Epistemology of Indian Philosophies PDF

Chapter 4 Epistemology of Indian Philosophies There is no greater wealth in the world than wisdom. Na hi jñānena sadrishaṃ, says Bhagavad Gita—there is nothing comparable to knowledge. How might one acquire this great wealth? What are the means to obtain it? Bhagavad Gita says -...

Chapter 4 Epistemology of Indian Philosophies There is no greater wealth in the world than wisdom. Na hi jñānena sadrishaṃ, says Bhagavad Gita—there is nothing comparable to knowledge. How might one acquire this great wealth? What are the means to obtain it? Bhagavad Gita says - shraddhāvān labhate jñānam, he who possesses shraddha shall obtain knowledge. Shraddha can be understood to mean faith, trust, or belief. It is developed alongside knowledge with which it has a dynamic relationship. For example, if we wish to put our trust in a particular person, we will first want to get to know them; and if we put faith in that person, we will be open to understanding them better. Thus, knowledge and shraddha increase and deepen together. Faith and trust could be short-lived without the support of knowledge. If, say, we put our faith in a device that has not yet been sufficiently tested to warrant our confidence, we may be disappointed when the testing and use of the device reveal its flaws. Shraddha will be lost when knowledge reveals the truth of the object. On the other hand, it may be difficult to develop shraddha with insufficient knowledge. For instance, parents may encourage their children to pray to God with faith and devotion. However, for a child who does not yet understand the concept of God, they cannot experience shraddha easily. For these and many other reasons, right knowledge is necessary for us to live life and progress spiritually, with confidence and conviction. How, then, can we obtain right knowledge? According to Indian tradition, right knowledge is the outcome of rigorous investigation, jijñāsā. There was once a conference held where many scholars and wise men from different nationalities, religions and traditions gathered. A question naturally arose: “Which of the traditions of the world is to be trusted to guide one to the Truth?” The scholars in attendance concluded that a tradition where there was freedom to investigate any subject or practice thoroughly by means of a rigorous system, was worth trusting and following. Imagine two jewelry shops one next to the other. A customer comes to purchase gold and needs to decide on which shop to buy from. In the first shop, the shopkeeper assures the customer that they sell the purest gold. However, the customer can’t ask for a certificate of authenticity nor are they allowed to test the metal in any way. “Just trust me,” says the shopkeeper. In contrast, the owner of the second shop says that the gold sold there can be tested anywhere and in any way the customer wants; should an issue arise with the quality of the gold, they can always return it and receive a full refund. In the above scenario, most people would of course purchase from the second shop: the freedom to test and examine inspires confidence. Likewise, a practice, a religion, or a tradition—whether it be Sanatana Dharma, or any other path—that welcomes an Epistemology of Indian Philosophies 57 intelligent investigation of its doctrines, inspires trust. For an outcome of an investigation to be considered valid, the process must follow a time-tested rigorous system. With respect to theoretical investigation in the field of knowledge, all schools of Indian philosophy or darshana follow the principle of “vichara”or investigation supported by proof: pramāṇena vastuparikshanam vicharaḥ.The texts produced by all schools of darshana typically begin with a discussion of right knowledge. Vedanta, for instance, suggests athāto brahma jijñāsā or “let us investigate Brahman”. It doesn’t force the idea on the reader but rather invites one to examine and investigate the subject. Mimamsa, too, in dealing with the concepts of dharma and karma, proposes to study and gain right knowledge about them instead of postulating them as unassailable truths, immune to questioning. It is no coincidence that the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali also start with an invitation to explore the ideas of Yoga: atha yoga-anushāsanam. Rather than giving an injunction, “shāsanam”, the sutra suggests “anushāsanam”—a disciplined study of its subject. Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Table 1: The Darshanas and their Pramanas Darshana / No of Sl. No Name of Pramana(s) School Pramanas Perception, Inference, and Verbal 1 Sankhya 3 Testimony Perception, Inference, and Verbal 2 Yoga 3 Testimony Perception, Inference, Comparison and 3 Nyaya 4 Verbal Testimony 4 Vaisheshika 2 Perception and Inference Perception, Inference, Comparison, Poorva - 5 6 Postulation, Verbal Testimony & Non- Meemamsa Apprehension (Shabda is most important) Perception, Inference, Comparison, 6 Vedanta 6 Postulation, Verbal Testimony & Non- Apprehension (Shabda is most important) 58 Foundations of Indian Heritage and Sānkhya follow the same principle of fostering a healthy, methodical debate in pursuit of right knowledge. There are six āstika schools of Indian philosophy which rest upon the authority of the Vedic revelation. In their texts, pramānas, or valid means of gaining right knowledge, are invariably discussed. We can see six pramānas outlined in the shat darshana texts, Table 2: The Six Pramanas Sl. No Pramana Definition Example Knowledge gained by the That which is Pratyaksha 1 means of senses is called understood by the (Perception) perception. sense of sight. Knowledge gained by the means of applying reason and Anumana Inferring fire after 2 prior knowledge to one or (Inference) observing smoke. more observations in order to reach a new conclusion. Knowledge gained by the Upamana means of either observing 3 (Comparison similarities or by understanding A wild buffalo is like a & Analogy) analogies of a similar word, domestic buffalo. object or situation. Shabda Knowledge gained by the Existence of heaven, 4 (Verbal means of verbal testimony hell and soul. Testimony) (Veda or Shruti). Knowledge gained by the means of either supposition Guessing movement Arthapatti 5 of a fact derived from of Earth by observing (Postulation) circumstance or an already sunset and sunrise. established fact. Knowledge gained by the Anupalabdhi means of using existing 6 (Non- knowledge of a negative as Vase in which there are Apprehension) cognitive proof to derive no flowers. further knowledge. Epistemology of Indian Philosophies 59 with some schools accepting all the six while others may only accept three or four. The six pramānas are: pratyaksha, anumāna, upamāna, shabda, arthāpatti, and abhava. Pratyaksha is direct perception. When the proper senses engage with the proper object in the right way, the knowledge that is experienced in the mind is called pratyaksha. A defect in the functioning of the senses or in the object will result in wrong knowledge, pratyaksha-avabhāsa. Anumāna is inference. An example of anumāna is when we see smoke on the hill and infer that there is a fire there. Here, we have knowledge about the relationship between fire and smoke through direct perception, pratyaksha. We know that where there is smoke, there is usually fire. By using this knowledge, we make an informed guess. Upamāna is a simile or analogy. Upamāna is used where the object under discussion hasn’t been seen or experienced. Let us take the example of “A wild buffalo is like a domestic buffalo”. We may not have seen a wild buffalo so the person describing it to us compares it to a regular buffalo that we have seen before. Most of their qualities would be similar, so we can gain, say, 80% understanding of what a wild buffalo is using upamāna. Therefore, a simile or analogy can be a means of gaining right knowledge. Shabda is infallible testimony, verbal or scriptural. In the Indian tradition, this pramāna refers to the testimony of the Vedas. The Vedas are believed to be apaurusheya, not crafted by humans, and thus free from error. Had they been created by man, they would reflect personal inclinations or prejudices towards caste, creed, religion or nationality. However, the Vedas are universally valid. In Indian philosophy, they are believed to have been discovered by the great sages in the same way that the law of gravity was discovered, not created, by Newton. Thus, the testimony of the 60 Foundations of Indian Heritage Vedas is accepted as infallible. Arthāpatti. Many philosophers argue against accepting arthāpatti as a separate pramāna, postulating that it’s the same as anumāna. There is, however, a subtle but important difference. In the case of anumāna, both cause and effect are known; with arthāpatti, we know only the effect, and it is by looking at the effect that we attempt to determine the cause. For instance, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Even though we can’t see the movement of the Earth, we can understand that it moves based on the effect on the position of the Sun. As this example shows, arthāpatti involves guessing the cause, which has never been observed directly, by observing the effect; anumāna, however, involves making a guess having observed both the cause and the effect. Abhava is the absence or non-existence of a perceived object. Take the example of a vase in which there are no flowers: usually, there would be flowers in the vase, but they are absent. Not all schools of philosophy accept abhava as a pramāna, but some do because non-existence can be observed and experienced. We can clearly see from the above that the six Indian philosophical schools place great importance on determining what is and what is not right knowledge. Each philosophical system’s texts contain hundreds of pages of such deliberations. Mimamsa is especially preoccupied with working out a methodology for acquiring knowledge. The system it arrives at comprises five steps. viṣayo viśayaścaiva pūrvapakṣastatottarama saṅgatiścaiva pañcāṅgaṃ śāstre’dhikaraṇaṃ viduḥ First, a proper subject is required for investigation; second, the doubts about the subject must be clearly stated; third, the counterarguments are postulated; fourth, the answer to the doubts, believed to be the correct solution is given and, finally, Epistemology of Indian Philosophies 61 a conclusion is arrived at where any doubts about the subject are clearly resolved. The Indian philosophical tradition, we can conclude, is not one of blind faith and obedience to dogma. An example can be observed in the Bhagavad Gita when Sri Krishna and Arjuna engage in a dialogue, Arjuna is encouraged to ask questions and offer counterarguments to Sri Krishna’s statements. When questions arise, Sri Krishna responds with logical explanations, but leaves Arjuna to freely choose his course. iti te jñānam ākhyātaṁ guhyād guhyataraṁ mayā vimṛiśhyaitad aśheṣheṇa yathechchhasi tathā kuru Bhagavad Gita 18.63 Sanatana Dharma encourages learning and personal growth while providing reliable tools for obtaining right knowledge. A wealth of tried and tested wisdom is available to any seeker, along with the freedom of choice. 62 Foundations of Indian Heritage