FINALS-PSY-REVIEWER PDF

THE DIGITAL SELF The digital self, also known as online identity, is used to describe a person’s representation of himself on the Internet. In different social media platforms, a person can construct a controlled projection that impacts how other people perceive him. An individual’s belief of how...

THE DIGITAL SELF The digital self, also known as online identity, is used to describe a person’s representation of himself on the Internet. In different social media platforms, a person can construct a controlled projection that impacts how other people perceive him. An individual’s belief of how other people perceive him defines the social self. He naturally creates a social identity to achieve a perceived belongingness to a certain group. Thus, a person can define his sense of being based on other people’s validation. Self-presentation behavior refers to the conscious or unconscious efforts an individual make to create, modify, or maintain an impression of himself in the mind of others. Impression Management - It is done by controlling or influencing how other people perceptions about himself. It can involve strategic choices in clothing, grooming, body language, and verbal communication. Impression Management Strategies Self-Promotion – a person actively says things or takes action to show his competence to other people Ingratiation – a person tries to win the approval or acceptance of others Exemplification – strategic self-sacrifice Intimidation – showing off authority, power, or the potential to punish Supplication – a person exploits his weaknesses or shortcomings to receive help or benefit Private self - Mental events in a person’s life that are inherently unobservable to others or only within his network of connections Public self - Behaviors that are open to the observations of other people; Within the entire internet Social Profiles - refer to the digital representations of individuals on different online platforms, capturing various aspects of their identity, interests, and activities. These provide users with a space to share information about themselves and engage with others EMOTIONAL SELF The term emotion originated from the French word emouvoir meaning “to shake, to stir”. It is “a strong mental or instinctive feeling such as love or fear” involving many bodily processes, and mental states (Oxford English Dictionary, 1996). According to Daniel Goleman, there are eight basic families of emotions: 1. Fear (Safety) - anxiety, apprehension, nervousness, concern, consternation, misgiving, wariness, qualm, edginess, dread, fright, terror and in the extreme cases phobia and panic 2. Anger (Justice) - fury, outrage, resentment, wrath, exasperation, indignation, vexation, acrimony, animosity, annoyance, irritability, hostility, and perhaps these are manifest in the extreme as hatred and violence 3. Sadness (Loss) - grief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, self-pity, loneliness, dejection, despair, and depression in the extreme case 4. Enjoyment (Gain) - happiness, joy, relief, contentment, bliss, delight, amusement, pride, sensual pleasure, thrill, rapture, gratification, satisfaction, euphoria, whimsy, ecstasy, and at the far edge, mania 5. Love (Attraction) - acceptance, friendliness, trust, kindness, affinity, devotion, adoration, infatuation, and agape 6. Disgust (Repulsion) - contempt, distain, scorn, abhorrence, aversion, distaste, and revulsion 7. Surprise (Attention) - shock, astonishment, amazement, and wonder 8. Shame (Self-control) - guilt, embarrassment, chagrin, remorse, humiliation, regret, mortification, and contrition Components of Emotions Physiological arousal – Involvement of the brain, nervous system, and secretion of hormone Subjective feelings – Subjective awareness of interpreting one’s emotional state Cognitive processes – Involvement of memories, perceptions, expectations, and interpretations Behavioral reactions – Include behavioral reactions, both expressive and instrument Characteristics of Emotions 1. Emotions are closely related to a person’s biological needs 2. Emotions and logical thinking have an inverse relationship 3. Emotions are associated with certain behavioral characteristics 4. Emotions trigger a series of internal activities involving the autonomic nervous system, ductless glands, and visceral organs The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is important in the internal response to emotions. It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, working in tandem to regulate involuntary bodily functions.  Ductless glands, specifically the endocrine system, release hormones that influence various physiological functions. Visceral organs, including the heart, lungs, and digestive system, also undergo changes during emotional experiences. 5. Emotions leave an after feeling called “mood” Physiological Changes in Emotions Facial expressions – Various muscles of the face including the eye, the lips, the nose and the forehead undergo changes by way of twisting and taking different poses. Muscular adjustment – Sometimes the entire muscular system of the body undergoes contraction and adjustments. Gestures and movement of the hands Change in voice – Voice gets affected by emotions, particularly in terms of volume and pitch Characteristics of Feelings Pleasantness-unpleasantness dimension – positive or negative feeling Excitement-numbness dimension – intensity of the feeling Tension-relaxation dimension – how the body gets active or energized by a feeling James-Lange Theory of Emotion - This theory was proposed by William James and Carl Lange. Emotions do not begin with the conscious experience but are caused by bodily sensations. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion - This theory was proposed by Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard. It is also known as the thalamic theory of emotion related to the thalamus. Emotions occur when the thalamus sends a message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion - This theory was developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer in the 1960s. There are two key components of emotions: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. Physiological arousal is the body’s immediate response to a stimulus, while cognitive interpretation involves processing of thoughts and perceptions. Neuroscience of Emotions The limbic system - It is located lateral to the thalamus, underneath the cerebral cortex, and above the brainstem. It is referred to as the “emotion center” of the brain. It is responsible for the regulation of emotions and various other cognitive functions. Amygdala - It is a central component of the limbic system and is primarily associated with the processing of emotions, particularly fear and pleasure. It plays an important role in the  formation and storage of emotional memories and the assessment of the emotional significance of stimuli. Hippocampus - It is primarily linked to memory formation. It contributes to emotional regulation by interacting with the amygdala. It helps create and consolidate explicit memories, including those associated with emotional experiences. Thalamus - It relays sensory information, including emotional stimuli, to the different parts of the brain to facilitate the rapid processing of emotionally relevant information. Hypothalamus - It is a key regulator of the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. It orchestrates physiological responses associated with emotions, such as changes in heart rate, body temperature, and the release of hormones. Cingulate Cortex - It is involved in emotional processing, conflict resolution, and the regulation of emotional responses. It has connections with the amygdala and contributes to emotional learning. Insular Cortex - It is associated in the processing and regulation of emotions. It contributes to the subjective experience of emotions, including awareness of one's emotional state and the interpretation of emotional cues from the environment. It is important for interoceptive awareness, allowing individuals to perceive and interpret signals from their own bodies, such as heartbeat, respiration, and gastrointestinal sensations. Fornix - It is a fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus to other limbic structures. It facilitates communication within the limbic system, supporting the integration of emotional and cognitive processes. Research-Based Emotional Regulation Strategies Reappraisal – changing one's perspective on an event to reduce the emotional intensity associated with it Self-soothing – using comforting and calming techniques to regulate emotions, particularly during times of distress or heightened arousal Attentional control – directing and maintaining one's focus on specific aspects of a situation while deliberately diverting attention from others Plutchik’s Wheel of emotions It was developed by psychologist Robert Plutchik. It was designed to help people identify and understand their emotional experience better at any given time, under any circumstance. Managing and Caring for the self Major Exterior Parts of the Brain FRONTAL LOBES - Also known as the rational and executive control center, which is responsible for planning and thinking. Monitor higher-order thinking, direct problem solving, and regulate the excesses of the emotional system. Contain the self-will area, also referred to as personality TEMPORAL LOBES - Responsible for sound and visual recognition, and some parts of longterm memory. The left temporal lobe, houses the speech center OCCIPITAL LOBES - Used for recognizing and interpreting visual information. PARIETAL LOBES - Process sensory information from various parts of the body and help with spatial orientation. MOTOR CORTEX & SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX - Motor cortex works hand in hand with the cerebellum in terms of body movements and motor skills. Somatosensory cortex processes the sensory signals received by the body. Major Interior Parts of the Brain BRAIN STEM - 11 out of 12 body nerves end in the brain stem. Monitors and controls vital body functions including heartbeat, respiration, body temperature, and digestion. Houses the reticular activating system (RAS), responsible for the brain’s alertness. LIMBIC SYSTEM - Located lateral to the thalamus, underneath the cerebral cortex, and above the brainstem. Referred to as the “emotion center” of the brain. Regulates emotions and motivates behavior THALAMUS - Receives all incoming information except olfactory information. Involves cognitive activities, including memory. HYPOTHALAMUS - Monitors the internal systems to maintain the normal state of the body (called homeostasis) by releasing the necessary hormones. HIPPOCAMPUS - Consolidates learning and in converts information from working memory via electrical signals to the long-term storage region. AMYGDALA - Comes from a Greek word meaning almond because of its shape and size. Mainly responsible for regulating emotions, especially fear CEREBRUM - The largest area of the brain, which comprises 80% of its weight. Controls thinking, memory, speech, and muscular movements CEREBELLUM - Coordinates movements. Monitors impulses from nerve endings in the muscles, so it is important in the performance and timing of complex motor tasks BRAIN CELLS - Nerve cells, also known as neurons, are the functioning core for the brain and the entire nervous system. Glial cells hold the neurons together and act as filters to keep harmful substances out of the neurons Information Processing Model It is developed by Robert Stahl during the early 1980s. It is a theoretical framework that describes how the brain processes information. It draws analogies between the human mind and the operations of a computer, emphasizing the sequential flow of information through a series of cognitive processes. 1. THE INPUT (SENSORY INFORMATION) Information from the environment, also known as externa; stimulus, is detected by the five senses – visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile. All sensory stimuli enter the brain as a stream of electrical impulses that result from neurons firing in sequence along the specific sensory pathways. 2. Sensory Register It is also referred to as sensory memory, which holds sensory information for a very brief time. The brain quickly screens all the information to determine their importance to an individual. This process involves the thalamus and a portion of the brain stem known as the reticular activating system (RAS). It also taps an individual’s prior knowledge and experiences in interpreting the sensory information. 3. Immediate Memory It is also known as short-term memory (STM). It operates subconsciously or consciously and holds data for a limited time (up to about 30 seconds). 4. Working Memory It is also referred to as temporary memory, where conscious processing occurs. It is a place of limited capacity where an individual can build, take apart, or rework ideas for eventual storage somewhere else. Information in the working memory can come from sensory or immediate memory or retrieved from long-term memory. 5. Long-term Memory Significant short-term memories are transformed into longterm memories. It lasts for a long time (for years or even a lifetime). It is said that information has been retained if a person is able to accurately recall information after a specific period of time has passed. Three types of long-term memory: explicit memories, episodic memories, and implicit memories. Left Hemisphere Language comprehension Speech production  Logical and analytical thinking Sequencing Fine motor skills Mathematical and scientific skills Right Hemisphere Spatial and musical abilities Visual processing Holistic processing Creativity and imagination Emotional processing Gestalt processing Metacognition It comes from the Greek word “meta” meaning beyond or transcending, and the Latin word “cognoscere” meaning to know or to learn. It refers to awareness of, understanding, and regulation of one's own thinking and learning. Thinking about thinking Components of Metacognition Metacognitive Knowledge Declarative knowledge refers to the knowledge about oneself, tasks, and strategies. Procedural knowledge involves the knowledge about how to use specific strategies or approaches to perform cognitive tasks. Conditional knowledge is the knowledge about when and why to use particular strategies Metacognitive Strategies PRE-ASSESSMENT (SELF-ASSESSMENT) OF CONTENT It involves evaluating one’s own knowledge and understanding of the content before engaging in a learning task. SELF-ASSESSMENT OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING SKILLS It involves critical evaluation of one’s own ability to manage and control his/her learning process. THINK ALOUD It involves verbalizing one’s thoughts, actions, and decision-making processes while engaging in a cognitive task. USE OF CONCEPT MAP Concept maps are organization tools that visually represent relationships between ideas, images, or words. CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT TOOLS These serve an important role in promoting self-awareness, self-regulation, and overall cognitive development in students Examples of Classroom Assessment Tools Ticket-Out-The-Door - During the last few minutes of class, students write response to a question or two about class concepts. Hand in as exit class One-Minute Paper - During the last few minutes of class, write response to “Most important thing I learned today” and “What I understood the least today. Muddiest Point - Ask students to describe what they didn’t understand during class and what they think might help them Student-Generated Test - Divide the class into groups and assign each group a topic on which they are to each write a question and answer for the next test Memory Matrix - Students fill in cells of two-dimensional diagram with instructor-provided labels such as a comparison chart outlining similarities and differences in two columns against a variety of concepts in the discipline KWL Chart - Label three charts K (What I know already), W (What I want to know), and L (What I have learned). Complete the first two before a unit/topic and the last one at the end Directed Paraphrasing - Ask students to write a layperson’s translation of something they have just learned to assess their ability to comprehend/transfer concepts One-Sentence Summary - Students summarize knowledge of a topic by constructing a single sentence to cover the core concept. The purpose is to require students to select only the defining features of an idea. Think-Pair-Share - Give the class a question. Allow everyone to think on their own for a few minutes jotting down some thoughts. Then ask students to pair up with a peer and discuss thoughts for another few minutes Application Cards - After teaching a theory, principle, or procedure, ask the students to write down at least one real-world application for what they have just learned to determine if they can see the transfer of their recent learning. Classroom Opinion Polls - Using clickers, or online polling questions, ask students a variety of questions about a topic and seek their anonymous opinion  Weekly Report - Written by students each week in which they address three questions: What did I learn this week? What questions remain unclear? And, what questions would you ask your students if you were the instructor to find out if they understood the material? Concept Tests - Instructor presents one or more questions during class involving key concepts, along with several possible answers. Students indicate which answer they think is correct by showing of hands. If most of the class has not identified the correct answer, students are given a short time to persuade their neighbor(s) that their answer is correct. The question is asked a second time to gauge class mastery Instructor Meetings - Instructor meets informally with students either in class or after class to answer questions, inquire about conceptual understanding, or provide feedback on student learning SELF-REGULATED LEARNING It refers to one’s ability to regulate his or her emotions, cognition, behavior, and aspects of the context during a learning experience. It includes goal setting, self-monitoring, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement. COMPONENTS OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING Cognitive Processes – mental activities involved in learning (e.g., attention, perception, memory, and problem solving) Metacognitive Processes – thinking about one’s own thinking, which include planning, monitoring, and evaluating of learning strategies and understanding Motivational Processes – factors that drive and sustain learning efforts, including goals, beliefs, values, and emotional responses CYCLE OF SELF-REGULATED LEARNING - It is a framework that describes how individuals actively engage in the learning process by monitoring, regulating, and adapting their cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational strategies. 1. FORETHOUGHT PHASE Learners set specific and challenging goals for their learning to provide direction and motivation. Learners select appropriate resources, plan study schedules, and decide learning approaches. Learners activate their existing knowledge related to the task at hand  2. PERFORMANCE (VOLITIONAL PHASE) Learners implement the planned strategies and manage resources effectively. Learners continuously monitor their understanding, progress, and effectiveness of their strategies. Based on ongoing monitoring, learners adapt their strategies. 3. SELF-REFLECTION PHASE Learners evaluate their performance against the goals set during the forethought phase. Learners reflect on the factors that contributed to their performance. Based on the evaluation, learners identify areas where they can improve. SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY THEORY The term “self-efficacy” was coined by Albert Bandura in his Social Learning Theory. Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling. 4 PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF SELF-EFFICACY ENACTIVE MASTERY EXPERIENCES Positive past experiences and successful accomplishments People gain confidence and belief in their capabilities through mastering tasks. VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES (COMPARISONS) Observing others succeed or fail in similar tasks Successful role models can inspire confidence, while failure of role models may decrease self- efficacy unless there is an explanation for the failure VERBAL PERSUASIONS AND ALLIED TYPE OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE Positive or negative feedback from others Constructive feedback and persuasion contribute to increased belief in one's capabilities. EMOTIONAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES Physiological and emotional states can affect self-efficacy Successful management of emotional reactions can enhance confidence. WHAT IS SELF-CONCEPT? It refers to the set of beliefs, perceptions, and ideas that individuals have about themselves. It encompasses various aspects of one's identity, including physical, social, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. PRINCIPLES OF SELF-ESTEEM An essential human need that is vital for survival Arises automatically from within Occurs along with a person’s thought, behaviors, feelings, and actions DWECK’S GROWTH MINDSET Carol Dweck introduced the concept of “growth mindset.” It is a psychological framework that explores the underlying beliefs individuals have about learning and intelligence. Two types of mindsets: the fixed mindset and the growth mindset FIXED MINDSET Belief in innate abilities and have a fixed theory of intelligence View failure as a limitation to one’s abilities GROWTH MINDSET Belief in hard work, learning, and grit and have a growth theory of intelligence View failure as an opportunity to grow THREE KINDS OF STRESS EUSTRESS - Positive and beneficial form of stress NEUSTRESS - Neither positive nor negative but may still affect an individual's overall well-being DISTRESS - Negative and harmful form of stress STRESSORS - These are external events, situations, or conditions that place demands on individuals, eliciting a stress response. HOW THE BODY REACTS TO STRESS RECOGNITION - The anticipation of something to happen, which is called the demand. APPRAISAL - The formation of belief or disbelief in the ability to overcome the demand MOBILIZATION - How the body gets triggered and prepared when demand is appraised by stress RESPONSE - The physical action which is usually choosing between fight or flight. RETURN - The state of mind and bodily functions going back to their usual calm states. FILIPINO TRAITS AND VALUES SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF STRESS Social stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or very demanding circumstances arising from the person’s social environment relationships. STRESS AND SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Three primary types of suicide: Egoistic suicide – occurs when individuals experience a sense of detachment or isolation from society Altruistic suicide – individuals may sacrifice their lives for the benefit of the community or a higher cause Anomic suicide – associated with a breakdown in social norms and values TYPES OF COPING PROBLEM-FOCUSED COPING - Addressing the source of stress directly by taking actions to solve the problem or alter the situation causing distress EMOTION-FOCUSED COPING - Managing emotional responses to stressors. Regulate emotions, alleviate distress, and enhance emotional well-being COGNITIVE COPING - Use of conscious intellectual activities in managing stressful situations MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS The hierarchy of needs, developed by Abraham Maslow, suggests that individuals are motivated by a series of needs, and these needs can be organized into a hierarchical structure. He classified the levels into two categories, namely deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels (physiological, safety, belongingness and love, and esteem) are considered as deficiency needs, while the last level (self-actualization) is a growth need DEFICIENCY NEEDS - basic requirements for human survival and well-being GROWTH NEEDS - focuses on personal development, self-improvement, and the realization of one's full potential. SELF-CARE - refers to a deliberate and conscious effort to prioritize and engage in activities that promote physical, mental, and emotional well-being. SELF-COMPASSION - It is about treating yourself kindly when confronted with failure, the way you would care for a loved one if they go through the same situation. 3 COMPONENTS OF SELF-COMPASSION Self-kindness – Do not be too hard on yourself by criticizing yourself too much for things that go wrong. Show kindness to yourself the same way you would give to a loved one. Common humanity – Recognize that you are not alone in suffering. Mindfulness – Maintain a receptive mind state and acknowledge thoughts and feelings.