Final Review PDF

### ### **Section A: Population Dynamics** #### **1. Ecological Footprint:** - - **Example Question**:\ *Which of the following will not reduce your ecological footprint?* - - - - - #### **2. Population Density (D):** - - - - **Ecological Density (DE)**: This reflec...

### ### **Section A: Population Dynamics** #### **1. Ecological Footprint:** - - **Example Question**:\ *Which of the following will not reduce your ecological footprint?* - - - - - #### **2. Population Density (D):** - - - - **Ecological Density (DE)**: This reflects the usable space (suitable habitat) by the species, excluding uninhabitable areas. - - **Example Question**:\ *Suppose that a group of ecologists is sampling white trillium plants in a section of a forest. They select four quadrats measuring 2 m² each, and they count the following: 5, 3, 2, and 1 trillium per quadrat. What is the estimated population density?* - - - - - #### **3. Net Population Size:** - - - - - - **Types of Populations**: - - **Example Question**:\ *In 1998, 10 male and 12 female field mice were introduced into a new field. After one year, the population experienced 200 births, 20 deaths, 28 immigration, and 60 emigration. What is the net population size at the end of the year?* - - #### **4. Survivorship Curves:** - - - - **Bonus**: **Fecundity** refers to the number of offspring an individual can produce during its lifetime. High fecundity means producing many offspring, while low fecundity means producing few. **Example Question**:\ *Which of the following animals does not illustrate a Type I survivorship curve?* - #### **5. Ecological Hierarchy:** - 1. 2. 3. 4. **Example Question**:\ *All the species in a park (including plants, insects, and animals) interacting form a\...* - - - - - #### **6. Types of Species Interactions:** - - - - 1. 2. - - - - - #### **7. Types of Defenses Against Predation:** - - - - - #### **8. Population Dispersion Patterns:** - - - #### **9. Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors:** - - **Example Question**:\ *Which of the following is an example of a density-dependent factor?* - - - - - #### **10. Sampling Methods (Quadrat and Mark-Recapture):** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### **11. Theoretical Population Dynamics (Species A and B):** - - - ### **Key Takeaways for Exam:** - - - - - ### ### ### ### **Section B: Biochemistry** ### **Identify the Group on the Periodic Table:** - #### **Group 1 (Alkali metals):** These elements (like sodium, Na) **lose 1 electron** to form cations with a **+1 charge**(Na⁺). - #### **Group 2 (Alkaline earth metals):** These elements (like calcium, Ca) **lose 2 electrons** to form cations with a **+2 charge** (Ca²⁺). - #### **Transition metals:** These can form cations with various charges, but for simplicity, the charge is usually given in the question (like Fe²⁺ or Fe³⁺). - #### **Group 17 (Halogens):** These elements (like chlorine, Cl) **gain 1 electron** to form anions with a **-1 charge** (Cl⁻). - #### **Group 16 (Chalcogens):** These elements (like oxygen, O) **gain 2 electrons** to form anions with a **-2 charge** (O²⁻). - #### **Group 15 (Nitrogen group):** These elements (like nitrogen, N) **gain 3 electrons** to form anions with a **-3 charge**(N³⁻). ### **2. Determine if it's a Cation or Anion:** - #### **Cations** form when elements **lose electrons**. This happens with metals, especially alkali and alkaline earth metals. The charge is positive (e.g., Na⁺, Ca²⁺). - #### **Anions** form when elements **gain electrons**. This typically happens with nonmetals, especially halogens, chalcogens, and nitrogen group elements. The charge is negative (e.g., Cl⁻, O²⁻). ### **3. Check for any Exceptions or Special Cases:** - #### **Transition metals:** These can have multiple oxidation states (charges). For example, iron can be Fe²⁺ or Fe³⁺, so you need to know the specific context or compound in which it's found to determine the charge. - #### **Polyatomic ions:** Sometimes elements form ions with multiple atoms, like sulfate (SO₄²⁻) or nitrate (NO₃⁻), which follow similar rules but involve groups of atoms. ### **4. Quick Formula for the Charge:** - #### **For metals (left side of the periodic table):** Look at the group number. For Groups 1 and 2, the charge on the cation is **the same as the group number** (e.g., Group 1 → +1, Group 2 → +2). - #### **For nonmetals (right side of the periodic table):** Subtract the group number from 8 to find the charge. For example, in Group 17 (halogens), subtract 17 from 8 → **-1 charge**. ### **5. Examples:** - #### **Na (Sodium)** is in Group 1. It loses 1 electron, so it forms Na⁺ with a **+1 charge**. - #### **Ca (Calcium)** is in Group 2. It loses 2 electrons, so it forms Ca²⁺ with a **+2 charge**. - #### **O (Oxygen)** is in Group 16. It gains 2 electrons, so it forms O²⁻ with a **-2 charge**. - #### **Cl (Chlorine)** is in Group 17. It gains 1 electron, so it forms Cl⁻ with a **-1 charge**. ### **6. Other Formats for Ionic Charges:** - #### Some elements form polyatomic ions, which are ions made up of more than one atom. These ions have a charge just like single atoms. For example: - #### **Sulfate (SO₄²⁻)**: Sulfur forms a -2 charge when combined with oxygen in this polyatomic ion. - #### **Ammonium (NH₄⁺)**: A special case where nitrogen and hydrogen form a positively charged polyatomic ion. - #### Transition metals like **iron** can also exist in multiple oxidation states, so you may encounter ions like **Fe²⁺** or **Fe³⁺**. ### **Summary Checklist:** 1. #### **Find the group** of the element on the periodic table. 2. #### **Metals (left side) form cations** by losing electrons (+ charge). 3. #### **Nonmetals (right side) form anions** by gaining electrons (- charge). 4. #### **Check if it\'s a transition metal**---it may have multiple charges. 5. #### **For anions**, subtract the group number from 8 to find the charge. #### **1. Types of Bonds** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Example Question**: *What type of bond forms between two non-metals forming a compound?* - #### **2. Biochemical Reactions** - - - - - - - - - - - - A **redox reaction** (reduction-oxidation reaction) involves the transfer of electrons between substances, where one substance loses electrons (oxidation) and the other gains electrons (reduction). Here\'s how to identify the **oxidizing agent**(oxidizer) and **reducing agent** (reducer), plus an example: ### **Example of a Redox Reaction:** **Reaction**:\ 2Na+Cl2→2NaCl2Na+Cl2​→2NaCl In this reaction: - - ### **Breaking It Down:** 1. - - - 2. - - - ### **How to Identify Reactants and Agents in Redox Reactions:** 1. - - 2. - - ### **General Steps to Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents:** 1. 2. - - ### **More Examples:** 1. - - - 2. - - - ### **Key Takeaways:** - - - - - - #### **3. Properties of Acids and Bases** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### **4. Functional Groups in Macromolecules** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### **5. Macromolecules** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **Structure:** Glycerol consists of a chain of three carbon atoms, each bonded to a hydroxyl group (--OH). Its structure looks like this: **HO--CH₂--CH(OH)--CH₂--OH** ### **Key Functions and Roles of Glycerol:** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - 4. - ### **Redox Reactions Involving Glycerol:** In metabolic pathways, glycerol can undergo **redox reactions**, particularly in processes like glycolysis or gluconeogenesis. For example: 1. - - 2. In this process, glycerol is **oxidized** to form DHAP, and NAD⁺ is **reduced** to NADH. The NADH can then go on to produce ATP in the electron transport chain (if oxygen is available) or be used in other metabolic processes. ### **Summary:** - - - If you have a specific aspect of glycerol you want to explore (like its role in a particular metabolic pathway or reaction), feel free to ask! - - - - #### **6. Testing for Biological Compounds in Foods** **Chemical Test** **Results of Positive Test** ------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Carbohydrates** **Benedict's Reagent**: Changes from blue to orange/red if simple sugars are present. **Iodine Test (Lugol's solution)**: Changes from brown to purple-black if starch is present. **Lipids** **Sudan IV Lipid Test**: Turns from pink to red if lipids are present. **Proteins** **Biuret's Protein Test**: Changes from light blue to deep purple if proteins are present. #### **7. Bonds in Biological Molecules** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### **8. Enzymes** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #### **9. Passive Transport** - - - - - - - - - - **Examples of Passive Transport**: - - - ### **Section C: Metabolic processes** **Metabolism** = The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a living cell/organism.\ **Anabolic reactions** = Metabolic reactions that build larger molecules from smaller molecules or atoms.\ **Catabolic reactions** = Metabolic reactions that break large molecules down into smaller molecules. Two fundamental processes essential to all life: - - **2. Energy in Reactions:** Chemical energy, specifically the energy in reactants and products, is altered during the course of a chemical reaction. - - **3. Oxidation:** - - **Specific Example of Redox Reactions in Living Organisms Using NAD+:** - - - - - - **Steps:** 1. 2. 3. 4. **4. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate):\ **ATP is the main energy currency of the cell, storing energy in its two high-energy phosphate bonds. It provides energy for various processes that require it, including enzyme activity, DNA synthesis, and the synthesis of polypeptides and complex polysaccharides. **How ATP Stores and Releases Energy:** - - - - - **Equation for ATP Hydrolysis:\ **ATP + H₂O ↔ ADP + Pi + H+ **5. Summary of ATP, NADH (Reduced Form), FADH₂, and CO₂:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **6. Coenzymes:** Coenzymes are organic molecules that work alongside enzymes to facilitate biochemical reactions. They often serve as carriers for electrons, atoms, or functional groups and are crucial in pathways like cellular respiration and photosynthesis. **Key Coenzymes and Their Roles:** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Comparison of Coenzymes:** **Coenzyme** **Source** **Primary Role** **Pathways Involved** ------------------ ------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ Oxygen (O₂) External environment Final electron acceptor, forms water Electron transport chain (aerobic respiration) Coenzyme A (CoA) Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) Transfers acetyl groups to the citric acid cycle Citric acid cycle, fatty acid metabolism FAD Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) Electron carrier, reduced to FADH₂ Citric acid cycle, electron transport chain NAD⁺ Vitamin B3 (niacin) Electron carrier, reduced to NADH Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, ETC Coenzyme Q Synthesized in cells Transfers electrons within the electron transport chain Electron transport chain ### ### ### **8. BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES** #### **Process: Lactic Acid Fermentation** - - - - 1. 2. 3. - - - #### **Process: Anaerobic Respiration** - - - - 1. 2. - - - #### **Process: Oxidative Phosphorylation** - - - - 1. 2. 3. - - - #### **Process: Glycolysis** - - - - 1. 2. 3. - - - #### **Process: Alcoholic Fermentation** - - - - 1. 2. 3. - - - ### **Photosynthesis Chemistry Reactions and Branches:** **Photosynthesis** is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose (a form of sugar) and oxygen. It occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells and is essential for life on Earth, as it provides the oxygen we breathe and the food that powers ecosystems. ### **Chemical Reactions of Photosynthesis:** The overall equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO\_2 + 6H\_2O + \\text{light energy} \\rightarrow C\_6H\_{12}O\_6 + 6O\_26CO2​+6H2​O+light energy→C6​H12​O6​+6O2​ - - Photosynthesis consists of two main stages: **Light-dependent reactions** and **Light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle)**. ### **1. Light-Dependent Reactions (Photochemical Reactions)** - - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. - ### **2. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)** - - 1. 2. 3. - ### **ATP in Photosynthesis:** ATP (adenosine triphosphate) plays a critical role in both the light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. - - ### **Branches of Photosynthesis:** 1. - - - 2. - - - 3. - - - In summary, photosynthesis is a complex process involving both light-dependent and light-independent reactions. ATP plays a crucial role in energy transfer, powering key steps in both stages of the process. The different types of photosynthesis (C₃, C₄, and CAM) represent adaptations to different environmental conditions, optimizing energy production in plants. 10\. **Photolysis of Water in Photosynthesis:** **Photolysis of water** is the process where water molecules are split into oxygen, protons (H⁺), and electrons using energy from light. This process occurs during the **light-dependent reactions** of photosynthesis, specifically in the **thylakoid membranes** of the chloroplasts. The chemical equation for the photolysis of water is: 2H2O→light energy4H++4e−+O22H\_2O \\xrightarrow{\\text{light energy}} 4H\^+ + 4e\^- + O\_22H2​Olight energy​4H++4e−+O2​ ### **What happens to each of the products of the reaction?** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - ### ### **Summary of Products and Their Functions:** - - - The photolysis of water is essential for both producing oxygen and supplying the necessary components (ATP and NADPH) for the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. ### **Section D: Molecular Genetics** ### **1. Structures in a DNA Molecule (Covalent, Hydrogen, Ionic Bonds)** DNA is composed of nucleotides, and understanding the bonds between these components is crucial for grasping its structure and function. - - - - - - - - - - - ### **2. DNA and RNA** **DNA** and **RNA** are both essential for cellular processes, but they differ significantly in structure and function: - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **3. X-Ray Diffraction Key to Discovery of DNA** - - - - - ### **4. Transcription (RNA Polymerase, TATA Box, Okazaki Fragments, etc.)** Transcription is the process by which an mRNA copy is made from a DNA template. - 1. - - 2. 3. 4. - ### **5. DNA and Gel Electrophoresis** **Gel Electrophoresis** is a laboratory technique used to separate DNA fragments based on size and charge: - - - - - - - - - ### **6. Leading Strand, Replication Fork, Okazaki Fragments, DNA Ligase, Primase** During DNA replication, several enzymes and processes ensure the accurate copying of the DNA: - - - - - ### **7. DNA Complementary Strands (e.g., Write the DNA Strand that is Complementary to the Following: 5´ TTAGCTAAAGGCCCA 3´)** To find the complementary strand: - - - - For the given strand: 5´ TTAGCTAAAGGCCCA 3´ The complementary strand (3' to 5') is: **AA TC GATT TCC GGG T** ### **8. Genetic Code Table (Codons, Amino Acids, Mutations)** - - - - - - - - - - - - - ### **9. Process of Protein Synthesis and Effect of Missing 5\' Cap in mRNA** #### **Protein Synthesis:** 1. 2. - - - 3. #### **Effect of Missing 5' Cap in mRNA:** - - - - Without the 5' cap, translation may not occur efficiently or at all, leading to incomplete or absent protein synthesis. ### **Section E: Homeostasis** ### **1. Types of Mechanisms (Positive and Negative Feedback)** - - - - - - - - ### **2. Endocrine System: Possible Diagnoses, Diagram** - - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. - ### **3. Neuron Parts and Functions** - 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - - 5. - ### **4. Action Potential: Understanding Key Concepts and Graph Analysis** - - - - - - - - ### **5. Urinary System: Structure and Function** - 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ### **6. Thyroxine and Parathyroid Hormones** - - - - - - - - ### **7. PTH Hormone and Calcium Metabolism** - - - - - - ### **8. Central Nervous System (CNS) vs. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)** - - - - - - - -