Final Exam Study Guide ENWC201 PDF

Section 1: General Wildlife Ecology What is a niche? ○ A niche is the functional role of an organism Also known as its “job” How many dimensions can a niche have? ○ A niche is multidimensional A complex mix of conditions define an o...

Section 1: General Wildlife Ecology What is a niche? ○ A niche is the functional role of an organism Also known as its “job” How many dimensions can a niche have? ○ A niche is multidimensional A complex mix of conditions define an organism’s role in an ecosystem Time of hunting, size of prey, location of prey Can animals share a niche? ○ Competitive Exclusion Theory: no two organisms can occupy the same niche at the same time in the same place What is a specialist vs. a generalist? ○ Specialists require very specific conditions to be met in order to thrive Feeds on specific species only ○ Generalists can thrive under a greater range of conditions Can feed off of anything What is natural selection? ○ Natural selection is the process that determines which individuals will pass their genes to the next generation How does it affect genetic variation? ○ Individuals showing favorable variations will increase ○ Individuals who have unfavorable variations will decrease What is logistic growth? ○ Logistic growth is when a population grows until it reaches the carrying capacity, and then it stabilizes out What limiting factors might lead to a given (K) carrying capacity? ○ Density-dependent factors: the impact of these factors increases as the population becomes more crowded Starvation, spread of disease ○ Density-independent factors: whether the population is large or small, the impact of the factor will remain the same Drought, cold, natural disasters  What is the energy pyramid? ○ The energy pyramid is a diagram that shows the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to another in a food web What is at the bottom? What is at the top? ○ Producers (grass, shrubs, trees) are at the bottom ○ Tertiary consumers (cats, hawks, owls) are at the top Where is the most energy and the least energy? ○ The most energy is at the bottom ○ The least energy is at the top Second law of thermodynamics: the transfer of energy is not 100% 10% of the energy in one trophic level is available to the next Where is the most biomass and least biomass? ○ The most biomass is at the bottom ○ The least biomass is at the top Where is the highest number of individuals and lowest number? ○ The highest number of individuals is at the bottom ○ The lowest number of individuals is at the top What are often the most important components of an animal’s habitat? ○ Food ○ Shelter / Cover  What are biomes? ○ Biomes are large areas of the world that have similar climates, plants, animals, and landscapes Forests, tundra, desert, wetlands, steppe How does biodiversity change as we get closer to the poles? ○ The poles have less biodiversity due to cold temperatures and harsh environment Fewer species can live in these conditions How does biodiversity change as we get closer to the equator? ○ Areas closer to the equator, such as the tropics, have higher biodiversity More species are able to live in these conditions What are ecosystem services? ○ There are four main categories of ecosystem services: Provisioning: resources that people obtain Food, timber, fuel, fibers, soil, water, etc. Regulating: benefits provided by the ecosystem Climate regulation Carbon sequestration Water purification Pollination Supporting: maintain the provisioning and regulating services Photosynthesis Nutrient cycling Seed dispersal Cultural Recreation (hiking, camping, bird watching) Spiritual Cultural What is a K-strategist and what is an R-strategist? ○ K-strategists are large organisms that: Are long lived Produce few offspring Offer extensive prenatal care Have a low juvenile death rate Occupy stable environments ○ R-strategists are small organisms that: Are short lived Produce many offspring  Offer limited prenatal care Have a high juvenile death rate Exploit unstable environments Section 2: Threats to Wildlife What is the Pleistocene overkill? ○ Overexploitation + Climate Change → (Extinction of Megafauna) Very large mammals were hunted It took a while for new offspring to be produced since these animals were K-strategists, so a large number of them were lost Predators had nothing to eat, so they also started to disappear What did Teddy do to earn his term in office being coined as the Golden Age in Conservation? ○ Tripled the size of national forests (+51,000,000 ha) ○ Created the forest service ○ Wildlife Refuges across the U.S. ○ 84,000,000 acres of oil and coal reserves ○ Millions of acres as national monuments ○ Beefed up enforcement ○ Created more National Parks What is overexploitation? ○ Overexploitation: living off the land or seas in a manner that cannot be sustained The hunting, trapping, collecting, and fishing of wildlife at unsustainable levels Biggest threat for Marine systems Habitat loss and destruction for terrestrial birds, mammals, and plants What is the largest threat to terrestrial biodiversity around the world? ○ Habitat loss and destruction is the largest threat to terrestrial biodiversity What is DDT and how did it affect wildlife and humans? ○ DDT is an insecticide used during WWII to control malaria and typhus It started to have a negative effect on bird eggs, where they’d crack but not hatch → mostly affected large birds Almost drove bald eagles to extinction Linked to Parkinsons in humans Rachel Carson wrote Silent Springs in 1962 about the issue of insecticides  What are pathways of invasion? ○ Pathways of invasion are intentional or unintentional routes that animals take to travel beyond their native range The pathway to invasion determines propagule pressure What is propagule pressure? ○ Quantity of arriving organisms ○ Quality of arriving organisms ○ Frequency of arriving organisms What is acid rain? ○ Acid rain is sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide mixing in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acid How is it caused? (think power plants primarily) ○ Power plants are a primary pollutant, often releasing sulfur dioxide into the air, causing acid rain to fall How does climate change affect timing known as the phenology of an animal? What happens if phenologies are mismatched? ○ Climate changes affects the phenology of an animal due to the fact that the timing of plant/animal events caused by seasonal changes will differ Ex) Breeding season advances 10 days due to temperature increases How did carbon get sequestered into our fossil fuels? ○ When plants grew, they took in carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. After the plants died, they were buried over millions of years and turned into fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas. This trapped the carbon inside the fossil fuels What was the Cretaceous like climatically? ○ The Creataceous was characterized as very warm and wet What were carbon levels like in the Cretaceous? ○ Carbon levels were very high What is the IUCN Red List? ○ The IUCN Red List → The endangered / threatened species list What is a vector? ○ Vector: an organism that carries pathogens from one host to another, or from a reservoir to a host Biological Vector → carries the pathogen inside the body Mosquito Mechanical Vector → carries the pathogen outside body  Flies Section 3: Wildlife Conservation Wildlife Values, Attitudes, and Ethics → Lecture 17 Values Should the spotted owl be allowed to continue to exist? ○ We shut down timber harvesting in order to save spotted owls ○ Caused a huge job loss, but the owls are still around today Using a prism to describe our values ○ Our values are on a spectrum Human Population Growth ○ Our population is growing, so our values over the years also have a huge impact Increasingly there is a balance between: ○ Economic considerations ○ Ethical considerations ○ Sustainability considerations These all link to values Instrumental / Utilitarian Values ○ Things we use ○ Goods, services, and information Goods → venison, lumber, can of tuna, clean water Services → pollination, water filtration Information → how do animals help human health? Armadillos can be used for research in terms of human leprosy Caterpillar venom could be used as a lifesaving drug for cancer Intrinsic / Inherent Values ○ Does not rely on use ○ I want this animal to continue living (just because) Instrumental/Utilitarian and Intrinsic/Inherent are ethics about our natural world Ethics Aldo Leopold ○ Ethics: “a limitation on freedom of action” ○ Constrain self serving behavior ○ Help to define what is right and wrong, as well as why ○ The Land Ethic → book by Aldo Leopold Enlarged the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land Land is a community, must be loved and respected  Three Philosophical Approaches to Environmental Ethics ○ Anthropocentrism (human centered) Approach All environmental responsibility is derived from human centered ethics and done in the interest of human benefit ○ Biocentrism Approach Life centered environmental ethics All life has a right to exist (use sustainably) ○ Ecocentrism Approach Environment deserves direct moral consideration, not consideration derived from human or animal interest Aldo Leopold → The Land Ethic Instrumental / Utilitarian Values ○ Anthropocentric Approach Intrinsic / Inherent Values ○ Biocentric and Ecocentric Approaches Ethics can differ for everyone, may differ culturally ○ Some issues are/should be agreed upon globally Right to life, liberty, and security A global environmental ethic? Biological chemical warfare cannot be used Treaties to protect the Earth How do we continue to move towards a global environmental ethic? ○ Where we get our ethics Religion Family Culture Friends ○ Education to inform our families, friends, and communities is instrumental to conserving biodiversity ○ Expanding religious environmental ethics are also important to conserving biodiversity ○ But, a broad environmental ethic, shared across all, is needed Leopold’s Land Ethic – Ecocentric The next step in the evolution of ethics Preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community Enforcing Ethics Laws ○ Laws should match the ethics of the community  They may be changed if they do not ○ Not all ethical issues can be legislated Many environmental issues are not It can be difficult to find a “win-win” situation ○ Ethically it is wrong for people to plant coffee in a national park ○ However, people need the money to be able to feed their children Conserving Endangered Species → Lecture 18 Species lost forever (The Era of Overexploitation) Passenger pigeon Carolina Parakeet Steller's Sea Cow Labrador Duck Heath Hen The Great Auk The Hawaiian Rail Laws Regulating “Take” 1900 - Lacey Act 1929 - Migratory Bird Conservation Act 1937 - Treaty on Gray and Right Whale Harvest 1940 - Bald Eagle Protection Act 1973 - Endangered Species Act ○ To protect fish, wildlife, and plants listed as endangered or threatened and identify critical habitat ○ Richard Nixon signed this into law Spotted Owl Controversy Late 1980’s Large controversy over old growth timber harvest and spotted owl listing ○ Protecting spotted owls would get rid of 30,000 jobs in the timber industry Referred to as the “God Squad” since they can make decisions that lead to the extinction of an endangered or threatened species ○ There must be no reasonable alternative to the agencies action ○ The benefits of the action must outweigh the benefits of an alternative action where the species is conserved ○ The action is of regional or national importance ○ Vote = 5:2 in favor of exemptions for continued timber harvest at expense of owl population  Bill Clinton elected ○ Removed the exemption and instead directed 10 federal agencies to come up with an alternative plan where we could preserve the owl ○ Allowed for some continued harvest while also permitting the spotted owl to exist Endangered Species Act (1973) Arguably the most biocentric piece of legislation ever enacted by Congress 4 Primary Actions ○ Conservation of species ○ Cooperation amongst agencies ○ Prevent habitat destruction ○ Prevent taking of species 11 sections laid out by the law ○ Implemented by: United States Fish and Wildlife Service National Marine Fisheries Service ○ Sections: 2 → Philosophy Purposes of the act: ○ Provides a means for conservation ○ Detail a program ○ Hold federal agencies accountable 3 → Definitions Endangered Species: is one “which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range” Threatened Species: is one “which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all of a portion of its range” Conserve: the use of all necessary means to bring any endangered or threatened species to the point at which the measures under the act are no longer necessary A distinct population segment (DPS) is the smallest division of a taxonomic species permitted to be protected under the U.S. ○ Only allowed for a vertebrate species ○ Brown bear is considered endangered 4 → Outlines Listing procedures Species may be listed as endangered if threatened by: ○ Habitat destruction or modification ○ Disease or predation ○ Commercial overutilization  ○ Inadequacy of existing regulations ○ Other natural or man-made factors Listed Species: ○ 744 U.S. species of animals ○ 949 U.S. species of plants ○ 58 are currently proposed for listing and 16 are candidates for listing (under review) Listing Process Recovery Plan ○ Things to consider: Habitat Habitat manipulation / rehabilitation Acquisition of habitat Limiting factors Ex) Nesting issues ○ Predators ○ Cars passing by Reintroductions Restoring animals to a former part of their range where they do not currently occur 8 → International Cooperation Encourages the conservation of endangered wildlife species worldwide CITES (Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species) ○ CITES list organisms into 1 of 3 appendices Appendix I: includes species threatened with extinction and provides the greatest level of protection, including restrictions on commercial trade Appendix II: includes species that although currently not threatened with extinction, may become so without trade controls It also includes species that resemble other listed species Appendix III: includes species for which a range country has asked other parties to help in controlling international trade 9 → Prohibited Acts Government must work to protect endangered and threatened species  ○ It is also illegal for anyone to “take” endangered or threatened species “Take” means to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect or attempt to engage in any such conduct Harm includes significant habitat modification or degradation Is it working? ○ Yes and no ○ Many listed species are still declining even with protection But many more would have gone extinct without it Why do some species recover while others are still declining? ○ Greatest effect on recovery is dealing with a species’ threat of extinction: Overexploitation and pollution are relatively easy to deal with Habitat destruction and nonnative species are much more difficult Pelicans have recovered from being endangered Protected Areas → Lecture 19 Habitat loss is the biggest threat Protected Areas Most effective for habitat loss and overexploitation Less effective for introduced species, non-point source pollution, and climate change Not a new concept: but reasons and “ownership” have changed ○ Yellowstone = 1st National Park Owned by the people of the nation rather than the “Elite” Not always preserved for wildlife Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area, Tanzania Protected areas are critical to conserving many species ○ They are a component of most national or regional strategies for conservation ○ A requirement of various agreements / conventions Incremental growth for land, steep growth for marine IUCN Classification of Protected Areas Category 1a: Strict Nature Reserves (research) ○ Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve ○ No human recreation Category 1b: Wilderness Areas ○ Indian Peaks Wilderness Area ○ Only primitive recreation is allowed ○ A little less strict than 1a  ○ Allegheny Islands Wilderness Area Category I: Only primitive recreation (if any) ○ Primary focus is on biodiversity, ecosystem Category II: National Parks ○ Denali National Park ○ Can drive in national parks Category III: Natural Monuments ○ Rainbow Bridge National Monument ○ Preserve natural features and provide for recreation ○ Smaller than national parks Category IV: Habitat Management Areas ○ Active management / intervention Category V: Protected landscape / seascape ○ Natural and cultural area of distinct value ○ Batanes protected seascape and landscape (Philippines) Category VI: Managed resource protected area ○ Sustainable use Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area (Tanzania) Grazing of cattle for Maasai Still has black rhino In addition to categories I-VI: ○ Biosphere Reserves ○ World Heritage Sites ○ Ramsar Wetlands Zones of Biosphere Reserves Transition Buffer Core World Heritage Site Outstanding universal value to all the peoples of the world Ramsar Wetlands The conservation and wise use of all wetlands Addressing Issues with Protected Areas Issues with scale ○ Kihansi Spray Toad Water spray is needed for the species Sometimes their water needs cannot be met in protected areas ○ Migration routes in Tanzania Zebras migrate thousands of miles  Reserve systems “Paper parks” ○ Protected on paper, but not in reality ○ No resources for actual implementation ○ Lack enforcement Future Needs Outside the box thinking for protecting park boundaries Incentive programs for conservation Determining what should be protected Strategic Placement (planned) vs. Ad Hoc (immediate action) The gap → referring to the difference between long-term planned thinking and immediate unplanned action Is enough already protected? The longer we wait the less options we have NGOs and Incentive Programs → Lecture 20 NGO = Non Governmental Organization No government status Wide social aim Primary methods ○ Public relations / lobbying ○ Projects and activities Examples of NGOs ○ Wildlife Conservation Society ○ AARP ○ OXFAM Funding ○ Private donors ○ Membership dues ○ Sales of goods and services ○ Grants (often from government) Provide a structured means for concerned citizens to take action, even if only through donations Local → National → International ○ White Clay Creek State Park ○ Trails Local → National → International  ○ Audubon’s Mission: to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds, other wildlife, and their habitats for the benefit of humanity and the Earth’s biological diversity Local → National → International ○ Our mission statement: change attitudes towards nature and help people imagine wildlife and humans living in harmony Example: Wildlife Conservation Society Example: World Wildlife Fund Example: The Nature Conservancy Critical at every level of conservation Allows people to put dollars to what they value most Can work where others cannot A realization of the needs of people Incentive Programs When Protected Areas and regulations are not “enough” Example 1: ○ Marginalized population ○ Living side by side with wildlife ○ Compete for resources When competition exceeds tolerance, wildlife and people suffer Example 2: ○ Economic opportunity ○ Markets make poaching / illegal trade worth the risk When demand exceeds supply, wildlife is overexploited Recognizing that most conservation will have to be achieved through conservation in human social space ○ Incentive Driven Conservation Incentive Driven Conservation Basic concept: make wildlife more valuable “alive” than “dead” Social and economic incentives ○ Both negative and positive In the developed world, both negative and positive incentives are effective and sustainable ○ Hunting / fishing / trespassing → person will be fined for this ○ CRP Rental Rate → pays per acre of land to allow for natural vegetation to grow In the developing world, negative incentives may noy be viable and a self-sustaining funding resource is required ○ Self-sustaining funding examples: Ecotourism  Problems with ecotourism (leakage of tourism / trade dollars) ○ 0.1-1% stays directly to the area ○ 10% local economy ○ 20-40% national economy ○ Remainder stays in industrial nations Communal insurance programs Marketing of local goods Community Based Conservation Seeks to actively engage community Community members have some control over the program Improvement of lives of local people while conserving areas / wildlife Zimbabwe Case Study Elephant trophy hunting is a hot topics Cecil Rhodes: 1880 ○ British South Africa Company ○ Scramble for Africa Zimbabweans banned from hunting wildlife ○ Very high insecurity → not sure when you will have your next meal Cultural Carrying Capacity Exceeded Wildlife killed in retaliation and to protect crops CAMPFIRE We have protected areas, but people need to eat ○ We need a sustainable money source that does not rely on outside input and can improve livelihoods The Communal Areas Management Program for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) program Community-based natural resource management ○ Safari tours (no-hunting) are also sold ○ 90% of revenue comes from hunts ○ 60% just from elephant hunts Founded in 1989 Revenues from the program were used to provide schools, electricity, clean water, road building, and grinding mills for maize Elephant and other wildlife populations increased dramatically Recent corruption has led to turmoil and a lack of evidence for continued stability–hence the banning of imports WWF and trophy hunting  WWF does not support trophy hunting unless it demonstrates both conservation and community benefits Community Based Conservation Non-consumptive programs as well Milking the Rhino → overexploiting for money Video from class Because of drought, there are more elephants than normal Arrows, spears, poisons to kill them Survive easier than cattle ○ Drought kills cattle The community does not follow the idea of conservation Ecological Restoration → Lecture 21 Definition Ecological Restoration: the process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous, historic ecosystem Rehabilitation: improve the habitat from a degraded state Replacement: specifies a community type to be created on a site, but this community was most likely not present previous to human disturbance Enhancement / Augmentation: aims only to add or increase one or a few ecosystem functions, not to return all ecosystem functions to a specified level Reclamation: often undertaken on lands that were mined. Prioritizes the stabilization of the terrain, removal of pollutants, re-vegetation, aesthetic improvement, and assurance of public safety  Re-creation: returns a habitat to a particular historic condition, but not necessarily a native condition (e,g., a historic battlefield) Ecological restoration can occur at any scale Costs vs. Benefits Cost of Restoration → as much as $3.00 per square foot, $130,000 per acre ○ EXTREMELY EXPENSIVE AT AN ECOLOGICALLY MEANINGFUL SCALE Expensive, inefficient, and funds would be better spent elsewhere ○ However, ecological restoration is inspiring and important An Unfortunate Side Effect: “The False Promises of Ecological Restoration Projects” So, we STRESS that ecological restoration is a complement to protection of intact ecosystems, NOT a replacement for protection Regardless of Opinions: Becoming a key discipline in ecology Required by several laws ○ Example: The Clean Water Act of 1972 “Maintaining the integrity of wetlands” Steps of Ecological Restoration 1. Site Assessment a. What is there? b. What was there? c. What could there be? i. “Regional Reference” 2. Setting Goals a. Inherently subjective but also science-based i. Will differ based on cultural values 1. Restore wetlands to provide the best possible duck habitat 2. Restore wetlands to provide a broad variety of ecosystem functions (water storage, sediment storage, wildlife habitat, etc.) b. Beyond values you must also consider: i. Infrastructure ii. Available resources iii. Funding iv. Stakeholder interest 3. Design  a. We know what is, was, and could be there i. We have goals set for what we want there, now what? b. Multidisciplinary Team i. 4. Implementation a. Regardless of size, involving volunteers = sense of connection i. Long term devotion b. Conclusion of construction i. “As-built conditions” → the final state of the project after completion 5. Monitoring and Adaptive Management a. We’re done → how did we do? what needs to be fixed? Although expensive, restoration is considered important and required by various laws Clean Water Act (1972) ○ “To restore and maintain…integrity of Nation’s waters” ○ “No net loss of areas and/or functions of water, INCLUDING WETLANDS” ○ Must restore unavoidable loss Endangered Species Act (1973) ○ Minimize impacts to endangered species ○ Restoration may be required Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) ○ “Prevent adverse environmental effects of surface mining and restore lands which are disturbed” ○ Reseeding, +5-10 years of reclamation activities Various International Regulations are similar ○ Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)  Signatories are required to restore degraded ecosystems and threatened species Reintroduction → Lecture 22 Basics of Reintroduction Primary goal of reintroduction: establish a viable, free-ranging population ○ Colorado Parks called lynx reintroduction program a success ○ Colorado’s wolf reintroduction → people are key to its success Charismatic Vertebrates often targeted ○ Also, animals that play large roles in the environment – top predator, ecological engineer, principal herbivores The Reintroduction Specialist Group (IUCN) ○ To combat the ongoing and massive loss of biodiversity by using reintroductions as a responsible tool Red Wolf Case Study Red wolf → an intermediate between the gray wolf and coyote ○ A distinct species ○ Endangered since original Endangered Species Act was passed Driven to near extinction by ○ Predator control ○ Habitat loss ○ Coyote hybridization Step 1: Feasibility Study ○ Biology of the species (life history, etc.)? ○ Availability of individuals? Gulf Coast in Texas and Louisiana 400 animals captured → most were coyotes 14 (pure) red wolves held in captivity ○ Has vacated Niche been filled? Step 2: Select and Evaluate Sites ○ Within historic range ○ With suitable habitat in Protected status Habitat Previous habitat was now in private ownership Need ~170,000 acres intact habitat National Wildlife Refuge Preferred Suitable Habitat  In 1984, 120,000 acres of freshwater wetland habitat were donated for the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge Congressional appropriations eventually allowed it to expand to the more than 150,000 acres it covers today ○ With threats removed Step 3: Evaluate Stock ○ Health, genetics, fitness ○ Can not jeopardize nor stress the source population ○ Surplus animals ○ Genetic variability Step 4: Determine social, political, and economic conditions at site ○ Long-term support? ○ How can we minimize conflicts? “Nonessential and experimental” Allowed for “taking” and “harassing” Examples: ○ Wolf-vehicle collisions ○ Wolves preying on livestock ○ Wolves frequenting private land ○ Self defense Allows for tracking / also can inject immobilizing agent Step 5: Plan / implement reintroduction ○ Release considerations Number of animals per release Number of releases per year Timing of releases ○ Animal preparation Hard releases Soft releases Acclimatization, behavioral training, inoculations, provisioning, and socialization Step 6: Post release monitoring ○ Use adaptive model Coyote interbreeding Sterilized coyotes as placeholders in population Did it work? ○ In 2012, the population rose as high as ~120 ○ Currently there are ~20 still alive ○ Human caused mortality Gunshot wounds  Vehicle strikes ○ Coyote interbreeding Black-Footed Ferret Case Study ~300 living in the wild Evidence of breeding in the wild Stable captive populations Final thoughts Reintroduction ○ Needed ○ Expensive ○ Can it be avoided? Education and Final Thoughts → Lecture 23 Important Takeaways Public education for biological conservation is needed at all levels Talloires Déclaration ○ A declaration adopted by university leaders from around the world, which commits them to incorporating environmental sustainability into their institutions' practices and curricula Quiz Questions for Lectures 17-23 Quiz 9 Once listed on the Endangered Species List through the Endangered Species Act, a species is fully protected and no exemptions can be made through government committees to harm the species or its habitat. ○ False Match the term with the best possible definition. ○ Biocentrism → people believe each individual life is the appropriate focus for ethical concerns ○ Ecocentrism → people believe the environment as a whole deserves direct moral consideration not consideration derived from human or animal interest ○ Anthropocentrism → people believe all environmental responsibility is derived from human centered ethics and done in the interest of human benefit What best describes the results of the Northern Spotted Owl being listed as endangered?  ○ The owl continues to decline even with limited old growth harvest, likely due to the invasion of the Barred Owl Laws should reflect the ethics of the community. Quiz 10 According to the IUCN, Category 1 Protected Areas are managed for all of the following EXCEPT ________, although it may still be allowed. ○ Recreation Paper parks are areas that have been assigned protection (protected area), but in reality they receive little, or no, resources for implementation of that protection. Protected areas in the USA, such as Grand Canyon National Park, were all created to target wildlife conservation and are typically placed in key areas of biodiversity. ○ False An NGO is a National Governmental Organization focused on wildlife and funded by local governmental funds in the respective developing countries. ○ False What key theme was apparent in the mission statements of most NGOs we reviewed? ○ An acknowledgment of the importance of securing human health and happiness in harmony with conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services. Quiz 11 Which of the following was not a concern or hurdle faced by the Masai people in the Milking the Rhino video? When implementing ecological restoration, it is best to avoid the use of volunteers throughout all of the steps, as heavy machinery can be dangerous and negative PR will result from injuries. ○ False The CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe: ○ Turned the control of wildlife over to the local people who then sold big game (lion, elephant, etc.) hunts in a sustainable manner, although it may now be over-exploitative. At what scale can ecological restoration occur? ○ City Park; Backyard; National Wildlife Refuge ○ All of these The basic concept of incentive driven conservation is to make wildlife more valuable alive than dead. Quiz 12 The Talloires Declaration states that Europeans can no longer trade in traditional medicines using animal parts. ○ False One of the largest current threats to red wolf recovery is their interbreeding (hybridizing) with coyotes. ○ True Environmental education is needed at what level? ○ K - 12; University; Through media; Internationally ○ All of these Which of the following species have had reintroduction programs in the US? ○ Red Wolf, Canada Lynx, and Black-footed Ferret Reading Questions Chapter 4 What are the human dimensions of wildlife management? ○ Discovering and applying insight about: How humans value wildlife How humans want wildlife to be managed, How humans affect/are affected by wildlife and wildlife management decisions What is collaborative conservation? ○ Collaborative conservation → when partnerships amongst multiple levels of government and non-government organizations are forged to achieve conservation through a form of participatory governance What is the definition of governance? ○ Governance: mechanism whereby governments and other organizations direct their activities, including the process, laws, rules, and policies that collectively guide decisions What is a stakeholder? ○ Stakeholder: any person who significantly affects or is affected by wildlife or wildlife management decisions / actions Describe the expert authority approach to stakeholder engagement. ○ When wildlife managers make decisions and take actions on their own without consulting others Describe the passive-receptive approach to stakeholder engagement. ○ When wildlife managers welcome stakeholder input but don't seek it systematically  Describe the inquisitive approach to stakeholder engagement. ○ Managers recognize that relying solely on unsolicited input can lead to bias, as less important stakes may be exaggerated while more significant ones might be overlooked Describe the intermediary approach to stakeholder engagement. ○ This approach emerged when managers recognized the importance of increased dialogue with stakeholders. It encourages two-way communication between individual stakeholder groups and wildlife management agencies Describe the transactional approach to stakeholder engagement. ○ When a decision must be made about how to prioritize different stakes in management, and the goal is to involve stakeholders in the process, the approach is to facilitate learning about each other's stakes and collaboratively rank them Describe the comanagerial approach to stakeholder engagement. ○ Wildlife conservation agencies involve other government agencies, NGOs, and local communities in decision-making and share responsibility and authority for management. This approach requires rethinking the role of state wildlife agencies and empowering other agencies, organizations, and local communities to take on greater responsibility in addressing wildlife issues What is the current trend in hunting and trapping participation here in the US? ○ They are on a long-term decline What are value orientations? ○ Value orientations → basic belief patterns shape a person’s attitudes, such as favorable / unfavorable evaluation of an object, behavior, or event What are norms? ○ Norms → shared beliefs about the acceptability of a situation, action, or outcome Standards of acceptable behavior that inform people about what they should do What are the three basic types of learning? Describe each. ○ Conceptual: looks for new goals and ways to define the problem. Key objectives are suggested and discussed publicly, helping people rethink the issues ○ Technical: focuses on finding new policies and actions to achieve current goals. It helps choose or improve actions that will support the establishment of rare species at specific sites ○ Social: results from relationships and the quality of dialogue between partners, stakeholders, and wildlife managers Chapter 19 What is planning in relation to wildlife conservation? ○ The intentional process of creating an effective strategy to solve problems and achieve specific goals within an organization  What is the difference between a goal and an objective? ○ Goal: overarching statements that establish the overall direction for (and focus of) a conservation plan and defines the scope of what the plan should achieve ○ Objective: specific, measurable, and have a defined completion date Outline who will make what change, by how much, where, and by when in order to reach the goal What is a Safe Harbor Agreement? ○ Safe Harbor Agreement: voluntary agreements between the USFWS or NMFS and cooperating non federal landowners They encourage voluntary management of threatened and endangered species on non-federal land, while assuring landowners that there will be no future regulatory restrictions on managing these species. What is a Habitat Conservation Plan? ○ A Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) is a document required under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) that allows landowners or developers to take certain actions (such as construction or land use) that might accidentally harm endangered species, as long as they take steps to minimize or avoid this harm. What are some examples of Incentive Programs? ○ The partners program is active in all 50 states and provides technical assistance and delivers on the ground restoration projects to private landowners ○ Landowners in Florida can apply for conservation exemption where land is dedicated in perpetuity and used exclusively for conservation purposes entitles landowners to a full property tax exemption Chapter 5 (77-86) What is adaptive management? ○ Adaptive management: decisions are made and then adjusted over time based on new information, feedback, and changing conditions Be familiar with the case study of wolf hunting management in Montana. ○ Centers on finding an effective way to manage the state's wolf population while addressing two key concerns: Harvest Strategy 1. Maintaining a recovered and connected wolf population - Ensuring that wolf numbers remain sustainable and connected across regions 2. Minimizing conflicts between wolves and livestock (stock conflicts) ○ Came up with 5 different ways of dividing up Montana into WMUs (Wildlife Management Units) Chapter 17 Define restore and restoration. ○ Restore: to bring back into existence or use  ○ Restoration: the act of restoring (impossible to restore something to its original natural state) What is the difference between restoration ecology and ecological restoration? ○ Restoration Ecology: scientific process of developing theory to guide restoration and ot using restoration to advance ecology ○ Ecological Restoration: the practice of restoring degraded ecological systems What is the goal of wildlife restoration? ○ To move a damaged system to an ecological state that is acceptable Why is knowledge of the wildlife population important for restoration to be successful? ○ You have to think about the probability of interbreeding and be aware of the chances of a metapopulation (spatially separated populations of the same species) Define a deme. ○ Deme: a local, usually stable population of interbreeding organisms of the same species Define a metapopulation. ○ Metapopulation: when there is partial isolation of individuals among interconnected patterns of gene flow, extinction, and recolonization Define habitat. ○ Habitat: natural home/ environment of an animal, plant, or other organism What is the difference between habitat selection and habitat preference? ○ Habitat Selection: refers to the actual choice an animal makes when choosing a place to live It is the process by which animals decide where to live, based on available habitats. For example, a bird may choose a particular tree or forest area to nest in based on what is available ○ Habitat Preference: refers to the tendency or desire of an animal to choose certain types of habitats over others, even if multiple habitats are available. It reflects what the animal "likes" or is more likely to choose, based on factors like food, shelter, or safety Give examples of both microhabitat and macrohabitat. ○ Micro: a habitat that is of small / limited extent which differs in character from some surrounding more extensive habitat ○ Macro: a habitat of sufficient extent to present considerable variation of environment, contain varied ecological niches, and support a large and usually complex flora fauna What are the main sources for assessments of the historical condition on an area to be restored? ○ Existing data sets, museum records, fossils, field notes, and literature What is a focal species and how are they selected?  ○ A species that is chosen for specific management or conservation efforts Don't serve as surrogates for other species Selection process has increased bias Define habitat heterogeneity. ○ Habitat heterogeneity: the amount of discontinuity in environmental conditions across a landscape for a particular species Why are corridors important? ○ They maintain linkage between patches to help metapopulations Chapter 6 Why is scale important to wildlife ecology? ○ Scale is important in wildlife ecology because it helps us understand how animals interact with their environment at different levels, like local, regional, or global What is landscape ecology? ○ The science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystem Done with a variety of landscape scales, development of spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research / policy