qualitative research. 4. Context vital - The qualitative researcher should be sensitive 8. Analytic transparency - The to the research context and researcher should make the include it in the analysis and analysis understandable to the interpretation of their data. reader by providing evidence (examples) of data which lead 5. Open-endedness in data collection to a particular analytic stance. and analysis - Data collection is not limited by methodological 9. Analysis plausible/credible - For constraints and generally an analysis to be useful it continues until nothing new is needs to be meaningful to other gained. Similarly, data analysis people; otherwise, it cannot is bounded only by the claim to be a meaningful researcher's willingness to analysis. continue the process. 10. Distinctiveness of account - The 6. Rich data - The qualitative distinctiveness of the account researcher seeks data which presented in the report should are rich in the sense that they be made clear. are detailed, extensive, unrestricted, and meaningful. 11. Resonant / accessible conclusions - The conclusion drawn by the researcher should resonate meaningfully with the researcher's audience and be accessible or usable. EXPLORING DISCURSIVE Core Assumptions Methodology PSYCHOLOGY AND FOUCAULDIAN a. Language is action-oriented - it Step 1: Define the Research Focus DISCOURSE ANALYSIS performs actions like justifying or - Identify conversational settings or blaming. naturally occurring text. Introduction to Discursive Approaches b. Context matters - meanings Example: What is Discourse? shaped by who speaks, to whom, Therapy sessions analyzing narratives of - Discourse refers to the use of and in what setting. "progress." language in communication, including spoken, written, and Key Concepts Step 2: Data Collection symbolic forms. - Use audio/video recordings or - Not just a neutral tool but actively 1. Action Orientation written texts, ensuring authenticity. shapes how we understand the - Language is used to accomplish Example: Analyzing family dinner conversations for world and interact with others. social actions like persuading or power dynamics. instructing. Why Study Discourse in Example: Step 3: Data Analysis Psychology? Saying "We should follow protocol" enforces accountability. - Examine how language achieves - To explore how language social actions and constructs constructs reality, influences 2. Construction of Reality meaning. relationships, and reflects power - How language constructs “truth.” Example: dynamics. Politicians framing responsibility in press Examples: Example: conferences. Everyday Interaction: "It’s just a joke!" frames Labeling someone as "a go-getter" frames humor as harmless, dismissing accountability. their personality as ambitious. Example Study Social Media: Terms like "self-care" framed as 3. Contextual Flexibility Study: How people justify late arrivals in consumer-driven rather than mental health meetings. priorities. - Same phrase, different meanings in different contexts. Findings: Phrases like "Traffic was Discursive Psychology (DP) Overview Example: awful!" externalize blame. - Focuses on how psychological "You’re so smart!" could be a compliment or phenomena are constructed sarcasm. Others downplay tardiness: "It wasn’t through language in everyday a big deal, right?" to seek approval. interactions. Example: Implication: Language mediates Describing a "bad day" varies: some accountability and harmony in groups. emphasize external events while others focus on internal states. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis Procedural Guidelines for FDA DP FDA (FDA): Overview Step 1: Select Texts for Analysis - Focuses on how psychological - Identify interactions, speeches, or Strengths Detailed real-world Contextualizes interaction insights, language phenomena are constructed policy documents. adaptable to therapy historically, through language in everyday Step 2: Identify Discursive Constructs or education. explains societal power dynamics. interactions. - Locate recurring themes and Example: patterns. Limitations Overlooks societal Complex, Describing a "bad day" varies: some Step 3: Examine Subject Positions structures, focuses resource-intensive, emphasize external events while others focus on immediate abstract - Investigate roles and identities context. methodology. on internal states. created in discourse. Step 4: Analyze Power Relations Key Features of FDA Applications - Examine how language sustains or 1. Power and Knowledge challenges power structures. DP FDA - Language reflects and reinforces Therapy: Analyzing Media: Representation of power structures. Example of FDA narratives of "progress." gender and race. Example: Topic: Workplace Diversity Policies The term "illegal immigrant" criminalizes Education: Understanding Policy: Language in laws Findings: teacher-student dialogues. and public health existence, not actions. - "Diversity is our strength" commodifies discourses. marginalized identities. Organizations: Workplace 2. Subject Positions communication analysis. Health: Discourses around - Employees framed as contributors or wellness and illness. - Examines roles and identities beneficiaries of initiatives. constructed through discourse. Implications: Highlights the tension Example: between inclusion and tokenism. Conclusion Educational discourse constructs students as Key Takeaways: "passive learners." Comparison of DP and FDA - Both approaches highlight Feature DP FDA language’s role in shaping 3. Historical and Cultural Context psychology and society. - Discourses evolve over time and Scope Micro-level focus Macro-level societal focus differ across cultures. a. DP offers micro-level insights Example: Main Language in Power and societal b. FDA explores broader power Shift in the concept of "mental health" over Concern context structures dynamics. decades. Methodology Interactional Historical/contextual analysis analysis Final Thought: - Combining DP and FDA offers Key Insight Constructs local Shapes historical comprehensive analysis of meanings narratives language's impact.