First Opium War (1840-42) PDF

S First Opium war (}fll-‘fl) ® From the 18" century Asia became a victim of European imperialism. By the 19" century Britain had acquired control over India and Burma and France controlled Indo-China and the Dutch gained st...

S First Opium war (}fll-‘fl) ® From the 18" century Asia became a victim of European imperialism. By the 19" century Britain had acquired control over India and Burma and France controlled Indo-China and the Dutch gained stronghold in Indonesia. By this time USA along with European nations began paying serious attention towards eastern nations like China and Japan. Their aim was to open these Asian nations as a field for their economic cxpansioti". | & < Until the 19™ century China was practically closed to the European nations. The “Celestial empire” as the Chinese referred to their country, was one of the oldest civilizations. Proud of their ancient rich culture they despised all the foreigners as Z O ! barbarians and hence their civilization, though brilliant in many respects, lacked the stimulation produced by establishing contacts with the outside world. This inevitably resulted in stagnation. China wrapped up itself in a haughty seclusion, disdainful of foreigners and hostile towards their advances. On the other hand with the opening up of seas as a result of geographical explorations of the 15" century, European nations began ~ appearing rapidly in the Far East zones. In the 16" century the Portuguese appeared on the southern shores of China and established themselves at Macao. The following century saw the Dutch travelers come over to the island of Formosa and the British landed at the port of Canton. The European nations were pmmpiéa{y their desire to trade as Chinese silk was in great demand in the European markets. For years the East India Company carried on trade with China, especially in silk and tea. In return for these products Europeans had to pay in silver, and they were anxious to look for another medium which could be used in place of silver for trade. This ultimately resulted in the trade of opium to China, which slowly resulted in China becoming addicted to this drug to the extent that the Chinese had to pay in silver for import of Opium. The Chinese government repeatedly tried to prohibit its import but failed in its efforts. In 1800, opium trade was declared illegal but the British merchants with the aid of corrupt Chinese officials began smuggling opium. This illicit trade went on merrily and increased in volume when, on abolition of the monopoly of the S ry East India Company’s trade, there was a rush of new competitors for a share of the opium trade. Thereupon in 1839, the Chinese government sent its efficient officer commissioner Lin, to suppress opium smuggling. He seized 20,000 chests of opium and destroyed them. The British were made to withdraw to Hong Kong. This was followed by an incident in which some British sailors were said to be involved in a riot. The Chinese government demanded that the guilty Britishers should be handed over. The British refused this and in return China banned all trading contacts with Britain. With this the first opium war began “\M \%3‘1 l& in which Britain emerged victorious. With regards to the causes of the opium war, there is not a consensus amongst the Historians. Historians like J.K Fairbank and Li Chien Nung are of the opinion that it was the cultural clash between the eastern Chinese civilization and the western civilization of the European nations that caused the war. Secondly Michael Greenberg argues that it was the inequalities of canton trade that caused the war. Lastly, native Chinese historians like Tan Chung and also Karl Marx believe that opium was the main cause of war. The cultural clash between China and European nations is believed to be the driving force which ultimately resulted in war. China considered itself to be the most ancient and civilized nation, rich in culture and traditions. According to the Chinese belief, earth was believed to be square in shape and sky was circular. They believed that this circular sky’s shadow fell on the centre of the earth that is China thus making it the Middle Kingdom (Chung-Kuo). Thus, according to them all the nations other else than China were barbarians and uncivilized. With this arrogance China considered all the other nations as tribute bearing nations. China’s neighboring countries like Japan, Korea, etc. considered it the high civilization and thus paid tribute to it. By the 19" century the European nations had made tremendous progress in commerce, sea voyages, naval strength, and were desirous of trading with eastern nations like China. However China was not willing to accept these westerners on equal diplomatic terms. This was the initial cause of friction between fl!{ China and the west, which was further aggravated by the trading regulations.  *hina was basically a self-sufficient nation and there were hardly any imports for China. The western nations on the other hand had a huge market for the Chinese silk and tea, also keen along with various other things. Besides trade the Christian missionaries were on propagating their religion in China. Till 1830 the Chinese authorities practiced a closed door policy towards West. Tan Chung says that initially a number of ports were open for trading with the trade and westerners, proving that China was not inherently hostile or averse to foreign contact, It was only in 1757 that the Manchu government restricted all the trading y a defensive activities of the western nation to the port city of Canton. This was basicall matters, and to measure on the part of the Chinese to prevent western interference in local. The Manchu avoid the threat posed by Christian missionaries towards the native religion avoiding government was facing a lot of internal crises and was therefore very keen on any kind of external threat, which could cause further problems for them. to the port of Canton by the The Chinese government restricted all the western activity between China and the West edict of 1757, and from this time onwards the relationship came to be termed as the Canton trade system. conditions of the Canton trade The wes| tern scholars accused the humiliating unequal system the westerners were neither system as the cause of war. Under the Canton trade nor to bring their families. They could allowed neither to stay at Canton permanently and then they had to withdraw to Macao only come to Canton during the trading season erners could only trade with a small which was a Portuguese hold. Secondly the west of auth oriz ed merc hant s kno wn as the Coho ng. The Cohong decided the prices and grofip from the westerners. A direct volume of trade, and charged a heavy trade duty espo nden ce with the Chin ese offic ials was not permitted. The westerners could only corr te with the Hopp o, the Cant on cust oms supe rintendent. A direct level talk communica the poli tica l auth orit ies was not perm itte d, and this the western nations found with the Chinese legal system if they humiliating. Thef western traders were subjected to in any crim inal or civil law suit. They opposed this as they felt that the caught involved  ® hinese legal system was barbaric. All these restrictions the western scholars believe were the chief cause of discontent that caused the war. Tan Chung refutes this argument, and points out that if these sxnditions of Canton trade were so unacceptable to the Westerners why*heydid‘[o nl“n“:ast a century to avenge the insults imposed on them (the Canton trade system started in 1757 and the first opium war began in 1840). He also points out that it is a general practice that the westerners were subjected to the Chinese legal system as they were residing there. He argues that if the conditions of the Canton trade system were so unacceptable to the westerners then they should have stopped trading with China. Tan Chung is of the opinion that the westerners continued to bare the conditions of the Canton trade system till the time they could engage in profitable trade with China. It was only when their opium interests were affected that they launched the war. The Canton trade system should be studied under two phases- the pre-opium phase and the post-opium phase. In the pre-opium phase China was the dominating as well as prospering side, as it-hardly imports were negligible and its exports were extensive and in huge demand especially the tea and silk. In the course of time Britain became the leading power which played the dominant role in the trading activities with China. It possessed a powerful navy and had also started gaining political control over India by the mid 1700’s. With the establishment carry on its of the British empire in India, it became all the more convenient for Britain to Gradually a commercial activities managed by the English East India Company (EEIC). triangular trade system emerged between India, China and Britain. market in Initially the balance of power rested with China. Silk already had a huge folds. With the beginning of Europe and slowly the demand for tea also increased many ased. The large numbers the industrial revolution in Britain the demand for tea also incre tea which was a stimulating of laborers who were employed in these industries drank nal drink in Britain. This drink available at cheap prices. Tea almost became a natio  allowed the Chinese government to dictate its terms, thus make huge profits. The British had to pay in silver for the tea and other Chinese products. This was draining huge could amounts from their pockets, thus the British were looking for a commodity which be used in place of silver in exchange for the Chinese tea. The British noticed that opium was imported in China in small quantities for medicinal use. They thought that if opium gains popularity in China they could use it instead of silver for making the payments. Thus they started introducing opium in the Chinese society and its use as a narcotic drug. This entirely changed the trading scene as the The opium consumption of opium increased and China was made to buy it from Britain. opium trade took shape of the triangular trade as the British used Indian soil to cultivate and then sold it to China and in return took tea. In this whole process both India and China suffered considerably. The Chinese society turned into drug addicts and the Indian any payment and lost out by growing opium for the British for which they did not receive an easy access to which left their land infertile. Britain’s control over India also allowed s who China. Even for transporting the opium the British used Indian ships and merchant India was loosing its large were engaged in coastal trading between India and China. opium cultivation lands. This tracts of cultivable land which were being converted into famines. British traders profited caused shortage of food crops in India leading to regular through this immensely. The EEIC had its agency houses in Can ton which controlled opium and then diverted it The Manchu government tried to deal with this towards the inner regions of China. away from opium, but to no avail. Ultimately opium problem asking its citizens to stay r import was bannedin Chin in the ayear 18 00, and was declared an illegal trade. Howeve this did not help , as the Chi nes e had bec ome addicted to the drug in large numbers even is believed that around 1835, large thus its inflow continued through smuggling. It addicts. Due to this,the problem was not number of state officials themselves were opium rest rict ed to heal th issu es, the busi ness acti vities and the public services did not just rly and the stan dard of livi ng fell. By 1820 ’s the opium trade had become a function prope econ omic prob lem for the Briti sh. The EEIC was exchanging opium in return for majo r Udnere  also insufficient for opium Chinese tea. However by 1820, even the whole of tea was The outflow of silver payment and thus China had to pay silver in return for it. silvermdcoppfl, eonnibmedmflndistmbmmintheexchmgemebetweenthe leading to further economic problems. ip in China, with this the issue of relationsh In 1833 the EEIC lost its trading monopoly n rose. Prior to this various countries had sent their between Britain and China agai their inm gov cmm ent asl dng the mtomcordnpolifieulstxmsto WmfimmmeCh &wmas edastheChinmdeniedtomep\ representatives. Met’fonshadfail issue turned more grave as now the dealing representatives on equal terms. However the China instead of the British commercial was between the British government and r Lord Napier to establish the diplomatic company EEIC. Britain sent a mission unde the Manchus refused to receive them on relations between the two countries, however equal basis, further embittering the situation. ese ish traders gave opium on loan to the Chin In orderto expand the opium trade the Brit rs. The amou nt of loan went on incr easi ng gradually and the British started exerting trade inted the situation the Manchu government appo pressure to get it. In order to deal with opium end to opium trade. He confiscated all the Commissioner Lin Ze-xu to put an British vities of the western traders. However the chests at Canton and stopped all the acti hdr ew to Hon g Kon g and con tin ued opium smuggling. Lin Ze-xu tried to put traders wit were to this ; in the mea nwh ile a riot too k place in which some Chinese nationals an end ed. The Bri tis h mer cha nts wer e sai d to be involved in this riot. The Chinese kill ern men t dem and ed that the gui lty sai lor s should be handed over to them but the gov use d to acc ept this. Wit h this Chi na for bad e any kind of trade with Britain and British ref tai n dec lar ed war upo n Chi na. The Bri tis h arm y captured Shanghai, Canton, with this Bri and Ningpo and reached near the capital city of Peking. The Chinese emperor had no iumwarcametoanendwhhflmmy other alternative but to sue for peace. Thefirstop ties which in the of Nanking, 1842. This was followed by a series of diffeerent trea g year s cha nge d Chin a into a semi colo nial nation divided into various Zones followin amongst the Western nations.  te to term the war asopiumwaruitw nsonlywhcn Chung argues that it is appropria ver tai n wer e thr eat ene d tha t it declared war upon China. Howe the opium interests of Bri uirements of Britain that led l Gre enb erg arg ues tha t it was basically the trade req Michae other European nations wer e rial revolution Britain and to the war. With the indust industrial goods. China was an the ir mas s pr od uc ed new markets for interested in opening as wel l as a raw material whi ch cou ld hav e ser ved as 8 market zone important place e occasion, basically it was the ing to M. Greenb erg opium was a mer source zone. Accord the war would have led to the war. So to him if not opium t commerci jal requirements tha or tea. other issue like textile taken place on some ot be equated wit h any other ues tha t op iu m ca nn s and arg er Tan Chung refutes thi als o poi nts out that the demand for oth dru g- He it is an intoxicating commodity si nce tion point, but the dema nd for xtiles can come to an end or satura commodi ties like te di ct iv e nature. Also the kind of health increase d du e to i ts ad opil jum would have always uld not have taken pl ace drain that took pl lace due to opium co hazard as well as economic ity. with some other commod , while the main ca me an issue for declaring the war merely be It appears that opium western nations and per involvin| g the economic desires of the issues were much more dee supremacy. The west and eas t, bot h trying to prove its between the also the cultural clash for its commercial ventures. China at ing China was bent upon 0Ope British government its internal crisis including a weak ch al le ng e du e to d not face the this point of time coul is wh ic h le d to not only health relate d ction cr is ll as the opium addi army and navy, as we up ti on. Th e opium war was basica lly om ic di sr ministrative and econ problems but also ad ti ng Ch in a into a semi- colony. re s co nv er ern imperialistic desi an eviden ce of the west