Research Methods Content Booklet 2022-23 PDF

RESEARCH METHODS – CONTENT BOOKLET SPECIFICATION CONTENT Research Methods: Their use, strengths and limitations Experimental method. Types of experiment, laboratory and field experiments; natural and quasi experiments. Observational techniques. Types of observation, naturalistic and controlled observation; covert and overt observation; participant and non-participant observation. Self-report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and unstructured. Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between co-variables. The difference between correlations and experiments. Content analysis. Case studies. Scientific Processes: Aims: stating aims, the difference between aims and hypotheses. Hypotheses: directional and non-directional. Sampling: the difference between population and sample; sampling techniques including: random, systematic, stratified, opportunity, volunteer; implications of sampling techniques including bias and generalisation. Pilot studies and the aims of piloting. Experimental designs: repeated measures, independent groups and matched pairs. Observational design: behavioural categories, event sampling and time sampling. Questionnaire construction, including use of open and closed questions, design of interviews. Variables: manipulation and control of variables including independent, dependent, extraneous, confounding; operationalisation of variables. Control: random allocation and counterbalancing, randomisation and standardisation. Demand characteristics and investigator effects. Ethics, including the role of British Psychological Society’s code of ethics; ethical issues in the design and conduct of psychological studies; dealing with ethical issues in research. The role of peer review in the scientific process. The implications of psychological research for the economy. Reliability across all methods of investigation. Ways of assessing reliability: test-retest and inter-observer; improving reliability. Types of validity across all methods of investigation: face validity, concurrent validity, ecological validity and temporal validity. Assessment of validity. Improving validity. Features of science: objectivity and the empirical method: replicability and falsifiability; theory construction and hypothesis testing; paradigms and paradigm shifts. Reporting psychological investigations. Sections of a scientific report: abstract, introduction, method, results discussion and referencing. Data Handling and Analysis: Quantitative and qualitative data; the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. Primary and secondary data, including meta-analysis. Descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode; calculation of mean, median, and mode; measure of dispersion; range and standard deviation; calculation of range; calculation of percentages; positive, negative and zero calculations. Presentation and display of quantitative data: graphs, tables, scattergrams, bar charts. Distributions: normal and skewed distributions, characteristics of normal and skewed distributions. Analysis and interpretation of correlation, including correlation coefficients. Levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval. Content analysis and coding. Thematic analysis. Inferential Statistics: Introduction to statistical testing; the sign test. Probability and significance: use of statistical tables and critical values in interpretation of significance: Type I and Type II errors. Factors affecting the choice of statistical test: including level of measurement and experimental design. When to use the following tests: Spearman’s rho, Pearson’s r, Wilcoxon, Mann Whitney, related t-test, unrelated t-test and Chi-Squared test. Contents RESEARCH METHODS SUMMARY 1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS 3 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES 6 Aims and Hypotheses 6 Variables 8 Experimental Designs 9 Control in Experimental Methods 10 Demand Characteristics and Investigator Effects 11 Pilot Studies 12 Sampling: Selection of Participants 13 OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES 15 Observation Design 16 Control in Observational Techniques: Improving Reliability and Validity 17 SELF-REPORT TECHNIQUES: QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS 18 Self-Report Design 19 Control in Self-Report Techniques: Improving Reliability and Validity 21 CORRELATIONS 22 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES 23 Case Studies 23 Ethics 24 Reliability 28 Validity 28 Features of Science 30 The Role of Peer Review in the Scientific Process 34 The Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy 35 Reporting Psychological Investigations 36 DATA HANDLING AND ANALYSIS 39 Types of Data 39 Descriptive Statistics 41 Presentation and Display of Quantitative Data: Graphs and Tables 44 Distributions 45 Content Analysis and Coding 46 Thematic Analysis 46 Content and Thematic Analysis: Improving Reliability and Validity 47 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 48 Probability and Significance 48 Levels of Measurement 49 Factors Affecting Choice of Statistical Test 49 The Sign Test 50 Use of Statistical Tables and Critical Values in Interpretation of Significance 51 Type I and Type II Errors 53 APPENDICES 54 Design a Study Question 54 Critical Values Tables 57 Mathematical Content for Psychology A Level 67 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS RESEARCH METHODS SUMMARY Research Method Strengths Limitations Laboratory Experiment: IV Control over variables allows cause and effect to be Artificial conditions make it difficult to generalise to manipulated to observe effect on established other settings, lacks ecological validity. DV, highly controlled. Replicability is possible which means reliability can be Demand characteristics can occur as participants established respond to the cues of the aim of the experiment. Field Experiment: IV directly Improved ecological validity because pp’s unaware Less control over extraneous variables. manipulated by experimenter to taking part and in natural environment. More time consuming as need to wait for certain observe effect on DV, natural Reduction in Demand Characteristics because pp’s are environmental conditions. environment, some control. unaware they are taking part in an experiment Natural Experiment: IV not Reduction in Demand Characteristics Inevitable many extraneous variables because of lack directly manipulated, IV occurs High Ecological Validity due to lack of direct of control. naturally, allocation of pp’s not intervention Replication is impossible due to rarity of the situation. controlled by experimenter. Quasi Experiment: has an IV that Often carefully planned which means can replicate. Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions is based on an existing difference Useful to make comparisons between types of people and therefore there may be confounding variables between people. No one has where it is impossible or impractical to manipulate which means we cannot establish causality. manipulated this difference it variables. Often carried out in a laboratory and therefore maybe simply exists. E.g. gender demand characteristics. differences. Naturalistic Observation: High ecological validity because no manipulation, Observer bias, low inter-observer reliability. behaviour observed in natural Study behaviour where can’t manipulate variables. Lack of control means replication impossible, many context, everything left as variables. normal, all variables free to vary. Controlled Observation: some Time saving because can manipulate variables to Reduced ecological validity, participant effects. variables are controlled by the observe effects. Observer bias, low inter-observer reliability. researcher e.g. environment. Preliminary Research: to help develop new hypothesis for future studies or prevent time being wasted carrying out unrealistic experiments. 1 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS Research Method Strengths Limitations Covert Observation: participants High ecological validity as behaviour is more natural. Ethics may be questionable due to invasion of privacy unaware they are being and lack of informed consent. observed. Overt Observation: participants More ethical than covert if gained informed consent. Reduced ecological validity, participant reactivity. aware they are being observed. Participant Observation: the Gain special insight into the behaviour that may only Observer bias, objectivity of findings are affected by observer becomes part of the be seen from the ‘inside’, increasing validity of findings. being part of the group. group they are studying. Non-Participant Observation: the Observer more likely to be objective, compared to Compared to participant observation, data lacks researcher remains separate from participant observation. richness. the group they are studying. Self-Report Techniques: Simple to carry out, little training required, and a large Problems with wording of questions. Questionnaires: set of written group can be targeted. Biased samples because of who actually responds. questions. Participants may be more willing to express themselves truthfully, because anonymous, more reliable data gained. Self-Report Techniques: Replication is possible because standardised questions Social desirability bias, participants may give answers Structured Interviews: one are used. Answers from different participants can be think will create favourable impression. person asks questions to another. compared and answers are easier to analyse compared Requires skilled personnel, making the expensive A predetermined set of questions to unstructured. compared to a questionnaire. are asked. Any misunderstood questions can be explained. Self-Report Techniques Lots of rich data if open-ended questions are used. Requires skilled personnel, especially due to the need Unstructured Interviews: one Unstructured and semi-structured interviews are to develop new questions on the spot, interviewers person asks questions to another. flexible in being able to tailor questions to the need training. The interviewer develops individual, gain more insight. More difficult to analyse the data due to lack of questions in response to a standardised questions and amount of data gathered. participant’s answers. Correlations: co-variables are Allow researchers to investigate situations that could Impossible to establish cause and effect. examined for a relationship. not be done experimentally, i.e. when it is impractical Third variable problem, other unknown variables may or ethically impossible to manipulate the IV. explain why there is a relationship. Preliminary research: indicate trends which may lead to further experiments. 2 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS Experimental methods EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Laboratory Experiment: An experiment carried out in a controlled setting, allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the independent variable, and to eliminate or control for confounding variables. The IV (independent variable) is manipulated to observe the effect on the DV (dependent variable) under controlled conditions. Strengths 1. Control over variables: It is easier to control potential confounding variables in the laboratory than in the natural environment of the field experiment or with any other research method. If all variables are controlled successfully or eliminated, then cause and effect can be established. 2. Replicability: A laboratory experiment that is carried out well can be easily repeated by other researchers to see if they obtain similar results. If other researchers do get similar results the experimenters can conclude that the results are reliable. This ability to replicate the laboratory experiment is advantageous compared to the field or natural experiment where researchers would have to wait indefinitely for the same circumstances to occur again to check the reliability of their results. Limitations 1. Artificial: Due to the high levels of control in the laboratory it can become artificial and recognisably different from real life situations. The artificiality of the laboratory experiment may make it difficult to generalise the findings to other settings, which means it can lack ecological validity. Other methods such as naturalistic observation and field experiments are more likely to represent real life. 2. Demand characteristics: These occur when the participants try to make sense of the situation they find themselves in and act accordingly. Participants may try to help the experimenter or they may set out to deliberately confound the results. Demand characteristics do not occur in the field or natural experiment as the participant is unaware they are taking part in a study. Field Experiment: An experiment carried out in the natural environment (real world setting) of the individuals being studied. The experimenter has control of the IV. The participant’s may not know they are being studied. (e.g. Bickman investigated the effect of uniform on obedience at a New York bus stop). Strengths 1. Improved ecological validity: This experiment is carried out in the natural environment and therefore the findings can be generalised to other real life settings. This is an 3 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS Experimental methods advantage over the laboratory experiment, which lacks ecological validity because it is carried out in the artificial environment of the laboratory. 2. Reduction of demand characteristics: The participants may be unaware they are taking part in a research study and so the influence of demand characteristics may be minimised. This is an advantage over the laboratory experiment as participants often respond to the cues in the artificial environment as they are aware they are taking part in a study. Limitations 1. Less control: it is difficult to control for confounding variables in a field experiment and as a result it may be difficult to replicate precisely. As a result, it is more difficult to establish cause and effect. Whereas in the laboratory establishing cause and effect is easier because of the high level of control over the variables. 2. More time consuming: Field experiments can take longer to complete as there may be a process of waiting for certain conditions to occur. This is not an issue for the laboratory experiment as the experimenter controls the timing of the study. Natural Experiment: A type of experiment where the IV is not directly manipulated but occurs naturally. The allocation of participants is outside the control of the researcher, (e.g. when the government in Fiji decided to introduce western TV into and psychologists measured the effect of eating disorders in teenage girls). Strengths 1. Reduction of demand characteristics: The participants may be unaware they are taking part in a research study and so the influence of demand characteristics may be minimised. This is an advantage compared to the laboratory experiment where participants are aware they are taking part in an experiment and may respond to the cues in the artificial situation. 2. Lack of direct intervention: The experimenter does not intervene directly in the research situation, which means there is more opportunity to gain an insight into real life behaviour. This is an advantage when compared to the laboratory experiment where the behaviour is more likely to be artificial. Limitations 1. Loss of control: Since the IV is not directly controlled by the investigator; the degree of control is less than in either a laboratory or a field experiment. This reduces the likelihood of cause and effect being established because of the many confounding variables. 2. Replication impossible: The naturally occurring situation that the researcher wishes to study may occur only rarely, therefore replication will be almost impossible. This means 4 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS Experimental methods it will be difficult to check the external validity of the findings where as in the laboratory replication is possible because of the control of variables. Quasi-Experiment: An experiment that has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people. No one has manipulated this difference it simply exists. E.g. gender differences or psychological disorder. Quasi experiments often resemble laboratory and field experiments, quasi means ‘almost’. The experimenter does not directly manipulate the independent variable. This means there is a resemblance between natural and quasi experiments however they differ in that quasi experiments are typically carefully planned whereas natural experiments are not. Strengths 1. Replicability: Quasi experiments are often carefully planned and carried out under controlled conditions which means that they can be replicated. 2. Quasi-experiments are useful to make comparisons between types of people where it is impossible or impractical to manipulate variables. Limitations 1. Confounding variables: Quasi experiments cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore there may be confounding variables which means we cannot establish causality. 2. Demand characteristics: Quasi experiments are often carried out in a laboratory and therefore there may be demand characteristics. Lab Field Natural Quasi Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment IV controlled by YES YES NO NO the experimenter Carried out in a YES NO NO YES and NO controlled environment 5 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Aims and hypotheses SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Aims and Hypotheses Aim: A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, to be clear about the purpose of a study. E.g. To investigate the effect of study duration on recall. Aim of a Correlational Study: This should reflect that correlational studies investigate possible relationships rather than cause and effect. E.g. To investigate the relationship between study duration and recall. Hypothesis: is a precise testable statement made at the beginning of an investigation about what the researcher expects to happen. prediction Aims W Hypotheses General statement of the purpose of the h Precise and testable statement. e study. r e a s There are two main hypotheses: Alternative Hypothesis and Null hypothesis. An alternative hypothesis is used in any study regardless of the research method. The alternative hypothesis can be called an experimental hypothesis when an experimental method is used and must include the independent and dependent variable. The alternative hypothesis can be called a correlational hypothesis when a correlational method is used and so must include the two co-variables. Alternative hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. Alternative Hypotheses: Directional or Non-Directional Directional Hypothesis: states the direction in which the results go. It states which set of scores will be better/faster/positively or negatively correlated. This is used when previous research suggests a direction. E.g. Participants remember significantly more words when they study in short bursts of 10 minutes than when studying for longer sessions of one hour. Non-Directional Hypothesis: states that there will be a difference but does not state the expected direction of the outcome. A non-directional hypothesis is used when there has been no previous research or previous research has found contradictory results. E.g. There is a significant difference in the number of words recalled by participants who study in short bursts of 10 minutes compared to those who study for longer sessions of one hour. 6 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Aims and hypotheses Null hypothesis Null Hypothesis: states there is no difference and the results are due to chance. E.g. There is no significant difference in the number of words recalled by participants who study in short bursts of 10 minutes compared to those who study for longer sessions of one hour. TIPS: Hypotheses can be written in either the future tense or the present tense. However, it is current practice in psychology to write the hypotheses in the present tense because they are statements that are tested during a study. The ultimate goal of a scientific study is to support or reject the hypotheses. If you look in current psychology text books you will see them written in both forms. It is also good practice to include the word significant(ly) in all hypotheses the statistical significance of the data is often tested. Alternative Experimental Hypotheses Writing Frame Non-Directional Hypothesis: “There is a significant difference in (operationalised DV) between participants in the (first condition of the IV) condition compared to participants in the (second condition of the IV) condition.” “There is a significant difference in _____________ between participants in the _____________ condition compared to participants in the _____________ condition.” Directional Hypothesis: “Participants in the (first condition of the IV) condition have significantly higher/lower, better/worse, etc. (operationalised DV) than participants in the (second condition of the IV) condition.” “Participants in the _____________ condition have significantly higher/lower, better/worse, etc. _____________ than participants in the _____________ condition.” Alternative Correlational Hypotheses Writing Frame Non-Directional Correlational Hypothesis: “There is a significant correlation between (co-variable 1) and (co-variable 2).” “There is a significant correlation between _____________ and _____________.” Directional Correlational hypothesis: “There is a significant positive/negative correlation between (co-variable 1) and (co-variable 2).” 7 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Aims and hypotheses “There is a significant positive/negative correlation between _____________ and _____________.” 8 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Variables Variables Independent Variable The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter or CHANGES altered by the situation/characteristics of participants, in order to observe the effects on the dependent variable. E.g. Duration of revision time in minutes. Changes to the independent variable create the conditions of the experiment. E.g. 5 minutes or 30 minutes of revision time. Dependent Variable The variable that is measured by the experimenter. MEASURED E.g. Score out of 10 on a recall test. Extraneous Variable Any variable other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable. E.g. Level of alertness. Extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand characteristics and investigator effects. These should be controlled so they do not become confounding. Confounding Variable Any variable other than the independent variable that does affect the dependent variable. The effect of a confounding variable is linked to the independent variable. E.g. Students were given 30 minutes to revise in the first period of college (so were more alert) and students given 5 minutes to revise were tested in the final period of college (so were less alert). It is unclear if each participant’s score on the test (DV) was due to the time given to revise (IV) or their level of alertness (EV) which varied between the conditions (CV). Operationalisation of This means defining variables clearly /precisely so they can be Variables specifically tested and measured accurately. E.g. Short bursts of revision becomes 5 minutes of revision. 9 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Experimental designs Experimental Designs Design Description Advantage Disadvantage Repeated The same participants are used Individual differences are eliminated Order effects such as practice, boredom or Measures in all conditions of the therefore any difference between their fatigue may occur, although these can be Design independent variable. performance in each level of the IV evenly distributed across conditions by should be to the experimenter’s counterbalancing. manipulation. Demand characteristics: because Fewer participants required. participants take part in all conditions. It is sometimes not possible to use the same material in each condition. Independent Participants are placed in No order effects: participants are only Participant variables are introduced. Groups separate groups. Each group involved in one condition. Differences between the conditions may be Design does one level of the There is less opportunity to become caused by the different people rather than independent variable. aware of the aim reducing demand the independent variable. characteristics. More participants are required. The same material can be used in all conditions. Matched Pairs of participants are closely Avoids order effects. It is difficult to match everything about the Pairs matched on a relevant Avoids demand characteristics. participants. Design characteristic (e.g. age, gender, Reduces individual differences It is very time consuming and requires more etc.). Each participant in the pair The same material can be used in both participants. is randomly allocated to one conditions. condition or the other. 10 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Control in experimental methods Control in Experimental Methods Random Allocation This involves allocating participants to experimental groups in an unbiased way so they have an equal chance of being selected to take part in each condition. This is to evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions to avoid extraneous variables and improves internal validity. It is used to address the problem of participant variables (individual differences) in an independent groups design. This can be done by assigning each participant a number or identifying them by name; the names or numbers are placed in a random number generator/hat; the first participant drawn is assigned to condition 1, the second to condition 2 OR the first 15 participants are assigned to condition 1 and the next 15 are assigned to condition 2. Counterbalancing Counterbalancing is used to control for the impact of order effects in repeated measures design and improve internal validity. It involves making sure each condition comes first or second in equal amounts. E.g. Half the participants take part in condition A then B, and the other half take part in condition B then A. Counterbalancing ensures order effects are distributed evenly across all conditions. Counterbalancing does not reduce order effects because all participants still take part in all conditions therefore order effects are still present but their effect is balanced across the conditions. Randomisation Randomisation refers to the use of chance wherever possible when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions. This is to avoid researcher bias influencing the design of the study; it is an attempt to control investigator effects and improve internal validity. E.g. if in a memory experiment the participants have to learn a list of words; the order of the words should be randomly generated. Or if the experiment involves a number of conditions, the order of these conditions should be randomly determined. Standardisation Standardisation is a way of ensuring all participants have exactly the same environment, information and experience, so individual experience does not confound the results, thus improving internal validity. Standardised procedures ensure all participants are tested under the same conditions to enable to deal with experimenter bias and facilitate replication to ensure findings can be checked for reliability. Standardised procedures should include a set of standardised instructions that are given in the same way to all participants to deal with investigator effects. 11 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Control in experimental methods Improving Reliability of Experiments When possible, it is better to take more than one measurement from each participant and take a mean score. This reduces the impact of any anomalous score. Pilot studies can be used to check the proposed method measurements works properly and that participants can use any apparatus successfully. Improving External Validity of Experiments Ecological Validity can be improved by conducting the experiment in a more naturalistic, real life setting e.g. a field experiment. Population validity can be improved by taking larger, more varied samples, for example including a wider age group or geographical area. Demand Characteristics and Investigator Effects Demand Characteristics Demand Characteristics: Are cues in the experimental situation that makes the participant aware of what the research wants to find, or how participants are expected to behave. This can lead to the participant changing their behaviour. If the participant has changed their behaviour then this is a confounding variable. Demand characteristics create participant reactivity such as: Trying to guess the purpose of the research and acting in a way that they feel is helpful or unhelpful to the researcher. Acting nervously and out of character because of being in a research situation and are worried about being evaluated. Displaying a social desirability bias, wishing themselves to be seen in the most favourable light possible. Ways to reduce Demand Characteristics: Use a Single-Blind Technique: This is where the participant has no idea of the research aims and/or which experimental group they are in. Use deception and distractor questions 12 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Pilot studies Investigator Effects Investigator Effects: Are any unintentional influences of a researcher’s behaviour or characteristics on the performance of the participants. For example: Physical characteristics (e.g. age, gender and ethnic origin). Behaviour such as verbal communication (e.g. tone of voice, accent), or non-verbal communication (e.g. smiling, eye contact). Expectations about the outcome of a study. Ways to reduce Investigator Effects: Use a Double-Blind Technique: Neither the participant nor the investigator is aware of the true aims or details of the investigation, so have no expectations. Use Standardised Instructions: This decreases the possibility that the investigator can communicate expectations. Researchers can be trained to use a neutral tone for reading instructions. For interviews a standardised script can be used. Pilot Studies A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of a study which takes place before the real investigation is carried out. The aim of pilot studies is: To check that the procedures, materials and measuring scales work. To allow the researcher to make changes or modification to the design if necessary. To improve the quality of research, help avoid unnecessary work, save time and money. Pilot studies allow practical details to be checked, like ensuring instructions can be understood and deciding on the number of participants to use. Questionnaires and interviews: a pilot study can involve trying out questions in advance to be able to re-word or remove any that are confusing. Observational studies: a pilot study can check the behavioural categories and coding systems are suitably operationalised and used reliably across an observational team. 13 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Sampling Sampling: Selection of Participants The target population is a group of people that share a given set of characteristics about which a researcher wishes to draw conclusions (e.g. all football fans in the UK). However, a target population is usually too large for each individual to be investigated so a sample, which is a subset of the population, is obtained. The sample should be representative, meaning that the participants included should share important characteristics with the target population to enable findings to be generalised. Sampling Description Strengths Limitations method Random This is where every member of the Less biased as all May not be representative of the population has an equal chance of members of the target population. It is possible, by chance, the being selected. The easiest way to do population have an randomly selected sample is biased this is to place all the names (or allocate equal chance of anyway e.g. too many males. numbers) from a target population into selection. Relies on all the target population being a hat and draw out the required sample. able to take part if selected. Computer programmes can also Need to have access to all names target generate random lists of participants in population. an unbiased way. Systematic This method involves selecting every The only researcher May not be representative of the nth participant from the list of available involvement is deciding population. It is possible, by chance, the participants, e.g. every 5th person from a the sample size, it systematically selected sample is biased list of 50 participants. reduces investigator anyway e.g. too many males. bias. Relies on all the target population being able to take part if selected. Need to have access to all names target population. 14 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Sampling Stratified Subgroups (or strata) within a By guaranteeing that all If all the key features of the population population are identified. Participants the key characteristics are not identified then the sample may are obtained from each of the strata in of the population are not be representative, thus limiting proportion to their occurrence in the present in the sample, it generalisability. population. Selection from the strata is not only avoids Very time consuming to identify done using a random technique. investigator bias subgroups and then select participants afterwards, but it is also randomly. representative and can Need to know all the names of the target be generalised. population. Opportunit This is the most common method used The easiest method as Unlikely to be representative of the y to select a sample. Approach anyone in you use the first target population as the sample is taken the immediate area who happens to be participants that you from a small part of the target available to ask to participate, e.g. find, which means it population. asking people in the street or friends in takes less time to locate The researcher may consciously or college. your sample than the unconsciously show bias in the sample other methods. selection, thus limiting generalisability. Volunteer Advertisements are used to attract This is an easy method Sample bias is likely as only certain types (self-selecte participants. The participants then to use with less initial of people are likely to volunteer. They are d) volunteer themselves. Usually requires work involved than in atypical respondents with characteristics an incentive (payment/prize). random sampling. not necessarily common of the population (e.g. highly motivated, time on their hands), this limits the generalisability. 15 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSESObservational techniques OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES Naturalistic Observations: An observational technique where behaviour is observed in its natural context, without intrusion by the person who is doing the observing. There is no direct manipulation of variables. The emphasis is on how people behave in natural situations. Strengths 1. High ecological validity: as the participants are unaware of the observation and behaving in their natural environment there is high ecological validity. There is less chance of demand characteristics influencing the participant’s behaviour whereas in the laboratory experiment or the controlled observation there is the potential for artificial behaviour. 2. Study behaviour where can’t manipulate variables: Data can be collected from participants who cannot be tested in other ways e.g. babies and when manipulation is unethical or impractical. Limitations 1. Observer bias: The observer may see what he or she expects to see. Different observers may see different things, which leads to low-inter observer reliability. 2. Lack of control: Compared to other methods such as the laboratory experiment or the controlled observation there is no control of variable therefore replication will be impossible, meaning it is hard to establish external validity. Controlled Observation: This is where the researcher attempted to control certain variables. Control of the environment can occur if the observation is conducted in the laboratory. The Strange Situation is a controlled observation. Strengths 1. Time saving: It is possible to manipulate the situation and therefore you do not have to wait for the desired behaviour to be shown. In this way the controlled observation is a quicker more economical method than the naturalistic observation. 2. Preliminary research: Provides a means of conducting preliminary research to develop new hypothesis for future investigations or may help prevent time being wasted in carrying out unrealistic experiments. Limitations 16 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSESObservational techniques 1. Lower ecological validity: Participants behaviour may change because they know they are being observed. Therefore, behaviour may not be natural which lowers ecological validity compared to the natural observation. 2. Observer bias: The observer may see what he or she expects to see. Different observers may see different things, which leads to low-inter observer reliability. Covert Observation Overt Observation Description Participants are unaware they are being Participants know their behaviour is observed. being observed. Strengths High ecological validity as behaviour is More ethical than covert if gained more natural as the participants are informed consent. unaware they are being watched. Limitations Ethics may be questionable due to Reduced ecological validity because invasion of privacy and lack of informed the participants know they are being consent. watched, this may lead to participant reactivity. Participant Observation Non-Participant Observation Description The observer becomes part of the group The researcher remains separate they are studying. from the group they are studying. Strengths Allows the researcher to gain special Observer more likely to be objective, insight into the behaviour that may only compared to participant observation. be seen from the ‘inside’, increasing validity of findings. Limitations Observer bias, objectivity of findings Compared to participant observation, may be affected by being part of the data lacks richness. group. Observation Design When designing an observation, it is essential that care is taken to reduce observer bias. Techniques that ensure observations are systematic and objective are: Behavioural Categories These involve dividing a target behaviour into a subset of behaviours. This can be done using a behaviour checklist, rating scales or a coding system. Behavioural categories should be: Objective (not requiring personal interpretation). Cover all aspects of the behaviour. 17 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSESObservational techniques Mutually exclusive (each behaviour can only fit into one category). Appropriate behavioural categories provide a clear focus for the researcher and can result in greater reliability (consistency). Categories provide data that is easier to analyse. Sampling Procedures In most observations, behaviour is recorded in a systematic way using specific techniques. Event Sampling: An observer records target behaviour(s) whenever they occur in a target individual or individuals. The observer records the number of times a particular behaviour is demonstrated on the behavioural checklist. For example, observers might record the number of shoves, kicks, and punches on a behavioural checklist during a school playtime. o Strength: The observer can record a variety of behaviours that change frequently so behaviours will normally not be missed unlike with time sampling. o Limitation: It can be difficult to accurately record behaviour if too many target behaviours are shown at once or if behaviour changes rapidly this can reduce the validity of the observation. Time Sampling: An observer records target behaviour(s) at set time points during a specified period. At specific time intervals the observer will tick or mark categories from the behavioural checklist according to the behaviour shown. Any behaviours that occur between time points are ignored and not recorded. For example, whilst recording the social behaviour of a child during a 10-minute break, at every 30 seconds, one or more relevant behavioural categories should be tallied. o Strengths: The observer has time to record what they have seen which means the observation is easier to manage if a lot of behaviours are occurring throughout the set observation time. o Limitation: Behaviours that change between time points are missed and not recorded therefore observations may therefore not be representative. Control in Observational Techniques: Improving Reliability and Validity Improving Reliability of Observations When more than one observer is used they should all be similarly trained in order for the researchers to know how to record behaviour in a consistent manner. Behavioural categories should be operationalised and mutually exclusive and cover all possible behaviours. A pilot study can be used to check observers are applying the behavioural categories consistently. 18 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSESObservational techniques Improving Validity of Observations Internal Validity: Internal validity may be a problem if observers are biased. This can be improved by having more than one observer, averaging data across observers, training the observers, using a pilot study and using clear behavioural categories. 19 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Self-report techniques External Validity: Population validity may be an issue for observational studies, e.g. if only children are observed from middle-class homes we will not be able to generalise to all children. This can be improved by conducting observations with varied participants. Ecological Validity may be low if the controlled observations are used or if participants are aware they are being watched. This can be improved using naturalistic or covert observation. SELF-REPORT TECHNIQUES: QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS A self-report technique is where the participant gives information to the researcher providing details of own feelings/thoughts/behaviour. This could involve responding to questions on a questionnaire or during an interview. Questionnaires: A technique using a structured set of questions, for asking a large sample of people about their views and behaviours. Questionnaire surveys may be conducted in person, by telephone, by post and via the internet. Questions can be closed (require simple answer) or open-ended (develop answer in own words). Strengths 1. More truthful responses: Participants may be more willing to express themselves truthfully in a questionnaire rather than when face-to-face in an interview because they can remain anonymous. This leads to more reliable data. 2. Simplicity: Once constructed and piloted, questionnaires can be carried out with a minimum of training, unlike interviews which require a researcher to be trained. This means it is possible to access a large group of participants more easily. Limitations 1. Problems with wording of questions: The way a question is worded may influence the responses given so that answers are not a true reflection of the participant. For example, complex questions can be misunderstood so may be skipped or an invalid response provided, whereas in an interview, the researcher can be asked for clarification. 2. Biased samples: The response rate can be very low for questionnaires. Only the people that are most willing to respond will return the questionnaire, meaning that the sample may not be representative of the population. 20 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Self-report techniques Interviews: Any face-to-face situation where one person (the interviewer) asks a series of questions to another person (the respondent). These questions can be pre-determined (structured), or created in response to answers (unstructured) or a mixture of the two types (semi-structured). Structured Interviews Unstructured Interviews Description Set of pre-determined questions Questions created in response to answers. Strengths 1. Replication is possible because 1. Lots of ‘rich’ data: due to the use of standardised questions are used. open-ended questions all types of Answers from different interviews can collect rich detailed participants can be compared and data of both complex and personal answers are easier to analyse issues. compared to unstructured. 2. Flexibility - unstructured interviews 2. Any misunderstood questions can can enable complex issues to be be explained, this advantageous explored in further depth by compared to questionnaires and tailoring questions, which may not improves the validity of the be possible with other methods answers given. such as structured interviews and questionnaires. Limitations 1. Social Desirability Bias 1. Requires skilled personnel, interviewees may give answers especially due to the need to they think will create a favourable develop new questions on the spot, impression. interviewers need training. 2. Requires Skilled Personnel - 2. More difficult to analyse the data researchers need to be trained in due to lack of standardised effective interviewing skills, this questions and amount of data would not be necessary with a gathered. questionnaire Self-Report Design Constructing Appropriate Questions When structuring a questionnaire or interview, questions should be clear, free from bias and lead to answers that are easy to analyse. Aspects to consider include: Sequence of questions: Start with easier, factual questions to relax the respondent. Filler questions: Including some irrelevant questions to distract the respondent from the main purpose of the survey. This may reduce demand characteristics. Options questions: ensure options are clear and cannot be interpreted differently. Avoid leading questions: Which prompt respondents to respond in a certain way. 21 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Self-report techniques Avoid presumptive questions: Which assume respondents are able to answer. Avoid double-barrelled questions: Combining two or more questions, make it confusing to answer. Avoid social desirability bias: Asking questions that are sensitive can lead to respondents to answer in a way that think is acceptable rather than truthful. Questionnaire Design Closed and Open Questions Closed Questions: Require simple answers, with no option for expansion. Typically the questionnaire will provide a fixed number of responses from which the participant selects the one that applies to them. Likert scales (strongly agree to strongly disagree) and rating scales are also examples of closed questions. Closed questions obtaining numbers produce quantitative data which are easier to analyse. However, the answers often lack the depth and detail associated with open questions. Open Questions: Allow for the respondent to answer freely without constraint. They allow the respondent to develop their viewpoint and answer in more depth, often providing rich qualitative data. However, the answers from these type of questions may be difficult to analyse. Interview Design Type of Interview Structured interview: Questions are decided in advance. They are easier to replicate and answers can be easier to analyse, but questions are more restrictive. Unstructured interview: An interviewer starts with a question or topic but forms further questions based on answers given by the interviewee. They provide rich data, but are difficult to analyse. Skill of the Interviewer Interviewers should be trained to ensure they can build rapport with interviewees to put them at ease to gain full and detailed answers. 22 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Self-report techniques Control in Self-Report Techniques: Improving Reliability and Validity Improving Reliability of Self-Report Techniques Questionnaires: A questionnaire with low test-retest reliability may require that some of the items to be removed or rewritten so participants have a consistent understanding. Interviews: If possible, use the same interviewer each time. If this is not possible, all interviewers must be similarly trained in order record interviewee responses in a consistent manner. Structured interviews are more likely to be reliable due to having control over the fixed questions compared to the free-flowing nature of unstructured interviews. Improving Validity of Self-Report Techniques Internal Validity: If a pilot study reveals participants have misunderstood a question, the items can be revised, replaced or omitted. A lie scale involves including certain questions to assess if a participant is being truthful. If they aren’t, their responses can be omitted. Assuring respondents that data will be anonymous may encourage them to be more honest. External Validity: Population validity may be low if a certain type of person provides responses. This can be improved by using a more randomised sample method to obtain a more varied sample. Temporal validity may be low if questions being asked are specific to an earlier time period. Such questions will need updating to ensure they are understood by participants in a later era. 23 Paper 2 RESEARCH METHODS Correlations CORRELATIONS Correlational Analysis: An investigation that measures the extent of the relationship between two co-variables. Relationship Between Co-variables Correlations measure the relationship between co-variables. Correlations can either be positive, negative or show no correlation: Positive Correlation: the co-variables increase or decrease together Negative Correlation: one variable increases; while the other decreases. Zero Correlation: there is no relationship between the two variables. Look out for other patterns in the correlation: such as the relationship between the variables plateauing (levelling out). Strengths 1. Correlations allow researchers to investigate situations that could not be done experimentally. They are used when it is practically or ethically impossible to manipulate the IV - in this case variables are simply measured. 2. Preliminary research: Provide a means of conducting preliminary research as correlation studies can indicate trends which may lead to further research using experimental means to establish causal links. They are a useful and simple way of starting off a research project and can help to prevent time being wasted in carrying out unrealistic experiments. Limitations 1. Cannot establish cause and effect: correlations can only tell us how variables are related but not why. Correlations cannot demonstrate cause and effect between variables and therefore we do not know which co-variable is causing the other to change. Additionally, people often misinterpret correlations believing there to be a cause and effect relationship when one doesn’t exist. 2. Third variable problem: There may be other unknown variables that can explain why the co-variables being studied are linked. Analysis and Interpretation of Correlation, including Correlation Coefficients A correlation coefficient is a number that tells us the strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables. This has to be calculated to determine the exact nature of the correlation. The coefficient is a number between +1 and -1 and is usually represented by the letter r or rs. 24 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Case studies The strength of correlation is given by how close the correlation coefficient is to +1 or -1. The sign indicates the type of correlation. If the correlation coefficient has a minus sign before it this means that it is a negative correlation, otherwise it is a positive correlation. Treat the sign and the number separately. For example: r = +0.7 is the same strength as -0.7, with the first being a positive correlation and the second being a negative. Correlation coefficients between -0.1 and +0.1 are usually be judged to have zero/no correlation. Note that coefficients that appear to indicate a weak correlation can still be statistically significant: it depends on the size of the data set. The Difference between Correlations and Experiments Correlations W Experiments (Co)variables are simply measured, no h The experimenter/situation changes the deliberate change is made. e independent variable, to see the effect on the dependent variable. r Relationships are measured. Cause Cause and effect can be established. and effect cannot be established. e a s SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Case Studies A case study is a detailed and systematic investigation of an individual or a small group of people because they are rare or unique or because they are a typical example of a type of person. A variety of data collection methods can be used over a long period of time and therefore detailed in-depth information is obtained. Strengths 1. Case studies produce lots of detail and the depth of understanding acquired through this is useful for understanding how complex human behaviour is. They are associated with idiographic approaches: which intend to describe the richness of human experience and gain insight into people’s unique way of viewing the world. 2. The case study is the only way to deal with rare and dramatic cases in psychology. For example, insights into the condition of someone who has had extremely harsh childhood experiences can be gained through a detailed study of his or her circumstances. 25 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Ethics Limitations 1. Case studies relate to one individual so the findings cannot be easily generalised to others. Even if generalisations are made they may lack credibility in the eyes of other researchers. 2. Case studies often rely on retrospective data, that is, information gathered about past events. This information may not be accurate as people forget things and memory is also reconstructive, so relying on this type of data can be very problematic and reduce validity. Ethics Ethical Issues and Ethical Guidelines An ethical issue is a conflict or dilemma between what the researcher needs in order to conduct useful and meaningful research and the rights of the participant. If researchers are unsure about potential risks, they should discuss ethics of their research with colleagues. An ethical guideline is a way to resolve the conflict of an ethical issue. Many of the guidelines below can be used to address (deal with) many different ethical issues. Ethical issue Deal with the issue (Guideline) Informed Consent Consent Form Participants must be informed about the Participants should be given a consent form aims of the research, what will be informing them of all relevant information required and what their rights are as a that might affect their decision to participant. participate. The participant must then make an Prior General Consent informed judgement to take part in the Involves giving participants general study without being coerced or feeling information about the research before they obliged. chose to take part (e.g. You may be Asking for informed consent may reduce misinformed about the true nature of the internal validity of a study as a study you are considering to take part in). If participant’s behaviour may not be they agree, it is assumed they have given natural. consent in principle to take part. Deception Presumptive Consent Participants are deliberately misled or the A group of people who share characteristics researchers deliberately withhold with the sample are given information about information about the aims of the study. the study and asked whether they would Deception is sometimes unavoidable as it agree to take part. If this group of people would invalidate the study to inform the would give consent, it is presumed the participants about the aims of the actual participants would also agree. 26 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Ethics research as it would lead to demand characteristics. Deception can make psychologists seem Debriefing untrustworthy and make people not want After participants have finished their to take part in psychological research. involvement in a study, full details of the study should be provided, including the true aims of the study if deception was involved. Protection from Harm Debriefing Participants should be protected from During debriefing, participants should be both physical and psychological harm as reassured about the data they have far as possible. provided to deal with any potential Participants should be in the same state embarrassment or perceived after taking part in a study as they were underperformance. before. Debriefing can establish whether Researchers should avoid any risks that participants have been harmed and contact are greater than those in everyday life. But details for follow-up or support can be they are not always able to predict the offered. risks of taking part in a study. Participants should be reminded about their right to withdraw their data because they may be unhappy about something revealed in the debriefing. Confidentiality Anonymity Confidentiality is a participant’s right to Researchers should not record any personal have personal information protected. details of the participants where possible. It is also a legal right under the Data Rather than use actual names, participants Protection act. can be assigned a number. It is an issue as the researcher wants to publish the findings of the study. Privacy Retrospective Consent People do not expect to be observed by Participants should be debriefed if possible others in certain situations, e.g. in the and researchers can ask for retrospective privacy of their own home. consent as data has already been obtained. It is difficult to avoid invasion of privacy Participants must also be given the right to when studying participants without their withdraw their data and be reminded that awareness, e.g. during covert observation. their data will be protected. Right to Withdraw Reminding of Right to Withdraw Participants need to know at the outset of Participants should be informed at the a study they are free to withdraw at any beginning of the study that they have the time and to have their data destroyed right to withdraw, during the study and again at the end in the debriefing. 27 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Ethics They need to know this right still applies even if they have completed the study and accepted payment for participation. If a participant withdraws during a study it may leave a biased sample. British Psychological Society’s Code of Ethics The British Psychological Society (BPS) has a set of ethical guidelines for researchers to follow when carrying out research. The BPS code of ethics is a quasi-legal document that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The guidelines are closely matched to the ethical issues and attempt to ensure all participants are treated with respect during the research. Guidelines are implemented by ethics committees who often use a cost-benefit analysis to determine whether research proposals are ethically acceptable: Ethical Guidelines The BPS provides guidelines to help to establish whether research is acceptable and that certain standards are maintained. The guidelines are regularly updated. The intention of the guidelines is to tell psychologists what behaviours are not acceptable and give guidance on how to deal with ethical dilemmas. Ethics Committees All institutions where research takes place have an ethics committee who must approve any study before it begins. The ethics committee weighs up the costs and benefits of the research. An ethics committee should include a lay person (non-expert). Cost-Benefit Analysis This involves weighing up the costs of the research to the participant and the benefits of the research for society. One problem is that it is difficult to predict costs and benefits prior to the study. Costs for the participant may be loss of time and distress versus benefits of payment and feeling of having contributed to scientific research. Costs in terms of society could be less trusting individuals compared to benefits of improving people’s lives. Punishment If a psychologist behaves in an unethical manner such as conducting unacceptable research then the BPS reviews the research and may decide to bar the person from practising as a psychologist. 28 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Ethics Designing and Conducting Ethical Research There are steps that psychologists can take when designing studies to ensure BPS guidelines are followed. This usually involves designing materials to mitigate potential issues. These materials should be in verbatim format – written in a style that can be read out. Information Sheet and Consent Form This should explain the aims and objectives of the study and what the study will involve. Anything that might influence a participant’s willingness to take part should be disclosed. Participants should be given the opportunity to question the researcher about the information or the study. It should include that they can withdraw from the study at any time. All participants should be guaranteed anonymity and their data will remain confidential. This should be signed by the participant only when they have read and understood the information sheet and have had the opportunity to ask any questions. Extra safeguards should be in place if the participant does not understand the instructions. When using children, the information sheet should be written in a clear and understandable way, and the consent form should be signed by the child and parent/guardian. Debriefing It is provided to participants after taking part in a study. Participants are given full information about the aims and true nature of the study, which is especially important if deception was involved. Participants are reminded of the right to withdraw their data. Debriefing allows the researcher to monitor any unforeseen negative effects and to find out if anything has upset or disturbed the participant. The participant should leave in the same state as they entered. E.g. if a study raises anxiety levels of the participants, the debriefing should be used to lower their anxiety. Debriefing should also include contact details should the participants want to discuss any issues or to withdraw their data at a later stage. 29 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Reliability and validity Reliability Reliability refers to whether something is consistent. Researchers should be able to replicate a method time and time again and get the same or similar results. Reliability is important in research because we can be more confident of the conclusions. Assessing/Checking Reliability Test-Retest Method The test-retest method is where the same participants take the same test twice, at different occasions. If the results from the two occasions highly correlate (with a correlation co-efficient of at least +0.8), the test is said to be reliable. This method is most commonly used with questionnaires and psychological tests (e.g. IQ tests). There must be sufficient time between test and retest to ensure the participant cannot recall their answers but not so long where the participant has significantly changed. Inter-Observer Reliability Inter-observer reliability is used to assess the reliability of observations. Two (or more) observers watch the same behaviours with the same behavioural categories. The observers watch the same events, but record their behaviour independently. If the results from the different observers highly correlate (with a correlation co-efficient of at least +0.8), the observation team is recording behaviours reliability. A similar process can be used to assess the reliability of interviews (inter-interviewer reliability) and content analysis (inter-rater reliability). Validity Validity refers to whether a method measures what it claims to be measuring. Validity is essential in order to give confidence in the findings and conclusions. Internal Validity Internal validity is the extent to which findings obtained are a direct result of the variable being manipulated. In an experiment, internal validity refers to whether changes in the DV are caused by manipulation of the IV rather than confounding variables. 30 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Reliability and validity Assessing/Checking Internal Validity Face Validity Face validity only requires intuitive assessment of whether a test appears to be measuring what the researcher intends to measure. If a test produces expected results, it is said to be valid. For example, if questions on a stress questionnaire are all related to stress, or a person who feels stressed obtains a high score, the questionnaire has face validity. Concurrent Validity Concurrent validity involves assessing if a test used in a current study produces a similar measure of a variable when compared to a previously validated test. Participants are given both measures at the same time and the results are compared. If the results from the two tests highly correlate (with a correlation co-efficient of at least +0.8), the test in the current study is said to have high concurrent validity. External Validity External validity is the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the investigation to settings, different periods of time, and other groups of people (population validity). Ecological Validity Ecological validity is a type of external validity and refers to whether the findings can be generalised from a study to other settings, particularly to real life situations. It can be affected by the environment the study is carried out in (controlled/natural), how the DV was measured and whether the participants know they are being assessed. If the task used to measure the DV is not similar to a task we carry out in everyday life we may say the study has low mundane realism and this can lower the ecological validity. Temporal Validity Temporal Validity is a type of external validity and is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras. Critics have suggested that high rates of conformity within the original Asch experiments were a product of a particularly conformist era in recent American history (1950’s). 31 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Features of science Features of Science Objectivity and the Empirical Method Objectivity Objectivity refers to research that is unbiased and not influenced by the person who designed the study, carried it out, analysed the results or drew the conclusions. A high level of objectivity increases other people’s confidence in the results as they can conclude that it would have made no difference who carried out the work; the results would have been the same. We can make research more objective by limiting the influence of the researchers themselves during data collection; this can be achieved through strategies such as operationalising variables, standardised instructions and blind procedures. These help to ensure findings are the consequence of the variables being investigated and not the result of investigator effects or demand characteristics. Empirical Method The empirical method involves measuring some aspect of behaviour and using the findings to develop existing theories, or introduce new ones. Evidence is gained through empirical methods that carefully record data, such as direct observation or experiments, rather than by reasoned argument or unfounded beliefs. Empirical methods are crucial in the scientific process of deductive reasoning where the data obtained will either support or refute hypotheses derived from a theory. Psychology is scientific if theories are testable, using deductive reasoning. The issue of whether Psychology is a science is debated because many psychological theories cannot be tested empirically. Replicability and Falsifiability Replicability Replicability involves repeating the procedure of a study at another time and obtaining similar results. Being able to replicate a study is an important feature of science, as it provides a way to check and verify scientific information. A high level of consistency in the findings means that researchers and those reading the research, can be confident that the findings are really what the researcher said they were. To achieve replicability, researchers need to record their methodology carefully so that the same standardised procedures can be repeated easily. This would also require accurately operationalising variables and measurement systems. Replicability and reliability are different. Having a replicable (repeatable) method enables findings to be checked for reliability (consistency). Unreliable findings may imply flaws or lack of control within the method and would therefore be of limited use in theory construction. 32 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Features of science Falsification Falsifiability refers to being able to prove a theory wrong. In any scientific study it is necessary to include a null hypothesis which is a testable statement that refutes the theory being tested. As part of deductive reasoning, this would then lead to the theory either being modified or rejected. The improved theory would then be retested using the same methodology. Theories that are unfalsifiable are not scientific, for example, Psychodynamic theories regarding unconscious processes cannot be tested and therefore cannot be improved. Popper argued it was not possible to confirm a theory; it was only possible to disconfirm it. E.g. ‘No matter how many instances of white swans we may have observed, this does not justify the conclusion that all swans are white.’ No number of sightings of white swans can prove the theory that all swans are white, whereas the sighting of just one black swan with disprove it. This led to the realisation that the only way to prove a theory correct was to seek disproof (falsification). Therefore, we start research with the null hypothesis. “Not all swans are white” If after recording many sightings of swans we see only white swans we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative “All swans are white”. Theory Construction and Hypothesis Testing Theory Construction A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts. Theory construction may initially occur through gathering empirical evidence via direct observations. Once constructed, it should be possible to make testable statements (hypotheses) based on the theory. An essential feature of science is being able to improve a theory through hypotheses testing as part of the deductive reasoning process. Hypothesis Testing Theories are constructed and developed through hypothesis testing. For example 1) Create a hypothesis – a testable statement. Hypothesis are based on observations of the world. 2) Test the hypothesis by conducting a study to collect empirical data. 3a) If the results of the study (empirical data) do support the hypothesis then this can lead to the development of the theory. The findings of carefully constructed research that support the alternative hypothesis allow us to begin to form a theory or modify an existing theory. 3b) If the results of the study (empirical data) do not support the alternative hypothesis it is refuted and the hypothesis must be modified and retested. 33 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Features of science The Hypothetico-Deductive Method Through replication of research, a falsifiable theory undergoes hypothesis testing by numerous studies by different researchers in order to obtain empirical data to objectively check if the findings are reliable. A theory is the end result of a range of research studies, it does not depend on one piece of research. A crucial feature of science is that as a theory is continually tested, it is improved and becomes more effective at explaining a phenomenon in the world. If a theory can withstand repeated scrutiny of hypothesis testing, it may become established as a scientific law. These laws remain in place until there is a paradigm shift. Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts Paradigm A paradigm is a general theory or law that is accepted by the majority of scientists in that particular field or study. It is a theoretical framework containing key assumptions and methodological techniques that are accepted by members working within a particular field of study. The prevailing paradigm in Psychology dictates that research should focus on thoughts and behaviour. However, this paradigm may be interpreted differently by sub-disciplines within Psychology. For example, Behavioural Psychology only focuses on observable behaviour, whereas Cognitive Psychologists would focus on internal mental processing that precedes observable behaviour. Paradigm Shift Paradigms are not fixed and can change. With time, evidence can accumulate which cannot be accounted for by the current paradigm. Eventually a paradigm shift can occur which involves revolutionary changes to the framework underpinning the current paradigm, which must then be fundamentally changed or replaced, involving a change from one way of thinking to another. As Psychology has emerged as a science, there have been some subtle paradigm shifts. For example, the change in emphasis from the cognitive approach (which assumes the mind is like a computer) to the biological approach (which assumes everything psychological had a biological basis). Scientific advances in neuropsychology, such as scanning techniques have meant more is now known about how the brain works which has led to changes in the focus of psychological research. 34 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Peer review The Role of Peer Review in the Scientific Process Peer review is the process by which a psychological research paper is assessed and scrutinised by other psychologists working in a similar field to ensure any research intended for publication is of high quality. Purpose of Peer Review The purpose of peer review is to act as a quality control system, to make sure no flawed data enters the public arena. Peer review provides a way to check the validity of research by assessing the quality, accuracy and appropriateness of its methodology. This is especially important where research is investigating a new area in the field. The peer review process helps to ensure that any research paper published in a well-respected journal is of high quality and has the credibility to be taken seriously by fellow researchers and lay people. Process of Peer Review The editor of a journal will typically send a research paper to a number of peer reviewers who are unconnected to the authors, but who are experts in the field. They read all aspects of the work carefully and assess its accuracy and quality. They judge the importance and significance of the research, assess its originality and whether it has relevance to other research by other psychologists. The reviewers send the paper back to the editor with comments and a recommendation as to whether it should be published in its original form, revised in some way, or rejected. The editor ultimately decides whether to publish the paper as an article in their journal or send it back to the author to be improved. This process ensures that only high-quality research enters the public realm. Evaluation of Peer Review Strength Peer review maintains the standards of published work by ensuring the research is methodologically sound, valid and does not involve plagiarism of other people’s research. This also allows university research departments to be rated and funded in terms of quality. Limitation Bias in peer review: A reviewer’s theoretical bias may lead them to judge a paper in an excessively lenient or harsh way (e.g. accept a paper that is aligned with their own view). There is also institution bias (the tendency to favour research from prestigious institutions) and gender bias (the tendency to favour male researchers). Biases such as these can lead to fraudulent research not being detected. 35 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Economic implications of research The Implications of Psychological Research for the Economy The focus of Psychology on explaining how people think and behave means that the outcome of psychological research has the potential to change how a population acts. The way the population is affected can have economic implications which can benefit or devalue our economic prosperity. The development of treatments for mental illness: Absence from work costs the economy an estimated £15 billion a year. A recent government report revealed a third of all absences are caused by mild to moderate mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress. Psychological research can improve our understanding of the causes and consequently the treatments for psychological illnesses. Drug therapies such as SSRIs are often used to treat depression and OCD Anti-anxiety drugs are used for stress conditions. Psychotherapies such as CBT have also been developed and are accessible via the NHS. This means many sufferers can access these treatments, manage their condition effectively and return to work. The economic benefit of psychological research into mental disorders is therefore considerable. Improving memory: The cognitive interview technique based on psychological research has improved the amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses. The whole topic of eyewitness memory research is focused on improving crime detection. The implication for the economy is to be able to reduce expenses on wrongful arrests and to ensure that criminals are caught. 36 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Reporting psychological investigations Reporting Psychological Investigations Psychologists usually report their research as articles published in scientific journals. The guidelines outlined below apply to scientific studies, such as experiments, rather than studies obtaining qualitative data that are less prescriptive. Reports should be written in the past tense and third person e.g. ‘An investigation was carried out…’ rather than ‘I am going to carry out an investigation…’ Sections of a Scientific Report Abstract The abstract is a concise summary (about 150 words) which appears after the title of a report. Its purpose is to inform the reader whether they should read the rest of the report. The abstract can only be written after the whole investigation has taken place and so is the last section to be written. The section includes a sentence on the following key details: Aim and hypotheses. Method: variables, participants and procedure. Results: inferential statistical test, outcome of hypothesis testing, level of significance. Conclusion. Introduction The introduction provides background information about theories and studies relevant to the investigation as a well as the research aims and hypotheses. Its purpose is to show how the context of the study flows from the general research area of the background research to the more specific research aims and ultimately the hypotheses. The section therefore includes: Background research Aims Hypotheses Method The purpose of the method section is to enable other psychologists to accurately replicate the procedure of the study to check the reliability of the findings. It includes the follow sub-sections: Design: This includes the research method that was used, experimental design, variables, control of variables and the ethical issues considered. 37 Paper 2 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES Reporting psychological investigations Participants: This describes the characteristics of the participants used, the number used and how the sample was obtained from the target population. Materials: This details the resources and apparatus needed to carry out the research (e.g. software, consent forms, questionnaires). Procedure: This is a step-by-step account of what happens for a participant when they enter the research study including the standardised instructions. Results The purpose of the results section is to analyse the data using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive Statistics: o A summary table of the data is presented usually with an accurately selected measure of central tendency (mean, median and mode) and a measure of dispersion (range or standard deviation). o A relevant graphical representation is used (scatter graph, bar chart, histogram). A subsection is then created called Treatment of results this is where inferential statistics are used to analyse the data Inferential Statistics: o A statistical test is chosen and reasons why

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