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Lecture 7 Notes on directedmovement isanactionbased on a Goaldirectedmovement Anexpression ofthoughtthroughactionthatis organizedaround a specificbehaviouralgoal m bapt...

Lecture 7 Notes on directedmovement isanactionbased on a Goaldirectedmovement Anexpression ofthoughtthroughactionthatis organizedaround a specificbehaviouralgoal m baptism ments himpie.ie gon fiigtim iongi intoa biggeraction environmentalcontext require coordination ofneuralprocessescontrollingmanysmallmovementsthatareincorporatedintoa largernation motorprogramtheorizes coordination istheorganizationofdifferentelementsofa complexbody oractivitysothattheyworktogether thatour goal directed movements mfromkarnedmotor whichareanorganisedsetof programs motorprogramtheoryhypothesizes directed goal movements werebasedonmotorprogramsdevelopedthroughpriorexperience Itons im then ingredienta specificsequence motor programanorgan a setofmusclecommands senttothemusclestogeneratea ofactionstobe predetermined suence carriedoutinthe absence ofsensoryfeedback helryMunichIm titles in uTns mindnummiti.fi thebraindoesnothaveenough neuronstohavea uniquecombinationofneuronsforeachgoaldirectedmovement storage have andcreatesastorageproblem abilitytolearn the new 1hL.inthinjtn when welearnanewmovementweareable toproducethegoaldirectedmovement withouthavinga motorprogramforit noveltyprob which IEgmm.iietikosthehef.tt mpveimIn.tpPy anewfenton ofmovementsseemto transferacrosseffectors generalizability m otor generalized programrepresents agoaldirectedmovement ntii.imin Generalizedmotor anabstract representation of agoaldirectedmovementthatresultsintheproductionof acoordinated sa i i itiie program peedorforce movement sequence invariantfeaturesmovementelementsthat alldifferentattemptofthe areconsisentacross goal m ovement directed regardlessofvariantor effector examples timing mechanics of movement surfacefeaturesm ovemente lementsthat varyacrossanattemptsofthegoal directedmovement examples includespeed andforce nathriftidfinimitan go.tl omecfpntnefsnm movementcontrol raysonsetparametersandfeedback tomakecorrationseitherexternallyorinternally xpectedenvironmental events tomake corrections beincorrectparameters whileexternalerrorswouldbe unexpected environmentaleffects mamaerrorswould includes theEu nth.EE thttiiionmIfhsnto theactivityofsingleneurons cellstudiesareinvasiveelectrodemeasuredbrainstudiesthatmeasure single FMRImeasuresthelevelsofoxygenatedanddeoxygenatedhemoglobininthebrain Electroencephalography EEG measuresbrain activityusingelectrodes onthescalp Transcranialmagneticstimulation ties altersbrainactivityusing apointmagneticinformation Lesion studies i nvolvemakingincisionsinbrainareas tostraytheeffectsoftheirloss ingtimpt.TT Imnii'iendgot Either aPom y methods noninvasive onatradeoffbetween measuringspatialortemporalresolution meaningtheywillonlymeasureoneofthetwowell presfnnapn.fih.inspotiitonistn subtracting ti'i ftp.tpi.genmneubit theelectoralsignalfroman intoneby EEGuseselectrodesbridgedtothescalptoquantifingtheactivityoflargepopulationsofneuronsovertime signalismatedto thepostsynaptic bythepresynapticactionpotential potentialgenerated quantified bysubtractingtheelectricalsignalfromareverenceelectrode  Lecture 7 Notes FMRIusesstrongmagneticfieldstoexploittherelationship up usesstrongmagneticfieldstodistinguishbetweensubstanceswithdifferent inthebrain iii FIygenfednaforgetand structures properties fairytale pomp functional upandexploitstheremonshopbetweenneuralactivitymetabolicdemandandbloodflowandanalyzesthedifferent magneticproperties of oxygenatedanddeoxygenatedblood areaswithlessoxydizedbloodmeansthenisgreatermetabolicand neuralactivity j p T.itiEh pig Efcimnig transcranialmagnetic stimulation tmsusesmagneticfieldstoinduceactionpotentials intheunderlyingcortex 11 ftp.t n fffjmgfE generatesactionpotentials synapseonthecorticospinalneuron vonexcitatoryinterneurons that methodused totest excitabilityof interneurons orneuronsthatinfluencethecorticospinalneuron creates short of termperiods changeplasticity in cortexexcitability inanareaofthe c ortex Idles get plasticity moving a peaceofplasticity inanarea ofthecortexthatislessexcitableoncalledvirtuallesions cellscodeformovementover muscleandthe greater heneuronsexcitabilitythegreateritsreactivity thereis evidencethatcellscode formovementsinsteadofindividualmuscle A neuronwithgreaterexcitability hasgreaterrenatibility hornand corticospinaltractsynapsesinthedorsal synapseintotheventralanteriorhornand alsotheintermediatezoneofthe corticospinalt racts s pinalcord ftp.mail.ithuhi ic.ttn iPnfitenteatbythe mostofthetractscrossatthemain corticospinalinformationprojects totheprimarymotorcortexandcancomefromfeedforward orfeedbackpathways namesmotor c ommandsb ased on playfurnitigene feedforward controlgeneratesmotorc ommandsb ased upona prediction oftheresulting outcomefromexecuting a motorp giventhecurrentbodystate rhythm no iinItethetooutiiefmngthemtor feedbackcontrolreacts todeviationsfromtheplannedoutcomeduringafterthemovement ofa ree is movement by determined neuron corticospinal avitythat to p rojectsand to corticospinal contribution activity of thecorticospinalneurons projecting tothecortico bulbarc orticospinaltractsreflecthowmuch for isrequiredtoa thedesired movementgoal itftp.thntheapiigm.meIfond upon time corticospinal neuronactivityprecedesmovementonsetbecausethesignalmusttraveltothemusclefromthecortexandit actsonamnion diffusion in morethanonesynapse m ustalso muscletension build uptoovercomegravitationalinertialforcesbeforepaymentmovementisobservable corticospinal activityhasdirectionalpreference activityhas directionalpreferencecausingdifferent parameters corticospinalneuron a ofactioninmotorneurons  Lecture 8 Notes Yysegientswiththis c to c IfrIn postural orientation therelativepositioningofthebodysegments withrespecttoeachotherandtotheenvironment Poston stabilityeeuilibrium thecoordination ofmovementstostabilizethecenterofbodymasswithrespecttothebaseof yif I1 gtiffhh jhphip.fi my 1p gtgythyipy support duringbothselfinitiatedandexternallytriggereddisturbances ofstability n describesnervous to Balanceequilibriumcontroltermused describethenervoussystemcontrolofposturalstability of ftp.iiiimsaii.tt m naerequiresequalandaligningopposingforces Balancerequiresequalopposingforcesandalignmentofopposingforces M istheaveragelocationofmassdistribution of centre masscommeanlocation distribution mass the of of of of body stiffen ofthebodythatis incontactwith pose supportpoos of theareadefinedbythepartsofthebodythatarein contactwithsupportingsurfaces fitftphmtfiiBenEnEentpaion8idT.tn upport of centre p ressurecop point ofapplicationoftheoverallgroundreactionforcevectorwhichrepresentsthesumofallforcesactin between thepersonandtheBos humansface challenges asbipedsbecauseofrelativelyhighcenterofmassesincomparisontobaseofsupport thecom maintained witha If being ftp.lhp.in staticstability positionof nervoussystemmaintainsthe thecomwithinafixedstationary Bos p motion ofthecomoccurs spontaneously micstabilityinvolves a maintainedrelationshipbeta mandBosif oneorbothis changing Dynamic to stabilitynervoussystemcontrolsmovement maintainrelationshipbetweencomandBoswhenthecomisexternallydisturbed andor whencomandor Bosarechanging 1h14ftp.t.tt ifg.ijihi pinitive p InÉ of in Reactivebalancecontrolcontrol balance response toasensedmomentofinstabilityalsocalledfeedbackor compensatorycontrol predictivebalancecontrol control of movement in anticipationofpotentialmomentof instabilityalsoknownasfeedforward or anticipatorycontrol ofcenter jittertime I.fi opp intenence weoffsetthechange in ourcenterofmotionbyusingour musculature tochangethe center ofpressurewithinourbas support soleus is importantformaintainingpostureandbalance sois tonicallyactive centreofpressure is contained withinourbaseofsupport if centerofmassmovesoutsidethebaseof support wemustchangeourbaseofsupport or riskfalling 91singing averagearound10mmwhile average variance ofcomwhenstanding iscomm pass forget mm.ityaroggngchjointthat Passiveforces arenotsufficienttomaintainbalancebecauseourcenter ofmassisnotdirectlyalignedoverourjoints muscle thereis atorquemomentaroundeachjoint activity offsetstorquemoments muscleactivityisrequired tooffsetthe torquecaused bycenterofmassandjointmisalignment patorypostural Adjustments or posturalmuscleactivation centreofpressure changesandcorralscomto staywithinbaseofsupport feedforwardmannerbefore a voluntarymovement Anticipatoryposturaladjustmentactivationofposturalm uscles in a feedforwardmannerbeforea voluntarymovement  duringwalking involvesaninitialpostome notalfture 8 Notes alargerposturalasistant about.gs it ttftf DuringsteppingAPAcontrol is observedpriortoliftingtheswingfootstepping there is aninitialmovementofthecoptowardsthefootwewillswingforwards cop shiftstowardsthestancefoot moment ftp.iiiiigsoccrinresponsetoanunexpected Automatic posturalreactionsApr are highlystereotypedpatternsofelectromyographicema activity invariousmuscles th are triggered in response to suddenperturbationstostability ofsupportdoesnotchangeduringfixedsupport Apr fixedsupportreactionsareresponses toinstabilitywherethebaseofsupportdoesnotenonge supportchangesduringchange of supportAPRs change in support reactionsareresponsesto maintainstability mphtp.im i ainti Ienfgig nfins.il myamplitude of f em imi.eg amplitudeor direction aggonnemoonof ppggn.ee ggIiIEEIf itne'for weinn ante pL inta.at imot.mscntihdtothiiietit if certaininternof mhiingthconiiitio.no nb Tort p Highs P it ageinsupportAPR 5havedirectionpattern one is a t.int g iiiiftiti  Lecture 9 Notes In.se anows msproepi tivef5ystebm yforclearerimageofbodystate IvisitSystem proprioception occularinformationand vestibularinformationare allneeded tomaintainbalance of sensescanprovidedifferentbits information andprovide a clearerpicture Having convergent informationfrommany ofbody visual system ourbraininto trides igkngs.eufewhingr there exceptionstothisrule are likesensicknesswhich iswhen yourbrainistrickedintothinkingyouareoffbalancedueto a visualinputfromthewaves L s.PE pi ngtsttig yt.nmmamt determin thenervoussystemassignsravetothedifferentsensesdependingonpastexperiencebodystateandmovementcontext thehierarchyofsenses in balancecontrol isestablishedbasedonpastexperience thenervous systemtriestoadoptposturesthatwillminimizethepotentialinstabilityduringabehaviour bythespecific taskconditionandpriorexperienceexpectation influenced behaviour to mil aP Y ipeyp pre piiit.iqfforn nse p Posturalcentral setbodyposition by characterized thatis adoptedinpreparationfor a response increasedmuscletone network centifogntymodulates control narrowsthelikelyposturalresponsesrequired tocorrectforinstability centifugallymodulates thenetworksthatservetocontrolbalance II ftp.mninyhnsthe spinalcordcorterbasal ganglia pancecontrolinvolves adistributedsystemdrawinguponmanydifferent structuressuchasthespinalcordbrain stmcerebellum basalgangliaandcortex ftp.qhfhonpi.li fort pls yighfsup SitKittylost without highercentre integration lowerlimbgeometryduringstance is preservedtonicweightsupportispossiblebutwitha mediolatant smilityandstability isnotpossibleafterlarge perturbations then biking fihiina amErethen iiinggigithtan decerebrate preparations arealesiontoremovebasalganginandreflexintegration spinaltractoriginatesfrom vestibulo thevestibularnuclei spinaltract originatesfrom Reticulo thereticularformationand is responsibleforalertnessandenvironmentalintegration spinaltractoriginatesfrom robro therednucleusand is consideredtobelesscriticaltobalancecontrolin primates areparticular's 111 Pintroingphthetia got spinalandreticurospinal particularlyimportant restino forcontrollingpostureandgait if decerebrate preparationsoccurtheposturalsetwon'tbecontrolledduetoitshigherintegration the noon menand men and a mainsmammin not me IEIiiiiiiiiiiiiI im modulates spinalreflexesbased onthecontextofvestibular information Thile natuth tis Injury tressandenvironmentalintegration p Fir thereticularformationrecievesinputsfromperipheralsensoryreceptorsthecerebellumandthecerebral cortex and oninterneurons inthe cord spinal synapses Alsomodulatesflexor thereticu spinaltractprojectstointerneurons inthespinalcord andextensor muscleactivity duringstance and locomotion modulatesf lexor andextensormuscleactivityduringstanceandlocomotion  Lecture 9 Notes be nasdiinsitcohien.tt EoIetPubrnIstemtheane hotter criticalrolein coordinationandlearning plays thecerebellumis ahighprocessingpowerstructureinthenervoussystembutisnotbelievedtosendoutputtothespinalcord usesdense connectionswithboththebrainstem andcortex toshapetheiroutput playsa criticalroleincoordinationandlearning Lesionstothecerebellumcompromisebalancecontroland gaitaswellasdisruptlearning cerebellarataxiauncoordinated gaitpatterns I gangliacanhelpinitiateor taminate movements Thebasalgangliasendsprojections tothecortextohelpinitiatebehaviourswhile suppressing others possiblyshapebothcorticospinalandcorticoreticularoutputsfromthecortex lesionsto thebasalgangliadisruptthe ability toinitiateandsense posturaladjustments during reflexpathways are hypersensitive Lecture 10 Notes singlecell theprimarymotorcortexfollowsabroad somatotropic organization suggest recordings manyneuronsintheprimarymotorcortexrepresent propertiesratherthan m ovement individualmuscles corticorubraltractmodulates flexor extensorm uscletone pontinetractcoordinatesvoluntarymotorfunctions cortico movementandthere corticostriatetractcoordinates iscognitivemotorintegration bulbartractcontrolsthecranialnerves cortico only sonofneurons decussate parietalsulcus medial intra MIP mapsthevisual to thearm environment relative parietalsulcus AIP mapsobjectshape orientation tothehand and send Anterior intra its integrated coordinates tothe rostralventral premotorcortexPM gripgiventhesh whichdetermines of an object Alsorelates theobject centered actions of other people to ourselves MIRRORNEURO  Lecture 11 Notes termmemory theabilityto storeinformation Long interrecall periodfor sensorimotorlearning is a relatively permanent change inthecapacity forskilledmovement anextended whichneuronsortheir elasticitythe ections to by neuralprocess altered support term and therelativelypermanent changeincapacityforskilledmovementreliesonlongtermmemory are long memory longtermmemory requiresneural plasticity I winplified ieion in ort.pirformance termmemory isbroadlydividedinto declarative memoryandproceduralmemory long declarative memories arethosethatare consciously accessible andcanbe verbally declared explicitmemory procedural memories arenotconciouslyaccessible or verballydeclared implicitmemory Themedialtemporallobe MTL hippocampus andprefrontalcortexare critical to declarative memory MTLand hippocampus areimportant intheformationofnew memories andthestorage ofthosememories Theprefrontal cortexiscriticalto acquiring new memoriesand retrievingusinglongtermmemoriesstored bythe Thepremotor supplementarymotorandprimarymotorcorticesalongwiththebasal cerebellumarecritical to gangliaand procedural memory motorcortices convert theidea toactintoa concrete motorplan basalgangliaworkwiththemotorcortices tocontrol sequenced muscle contractions thecerebellumhelpsidentifyerrorsinthemotorplantoeffect connections forthenexttime Patient HM underwent experimental surgery toreduceseizures associated withepilepsy removed largesection oftheMTLand hippocampus frombothsides ofthebrain couldnolongerstore mynewlongtermmemory learning is characterized byearlyfastgainsandslower withpractice sensorimotor iterative associated gains Earlyfastlearningresultsfromtheformationofdeclarative memoriestiedtorulesstrategiesandcontextaround a moveme sloweriterativegainsaretheresultofproceduralmemories thatcan onlybeformed through experience practice requiresthebraintomakeshort termadaptations acquiredduring practicemorepermanent increasing sensorimotor ability is reflected in lessenfort required toperformtheskin Amount ofeffortcautomaticity required toperform a slamcanbequantified through dualtaskcost FittsandPosnercategorizethestagesoflearning as cognitive associativeand autonomous Gentiletheory categorizeslearninginto earlyandlatestages Bernsteinmodel of learning thesamewayasFitts categorizes learning andPosnerbut focuses onthe biomechanical efforts Dualtastecostlessensasthe autonomousstageoflearning isapproached Sensorimotor bemeasured directly itis inferredthrough sustained changes in sensorimotorperformance learningcannot oral plasticity is required for longterm memory which is forlearning skilled movement Declarative orexplicitmemorycanbeverbally required andandis consciously accessible whileprocedural or implicit memory wasnot declarativememory reliesonthehippocampusandmedialtemporallobeprimn hhelpfromthe prefrontal cortex in memory retrieval motorcortices basalgangliaandcerebellumone important procedural memories andcontrol vence ofthemotor for the plan Earlylearningforms declarative memoriesabouttherolesstepsora movement slowerInterlearning develops procedural memor ting to motorpatterns Dun1taskcostreflects theamount of effort requiredto complete task man the Fitts autonomous antilestagesof learning Early Late Bernstein model focuses posner learning stages cognin mm on biomechanics Dualtaskcost lessens as learning  Lecture 11Notes nsorimotorperformanetheobservable to to Sensorimotor performance can bemeasured via ability mensures timeaccuracyrequiredeffort Renation processmeasures EM Iii movement among andneon functionmeasures noninvasivebrainimagingstimulation Iii'sL termadaptationsandnonlearningrelatedfluctuationsin typrently remectsshort performance t.IT inharII practicedose is a determinant of sustainedchange in performace armilityand order unpredictable primary mats trinsig tagging thefeedbackrelatingtothephysical shorterperiods of distributedpractice willresultinmorelearningthanlongermassedpractice sessions xtrinsicfeedbackfeedbackp rovided external from o riginating Practicingdifferent variations ofthesameskillis more effective thanonly practicingthesamevariationofthatskill Yier a boutperformance feedback the ftpfimy'time pi.ie ieteetends tobetter performanceduring practice butthegainsdonotbecomepermanent Ilage Lying.in If mÉIconflate TheIone thebenefits ofrandompractice arenotimmediately evidentduring practicebutanevidentthenextpractia Ilhamhimmishit fensthe hit for theguidance hypothesis suggeststhat concurrent feedbackcreates arelianceonfeedback Ellis it p.itmiorri itftythatnndiPponsE it Tinge thefeedback delayintervalmustbelongenoughtonowtheindividualtoprocessintrinsicfeedback beforereceivingextrinsicfeeane inperformanceseenafterthe Adaptation is consideredlearningbecausethe practiceadaptingto a change in themovementenvironment or context produces performan time pittingiistent that gains Sensorimotor measures reflectshorttermadaptations and nonlearning outpracticedose fluctuations in performance Shorterspread learning typically result ingreaterlearningthan mass practice Varying practice parameters insteadof blocked practice resultsingreaterlongterm learning vidance hypothesis concurrentfeedback creates a relianceon feedback eedback delay interval must belongenoughfor intrinsicfeedback tobe integrated before extrinsic feedback is received daptation is considered learning  Lecture 12 Notes Yin's myth Inttigest of b etween connections synipe neuroplasticity is a continuous andlifelongprocess thatmediatesthestructuralandfunctional reaction ofdendrites axonsand ructoral neuroplasticity permanent to changes neuronssynapses tolearninganddevelopment synapses todevelopment experienceandinjury Negogyprisonatedto neuroplasticitybutinvolves the forshortandlongtermchanges ofthenervoussystemthatunderpinmemoryandlearning foundation 9114mi newsynapsesandis fundamentalto inspiring termpotentiation changessynapsesovertime that upregulates ionchannelsinthepostsynaptic byproducing more neurotransmitter long and mostneuronsareterminallydifferentiated donot undergo neurogenesis motortrainingandlearningisassociatedwithchangesincortical representation intheprimarymotorcortexM1 Brainimaginghasbeenusedtoseechangesinhuman structure aftertraininglearning Experience is criticaltodrivingneuralplasticityandrehabilitation depriving anareaofthebrainexperienceisalsoadriverofneuralplasticity learnednon use experience dependent plasticitycan aid intheregenerationof dyingneurons memorystorage isnottheresult of alinearsequenceofeventsthat culminates inan indeliblelongtermmemory dynamic outcome involvingseveral interactive processes encodingacquisition ofnew information shorttermmemory termmemory intermediate consolidation oflongtermmemory maintenance oflongtermmemory destabilization and restabilization memory inthecourseof retrieving updating and integrating a gunmemory withother memories memorydynamics or initiated by molecular andcellular modifications atthelevelof individual synapticconnectionsandextend moredistributedchangesthroughoutmultiplesynaptic connections ofmanyneurons embedded inlargerneuronal networks whoseinter meexpressed at thebehaviourallevel term potentiation LTP is a long relatively persistent strengthening of synaptic efficacy drivenbyrecentpatternsof activity thesameactionpotentialarriving at thesynapsegenerates a largerpostsynapticpotential earlyphase of LTP strengthens the existingsynapse while thelaterphasetendstotheformation ofnew synapses theAMPA receptor isan ionotropic receptorforglutamatethattendstofastsynaptictransmissiondrivenbynat influx The NMDA receptor is a gatedionotropic receptorthat requiresgutamateanda depolarized membrane voltage whenactivated allows forinflux of calciumandsodium has mgat blockerthatneedsto moveout of theway beforethe NMDA ionchannel permeableto ion becomes calciumservesas a second messenger andmobilizes othermolecular activities toincrease sensitivity ofthepostsynapticcellre to thepresynaptic cell increases AMPAreceptors releasesnitric term changes thenervoussystemthatunderpin are to neurotransmitter signals allnucleustomakestructuralchanges roplasticity is the foundation for short and long to memoryandlearningLongtermpotentiation involvesthe upregut nitricoxidefrompostsynapticneuronandstructural by AMPAreceptorsintothepost membraneincreased neurotransmitterrelease caused from neuron changes includingthe synaptic presynaptic ton of dendrites toa synapse AMPAis activated by glutamate and lets insodiumNMDA receptors areactivated by glutamateandthedepolarization ofthe postsynop mbran whichallowsthe blockingthereceptor to leaveandlet in sodiumandcalciumCalciumtranslocates AMPAreceptorstothemembrane Experience ison neural my plasticityandrehabilitationCanalsobedriven driving by inactivity learnednonuse Lecture 12 Notes postsynapticLTP isan intermediary steptowardspermanence symptogenesis is what makesa memory resilient to forgetting tospatialsummation lines symptogenesis theemergenceofnew dendriticspines andchanges intheirshapearecritical tomemoryandlearning Thesomeinputactionpotential tendstosynchronousactivity atmultiple synapses concurrent influx ofions summates astheyconverge inthedendriteleadingtoa largerpostsynapticpotential  Lecture 13 Notes abilitytomove comotionm ovementorthe fromon me Human gaitis bybipedallimbmovementtoproper ofgravityofthehumanbody center I j to emmeters c onocomate alternatingplacementofeet move by bedefinedasthemeanlocation ofa distributionofmass ofthebody Bothcomandco can itthemanner orstyeofwalking thecontrolofgaitrequiresrhythmicalcollimatinglimbcontrolanddynamicbalancecontrol theifeng.EEthepointatwhichourweightisamino ateofmasscomthepointatwhentheattrightopen central of nervoussystemcontrol rhythmisachievedthrough a networkofinterneuronsthat represents a generalized motor locomotor prog tribution ofthebodyweightsumstozero providesan invariant modelof grit toneniivethh.isngrhYtIIi'andm'kint n at f thetimewhenbothlegsareoffthe groundisknownastheflightperiod ibelitist iii Acentralpatterngeneratoris a neralnetworkthatis capableofproducingrhythmicmuscleactivationpatternswithoutanycontribution cinch iiiimgur.inn.tgigofg Itinion it inmimttaimtingmultipointcontrol of from centripetalperipheral or centrifugal central influences areextremelyimportantto initiationandmodulationoftheerahoweveronce initiate ftp.iiiiiiniji iii and centrifugal influences centripetal sf.isingiiii in a angeneitsbasicmythmwithoutthem locomotor rhythmcanbemaintained even if an peripheral sensorynervesaresevered denferentation andorthespinal cord is seper fromhighernervoussystem structures spinalization rhythm generator in CPGare responsible forphasic burstingactivityinstead of tone contraction If tonicinputtotheera isalwaysthesame feedbackloopsinsidetherhythmgenerator controlsthepattern canexist atalllevels ofthespinalcordto tenitate mythmian behaviours theability toevoke different rhythmicalbehaviours by stimulating at differentspinallevels suggestsharedelements a allcentralpatterngenerators spinalt racts Proprio areconnectionsofnervesthatinterconnectvariouslevels ofthespinalcord spinaltracts canascendor descendthespinalcordandcross proprio ornotcross themidlineofthespinalcordto interco levels whiletheCPGcanmaintain a rhythmical activityonitsown sensory or descending inputsarecriticalto regulatingthe c Afferent modulation interlimbmodulation descending modulation ontheirownCPGswillcontinue toevoketheirnaturalrhythm evenif itmightnotbe appropriatedueto an unexpected change or a voluntary behaviour sensory inputs convey important information aboutmuscle state tomodulatethetypicalpattern spinaltracts convey information proprio to coordinateacross diferentlimbs goalsand response appropriate modulation from centres provide information aboutcurrent higher nervous behaviours descending The mesencepatic locomotorregionMcr provides important excitatoryinputtothespinalCpavia reticular formation in themean generalizedmotorprogramprovided an invariant modelofgait centralpatterngeneratorsusecentripitalandcentrifugal influences tomodulateactivationand relaxationpath f afferentiation or spiralization occurs CPGcanstillproduce movement CPGsfoundatalllevels ofthespinalcord andsharecommonfunctionalities alllevelsofthespinalcordandcan travelipsor contralaterally carrydescendingmodulationthatcan workwithinterlimbandafferentmodula riospinaltractsconnect Sensory inputs convey muscle state proprio controlCPGs modulation defines current movement spinal tracts coordinate limbs descending go R provides excitatory input to CPG via reticular formation  Lecture 13 Notes MLR conveys changes intherateofthelocomotor rhythm being maintained bythesea changes intonicinputfrommenleadsto phasicactivity atCPGandmn landingto changes inrateofrhythm sensory inputs provideimportant tothe erathatsignalphasetransitions reinforceextensoractivityandcontrolmovementnaptation errors or environmental challenges Hipextensorextension is anindicatorthattheipsilateralfootis increasinglyfurther infrontofthebody duringgaitactsas a ofstance offset predictor if we reduceafferent dischargefromhipspinatefirms mimiclessextension wecanprolongthekneeextensorphase mavenhipextension indicatesthe legisnotyetfarenoughinfront notreadytotransitiontostance therefore unexpected perturbations thatmayincreasetheriskoffalling an modulateCPGactivity toenhanceweightbearing inthesta inputfromthemusclespindlefibres excitestheextensoractivityshifting thebalance ofinhibitionacrossthemuscles era inthespinalcordcan modulatespinalreflexesdependingontheir appropriateness duringthegait you contribution oftheCpatotheelicitedbehaviour decreases asnervoussystemcomplexityincreases information regarding changeof rateof movement Hipextensor extension provides importantinputaboutstabilityand if modific MLR providescontinuation n preventthe ofgait CPGcontribution decreases as taskcomplexity increases  Lecture 14 Notes theprocess whichthenature exception by meaning ofsensory stimuliarerecognizedand perception can be influencedbyattentionandcan occurwithout concious awareness ultimately informswhateffectorsare usedandwhatbehaviour willbegenerated offntᵗhighthatInIt'recogh.ITtnastInIp perception thenervoussystem modalityinputthat will influence perceptionfirstarrive attheprimarysensory cortexbeforebeingintegrate intheassociationcortex sensory information about a singlestimulus intheenvironmentcanarisefrommultiplesenses formation isfirst organized withinmodalityspecificareas of thecortexbefore beingorganized within multimoan health ten tention p sina.bgmgkeh.name sto attgg areas ofthecortex theabilityofthenervoussystemto how youinterpret a stimulus is connected toyourpastexperience ofhavingbeenexposed tothatstimulus jiii.itiigns downcontrol the miiimtionand to pastexperiencesarestored in databases called schemes op abilitytovolitionallydirect whenweneed aschemawecanrecallit fromthe longtermstoragebaseandmanipulate it tiontoaparticularset subset usingworkingmemory ration or ofsensory Detectiontasks onlyrequireperception of thepresenceorabsence of a stimulus monofilamenttesting Itt.io tolink I.it ne nthhinstiYrnw ontothatapparentinformation discriminationtasks requireperception of distinguishing characteristics or thestimuli two differencesbetween pointdiscrimination identificationtasks requireperception ofwhatthestimulusisorhowitcanbeclassified stereogenesis bottom upprocessesareinfluencedbydetails ofthesensoryinput characteristics topdownprocessesare influencedbypriorknowledge experience andexpectation clinicaltestsoftenisolatespecificsensorymodalities in orderto revealspecificpusionsproblems multimodal be important integrationcan forperceptionaswellasmovement control ventriloquist magorkeffectsandand readingvideosareallexamples lip oftheprincipleofmultimodalintegration basedonprobabilitythebrain schemarules thatassociatethestimuluswith naturallywants tointegrateinformationcomingfromthesamespatiallocationandthesametime informationabouthow thenervoussystemvalvesdifferentsensorymodalities integrationcanreveal preadown in mummoan oriting memorylimitedcapacitycognitivesystem incongruency inspace ortimemakebothbinding lesslikely andmake iteasier separate beliefssemantics to Iiii tt g'sholding information visualassociationareasareareas v2 v6 it agnosintheinabilitytorecognize by objects thedorsalstreamisthewherehowpathwayandsends informationfrom v1 totheposteriorparietal cortex stereogenesisspecific inabilityto identifythesize ventralstream isthewantpathway andsendsinformationfromthe v1 totheinferiortemporallobe ÉÉfÉheHibilityto cognizeandidentify.gginformationfromtheretinadivergestothedifferentvisuals treams tofacilitatewherenowandwhat perception andvisionfor prosopagnosia specific to inability recognizeences action ultimodal sensoryintegrationthe of study how mitigateftp.ythethedifftatousse modalities the v4visualarea is responsibleforcolour processing jyem may inthecolourmatchingtrialstopdownprocessing suppresses irrelevant informationandprocessesrelevantinformation wlevel processing different areoriginallyrepresented aspects Lecture 14 Notes rately inearlyvisualareas thedorsalstreamhelps determine objectmotionanddirection which helpsdistinguishourmotionfromthemotionaround intermediate levelprocessing we begintocombine Mtareaintegratesspeeddirectionspatialfrequencytemporalfrequency andlocalglobalmotion TÉshipe itdiffon of p ha ifm percepts restareaintegates expansions contractionsrotationstranslations spirals andopticflow 8hlevel processing wecombinetheseparate enthetist.PE intarea usare pays amitralroleinmotion processingacrossmultiplemodalitiesnot justvision inhiien'to a unifiedpercept of theeferencecopyofmotorcommandshelpusdistinguishbetweenobjectmotionandmotioncausedbyourownmovements generateexpectedfeedbackasa resultofexecutingthatmotorcommandusingan internal modelofthe canbeusedto expected sensory information asa resultofmovementcanbesubtractedfromactualsensoryafferencewedetect thedifference is motionnotduetoourownmovements lowerlevelvisualareassendexcitatorysignals tohigherlevelareasbasedonstimulus features levelvisualareascaneitherenhance or suppresstheseexcitatory signals fference copyaninternalcopyofanefferentcommandhigher bysending facilitatory or inhibitoryproject tothesprintcordtoeffectmovement backtolowerlevelmens netosismotionsickness adisorderassociatedwith Ieaioniesaretoadifferencebetweenactualand dorsalandretrolstreamsultimatelyconverge inthefrontalcortex  Lecture 15 Notes aingtniig.se ngn 8 cognition includes conscious andunconscious processeswhereknowledge is acquiredsuchasperceiving recognizing conce rienceandsensation Executivefunctions andreasoning higherlevelcognitive recesses ofplanning decisionmakingproblem coreexecutivefunctionsincluderesponseinhibitionandinterferencecontrol selectiveattention cognitiveinhibition work n'hhio ftpdjt enfsigppfrsu minion termmemory memory manipulatedcognitiveshort andcognitiveflexibility Itis flexibility ingoalselectionand inhibitory control ofattention at thelevelofperception isalsoknownas selective orfocusedattention or EEEE.EE ii man.mn Allows apersonto selectively attendorfocusonwhattheychooseandsuppress attention toother stimuli if mis Imitatingniating can betestedusingthe flanker or stroop tasks or the antisaccadetest T.I.iniii EmninjiEcisionmakingand name me man posesthat the unattended message notgetfilteredout e onlythe attended message receiveshigher levelprocessing man's attenuationmodelposesthat an attenuatingfilter weightsthe attenuated message more this than the unattenuated messagebut they bothreceive higherorderprocessing byanalyzers thatare specific to synables words grammer and semantics workingmemoryinvolvesholding information inmindandmentallyworkingwith it e misordered numbers g ordering canbetestedusingcorsiblocktestandinbacktest thedorsolateral prefrontalcortexDLPFC is responsibleforexecutivefunctionssuchasworkingmemory cognitiveflexibilityplan inhibitionandattention dorso medial prefrontalcortex Dupre islessunderstood andisengaged ininferringmentalstatesstateofselfandothers ventromedialprefrontalc ortex rupee andorbitofrontalcortex Ofcrelatedroles include of emotional responsesdecision inhibition makingandself control riskandreward Angularcingulatecortex ACC paysarole in cognitive functions attention impulsecontrol emotionanddecisionmaking VMPFC OFCandACCare controllers of emotion primary Thepremotorcortex is thecentralcontroller of executivefunctionbutworks withotherareas ofthe brainto produce responses ACC isthe attention controller parietallobeserves asthe episodicbuffer for perceptual process Broca'sandwernicke's areasare important for understanding and producing language occipitallobe is a visuospatial sketchpad