Final Exam Study Guide - SOCY 4000 PDF

BOSNIA GENOCIDE > Balkan History: Pre-Genocide 6th Century ○ South Slavic people: originates out of Ukraine and Belarus ○ Balkar Region, there were 3 ethnic groups Serbs, Croations, and Slovion tribes 9th Century ○ Serbs convert to Easter...

BOSNIA GENOCIDE > Balkan History: Pre-Genocide 6th Century ○ South Slavic people: originates out of Ukraine and Belarus ○ Balkar Region, there were 3 ethnic groups Serbs, Croations, and Slovion tribes 9th Century ○ Serbs convert to Eastern Orthodox Church (also known as Russian Orthodox) to create a separate religion. Eastern Orthodox do not honor the pope and don’t promote celibacy ○ Croations: convert to Roman Catholics and become part of Austro-Hungarian empire. They claim the area which is now known as Bosnia ○ Herzegovia: retain pagan non-christian religions who believe in multiple gods 15th century – Ottoman Empire takes over Serbian territory and rules from 1459-1878 ○ Under Ottoman empire, the Serbs were… Deprived of their rights Deprived of positions Deprived of social mobility ○ *everybody is considered Slavic but the different religions is what differentiates the ethnic groups 1463 – Ottoman empire conquered Bosnia-Herzegovina and a mass conversion from Eastern orthodox to Islam takes place ○ During this time, the Bosnian Muslim region is created 1908 – Serb nationalists with support of the Church defeats the Ottoman rulers and becomes Serbian nation ○ Bosnia comes under new rule of Austro-Hungarian empire (and remains muslim) ○ WWI begins with assasination of Austrian Prince (Archdule Ferdinand) by Serbian nationalists in Sarajevo (Capital of Bosnia Herzegovania This is known as the “shot heard around the world” 1918 end of WWI ○ Balkan countries (Serbia, Croatia, Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegoviana) united by the western allies who won the war. These countries thought it was easier to control the Balkan’s if they were all undder the same country which ends up being YUGOSLAVIA Serbia was given the head role in governing this new nation Post WWI: Yugoslavia becomes part of soviet empire under leadership of Tito (is part of the soviet empire) ○ This leads to sovietization ○ Tito erases all religions and ethnic differences ○ All nationalist movements were prohibited 1989 (Fall of the soviet union) ○ Yugoslavia breaks up ○ Nationalist movement develops ○ New countries created and become recognized by the UN ○ Balkan’s new independent nations are  Bosnia-Herzegovina (Muslim) Croatia (Catholic) Serbia (Eastern Orthodox) 1986 – Milosovic takes power in Serbia ○ Rise of serbian nationalism and becomes a strong nation and political platform ○ Serbia tires war like moves on Bosnia-Herzegovina (Muslim) and Croatia (Catholic) because Milosovic belives they should belong to Serbia. He is trying to avenge the past ottoman rule ○ Importance of collective memory: recollection of persecution of Serbs by Ottomans ○ Church and government unite in nationlist movement through the act of ethnic cleansing (must cleanse muslims, Serbia had a lot of Islamophobia beliefs 1990-1992 – Serbian nationalism continues to grow ○ Serbia attacks croatia and parts of Bosnia-Herze… ○ Serbian nationalism based on Bosnian muslims as evil other (revenge narrative) Bosnian Muslims linked to Ottoman rulers of the past who killed Serbians > 1990-1992 Serbian Nationalism Grows (B-H = Bosnia-Herzgovania) Serbia attacks croatia and parts of B-H Serbian nationalism sees Bosnian muslims as the “evil other” and seek revenge for what the Ottoman empire did and the killing of Prince Lazar) Bosnian Muslims linked to Ottoman rulers of the past. HERE ARE THE REASONS WHY Bosnian Muslims ARE VIEWED AS THE EVIL OTHER ○ Christ killers – prince Lazar (Bosnian warrior aka he was Serbian) was a christ-like figure, and the church spewed propaganda of bosnians killing their “Chirst,” Prince Lazar and this story was retold which led contemporary Serbian nationalism ○ Race traitors – Serbians accused muslims of co-habitating and reproducing with the Ottoman, so in Serbian eyes they (muslims/Bosnians) become the same religion and race ○ Moral depravity – Serbs used weapons used in the 14th cenutry when “Bosnians” were killing serbs ○ Gendered immorality – woman accused of reproducing new warriors that would kill the serbs. Woman became the source of soldiers and warriors and responsible for the death of Serbs ○ Muslim terrorists Gendered propaganda: Dr. Monster accused of injecting Serbian women so that they could not have male babies. Led to the sterilization of serbian women and forced abortions. Serbs believed muslims feed Serbian children to lions. Rape narratives surged Ethnic Cleansing of Bosnian Muslims ○ Cultural annihilation – 1,000+ mosques destroyed, national libraries with millions of books and scriptures destroyed. Destruction of Islamic Culture ○ Extermination – mass killings, whole villages wiped out (I.e., Foca), sport atrocities ○ Massacre (Srebihnica Genocide) – false UN safe zones, separation of men and women, 8,000 boys and men dead, 8,000-10,000 women abused and rapes ○ Mass rape – 50,000 women and girls by order of Milosovic military are rapes Rape as a weapon of war ○ Geographies of rape. Rape takes place in…  Homes, make shift brothels (Kontiki Resort is one of them), Stadiums, schools, and rape camps (Omarska) ○ Rape narratives: avenging the past “Turkish whores” ○ Rape atrocities: rape is a form of genocide > Theories on the meaning of Rape in war fare: Ruth Seifert Thesis I: rape is part of the rules of war, rules of engagement women, like land, belong to the victorious of the war ○ Rape is historically how men conduct warfare ○ Women end up belonging to whoever wins the war. It is a rule of war Thesis II: rape is the humiliation of the male opponent (emasculation). The enemy is not able to protect “their” women ○ Emasculation destroys mentality of the enemy Thesis III: rape is associated with masculinity in war. Abusive behavior against women and girls is an expresion of masculinity ○ When mass rape is done, the intent is to emasculate the men not participating in this behavior ○ Collectivley an expression of masculinity Thesis IV: rape is the reward for men in warfare. Soldiers are rewarded with access to women for their achievement of murdering and killing the enemy ○ If soldiers kill, they get women which serves as a source of motivation to kill Thesis V: Rape is intended to destory the opponents culture ○ Women represent the morale code of the community. Rape of women represents the symbolic rape the community Thesis VI: rape is a form of misogyny enacted in time of violent crisis ○ Hatred against women is legitimated in acts of violence against women in war > Copelon: another author who writes that in Bosnia, there is a new form of rape in modern warfare. That rape is a form of breeding new kids who will serve as warriors for the victors to continue being in war (aka Warrior culture) > Post-War Rape survivors 1. Pregnant women have limited options a. Abortion (which is legal through the state) or the underground market for trafficking, since these babies were considered white European and seen an valuable (illegal option) b. Keep the baby – came with a lot of stigma. It was risky to keep the child because their lives were made more difficult c. State orphanages – primary option for pregnant rape victims i. Housed hundreds of children of rape survivors. Poor living conditions and education. Tense social relations. Children in these orphanages were treated horribly by outside society. d. Infanticide – killing their own baby 2. Rape victims – what did they endure/suffer? a. Abandondment b. Internalized shame  c. PTSD d. Poverty e. National refugees f. Erasure of their suffering i. Silenced by nation/family/community ii. Absence of collective memory to acknowledge what happened to these women 3. Children of survivors suffer Intergenerational transmission of trauma in the following 8 ways a. Inherited PTSD by child i. psychological confusion between child and mother. Child inherits fears and anxieties of the mother. Some children report dreaming and having memories of the rape their mother experiences b. Economic deprivation i. Not much help from the government for these families c. Stigma of rape i. Child seen and referred to as a “marked child” d. Trauma of learning true fathehood i. Secrecy around how child was born. Mothers try keeping it a secret along with their biological father to try and avoid any trauma once learning this e. Living with traumatized mother f. Responsibility for maternal suffering i. The child is a constant reminder of the mother’s rapist g. Carrying impure blood h. Scapegoating in post-war tensions and violence RWANDA GENOCIDE > Rwanda: small east African nation. Surrounded by Congo, Uganda and Tanzania > Genocide and Colonization Part of colonial history: 19th and 20th century European domination of African land and peoples. Europe though Africa should be colonized so that they could be raised up to European levels and standards Colonization ○ Control over land and resources ○ Forced assimilation ○ Missionization – destruction of religion, culture and rituals and forced to be Catholic ○ Control over women through rape ○ Violence as a means of control Physical violence against men Sexual violence against women ○ Define colonized as inferior other Rationale for domination Hutus and Tutsis (Rwandan ethnic groups) ○ Hutus: were farmers/worked in agriculture but were less wealthy/affluent  ○ Tutsi: were ranchers and cattle herders and more wealthy/affluent Colonial mission (German colonizer’s goals in Rwanda) ○ Bring civilization to inferior african races ○ Use labor and resources to benefit superior races Germans believed they could make better use of these resources since they are morally superior than the hutus and tutsis ○ Violence as punishment to maintain control ○ Racialization of Bantu tribes Pseudo-scientism ○ Social construction of Hutu and Tuts (Rwandan Tribes) Physiological differences between Hutu and Tuts. phenotype facial differences (Tuts had more ideal european body types) moral /intellectual differences Hamile myths: Tutsi had biblical origin as they were the descendants of Ham (son of Noa) for this reason they deserved more privilege than the Hutu. They were more european than Hutu. Tuts had higher status and intelligence ○ Created racial classification and Tuts are superior ○ Missionization Christianization to convert the Huts and Tuts to Catholicism. Tuts end up having higher status in the catholic church Identity cards used to differentiate Huts and Tuts ○ Cards would include their occupations (tuts were ranchers, huts were farmers). ○ This is how they knew who was more superior by the occupation listed on the identity card > Belgium Colonizers, Treaty of Versailles, Victors of WWI 1926-1945: Tutsis have privilege during this era ○ Privileges include, education, religion, economic opportunity, government positions. Given these privileges because it was believed they were more european than the Huts 1933: ethnic identity cards (with occupation listed), institutionalization of racial categories ○ Occupation: tuts ranchers, huts farmers 1945-1962: Belgium shifting colonization ○ New missionization which now favored HUTUS (originally the Germans favored Tuts). Hutus became religious leaders/clergy and had access to educational opportunities ○ Belgium made this shift because there was more Hutus in number and they could see a revolution coming. They felt Hutus were more of a threat to Belgium so they made the switch to favor them instead of Tuts 1959: First hutu rebellion ○ 20,000 tutsis massacred, 200,000 were exiled to Uganda 1962: Rwanda independence. Hutus are in power (reversal of power) 1973: Tutsi purged from universities and government jobs. Tutsis’s could only make 9% of the workforce 1975-1994: one party rule. Meaning only one political part could exist and it was the Hutu one ○ President Habyariama is Hutu but Hutu residents believe he is not hard enough on Tutsis  1990: rise of hutu power. Leads to extreme nationalist movement. Anti-Tutsis propaganda is shared through radio, newspapers, churches, and tutsis were seen as the evil other > Evil other characteristics of the Tutsi 1. Tutsi were the colonialists/colonizers 2. Privileged (Tuts originally had more privilege than Huts during German colonialism) 3. Tutsi were seen as the cause of high rates of unemployment and economic ruin that Rwanda was under when they ruled 4. Tutsi men were seen as criminal, murderers and rapists of Hutu women 5. Tutsi women were immoral and sexually impure because they are more european than Hutu women 6. Filth and depravity “cockroaches” a. Cockroaches are a real threat to the hutu crops so the Hutu labelled the Tutsi people as the cockroaches of the world > Sources of propaganda Millie Collins – a hate radio that spread genocide media Kangara “wake up” newspaper. Released and shared the hutu 10 commandments Religious holy war. Propaganda was spewed during mass and sermons would include messaging of God directing the Hutu to kill the Tutsi > God directs men to believe Tutsi women are evil, prostitutes and informants/spies through sexual acts Moral commandment to kill Tutsi women and men Hutu traitor ○ Relationship with tutsi women, marriage, friendship, and colleagues Moral obligation to marry Hutu women, and daughters can only marry hutu men Obligation of hutu women to bring hutu men back to their senses and reject tutsi women even though Tutsi women were seen as more beautiful than Hutu women Must murder Tuts. It is a moral act before God > 1994: Hutu President Haby… plane is shot down and Tutsis are blamed for this. This event kickstarts the genocide Machetes and were stockpiled ready to go before the Presidents plane was shot down and the French UN knew about this and even provided the Hutu with more weapons Radio signals attacks on Tuts – radio started saying “murder all cockroaches” aka Tuts ○ Ordered to kills tuts in hierarchy form (first men, then women, children finally babies) ○ 800,000 tuts killed, 200,000 women raped ○ Europeans intervene because of how violent the genocide became. They provided Tutsis living in Uganda with weapons and killed many Huts. many Huts fled to Congo > Present day: Tutsi are in power One party rule. President Kagame in power for 30 years Tuts make up 20% of the population Rwanda has the support of European countries > Geography of Massacres Geography of rapes: occurred in homes, rape pens in Kigali, urban areas, forced marriages with militia forests, schools, stadoums, and churches ○ Once women were raped, many were immediatley killed Atrocities: revenge rape ○ rape against Tutsi women for humiliation of Hutu men because of the Tut high staus during German colonialism Tutsi were forbidden women: rape restores manhood Testimonies of perpetrators Mutilation and AIDS ○ Body of rape victims are mutulated (you can tell a woman was raped if she doesn’t have a limb) ○ AIDS was used as a revenge tactic by Hutu men who had AIDS. AIDS was used to punish tutsi women > Maternal Trauma Rape victims – war and the violence afterwards in refugee camps. 200,000 rape victims 1. AIDS effects and stigma a. Nearly 70% of women survivors of rape tested positive for HIV or AIDS b. Stigmatized for having AIDS. Rejected in villages, schools, jobs because people fear they could be contaminated with AIDS c. 2006 – Law was passed to end discrimination on the basis of AIDS d. Physical and health problems: effects of violence on the body and infected with diseases 2. Health risks a. Vast majority of pregnant rape victims did not give birth in a medical facility. Instead they occurred in a homestead or other medically unsafe locations b. Fear of exposure to disease 3. Social stigma – traditional Rwandan culture a. Sexual violation b. Taint on women and their families c. Traditional patriarchal values d. Women symbol of goodness and morality e. Raped women/raped body f. Loses that status. Rape victims rejected by husband and extended family. These women carry the shame of sexual violaction 4. Poverty and homelessness – Isolation and living in state housing located in various villages 5. Psychological suffering a. Rape victims faced extreme levels of depression, survivor guilt, most or all of their family killed (think of Mama Labert video) and High rates of suicide among rape victims 6. Destruction of maternal role a. Some infanticide, hatred of own child, abandonment of babies, Some stats show that 80% of babies were abandoned. Abortion was illegal due to Catholicism 7. Challenge of motherhood a. If they kept the baby who were a result of a rape, mother and child were risking being rejected by family > Children born of rape in Rwanda: Intergenerational transmission of Trauma Children of Rape victims were called “Children of War” or “Children of hate.” these children faced the following ○ Poverty and unemployment ○ Carriers of AIDS/suffer from AIDS ○ Social stigma Patriarchal norms: since their father’s were Hutus they were rejected by Tutsi society even if the mother was tutsi Rejected by maternal family as well ○ Abandonment ○ Denied right to citizenship Most children born of rape were not registered at birth and/or hidden due to stigmas Without citizenship, these children could not receive an education or obtain a job ○ Psychological suffering Self-hatred (internalized the label of “children of rape” Depression Rage > Justice in the aftermath of genocide International court system – women were tried in the aftermath of the genocide Powerful women, political women. 1994, Belgium and Hague Women perpetrators: ○ Kanziga (widow of Hutu president, the president whose plane was shot down and started the genocide). Kanziga established the Hutu militia and trained militia to kill Kanziga planned and executed rwandan genocide while she was living in France since she was exiled when her husband was killed for her safety She was the owner of the hate radio, Millie Collin She was never tried for war crimes because she is protected by France ○ Nyiramasuhuko (women who was the minister of families and women’s development) Charged with conspiracy to commit genocide. She ordered massacres at sport stadiums She was tried for war crimes Only woman to be charged with rape because she ordered the milita to rape women Charged with the rape of 70 tutsi women. She believed rape was a reward to hutu militia and even arranged for her son to rape tutsi women She oversaw violence Currently serving a life sentence in Tanzania ○ Religious women (Clergy that was prosecuted) Sister gertrude: starved 3,500 Tutsis in a health center she ran. Lead Tutsis to false safety at monastery, she let hutu militia to attack inside of church. Allowed rape and murder Sister Kizito: organized massacres by assisting Sister Gertrude 1998 Tanzania – where trials occurred. Trials of hutu elite and militia where they were charged with rape  ○ Effects on witnesses: they were threated, murdered, and intimitated to not speak. Those who did speak experienced retraumatization in recounting their story ○ It was difficult for women to describe their experiences since in Bantu tribes there is NO word for rape. The closests thing to Rape (woman and man coming together in a sexual unwanted act) was marriage. It was difficult to prosecute the rapist because witnesses were saying they were married to the rapist since they was no word to describe rape on its own ○ No psychological support for witnesses ○ Once witnesses returned home, they faced isolation, fear, ostracism, or even killed > President Kagame (Tutsi presdient). Rwandan court system. Colonial legacy. Ordinary women were charged with war crimes and were imprisoned. Kagame Made a real effort in trying to hold the perpetrators accountable. it began with creating jails to hold the thousands of hutus that committed these crimes. Even women were being charged with the following Exposing hiding places of Tutsi women and children Looting Mercy killings: Hutu mothers poisoned Tutsi children rather than letting them be killed with Machetes they thought it was a “better” way to die (remember they were Tutsi because of the fathers) Sacrafice older women for young Tutsis when militia invaded homes > 2004-2017: Shift in the justice system Restorative justice: Gacaca System ○ Traditional tribal justice system organized by elders ○ Goal was to expedite trials, bring reconciliation to the nation. 700,000 people tried. Here are the following aims of this system Bring together offender and victim Seek truth accounts. Importance of truth telling. Victims speak their truth of violations. Prepetrators can confess and apologize. Confession meant a shorter sentence or sentence commuted Address conflict Reconcile the parties. Live without hatred Reparations Limitations of restorative justice ○ Insincere confessions for shorter or commuted sentences ○ Victims received no reparations ○ Stigma of rape and fear of death for naming perpetrators. 170 survivors were murderd and their houses were burned > 2000-Present day: national unity and reconciliation committee (a more religious approach) The goal of this new system is to bring together victim and perpetrator. It works like this: ○ Perpetraor recognizes wrongdoings ○ Victims should then feel empathy for perpetrators compassion, letting go of their “bitterness” and resentment, and are forced to forgive