Fallacies with Examples PDF

Short Notes on some basic selected Fallacies Fallacies are errors in reasoning or logical flaws that can undermine the validity of an argument. There are many types of fallacies, but they can be broadly categorized into formal and informal fal...

Short Notes on some basic selected Fallacies Fallacies are errors in reasoning or logical flaws that can undermine the validity of an argument. There are many types of fallacies, but they can be broadly categorized into formal and informal fallacies. Here’s an overview of various fallacies along with explanations and examples;- A. Formal Fallacies Formal fallacies occur when there is a flaw in th e argument's logical structure. Examples; 1. Affirming the Consequent- This fallacy occurs when an argument assumes that because the consequent (outcome) is true, the antecedent (condition) must also be true. Example: If it rains, the streets will be wet. The streets are wet; therefore, it must have rained. (It could be that the streets are wet due to a street cleaner.) 2. Denying the Antecedent-This fallacy occurs when one denies the antecedent of a conditional statement and concludes that the consequent must also be false. If you deny the antecedent of a conditional and then suppose that doing so is a sufficient reason for denying the consequent. This formal fallacy is often mistaken for Modus Tollens, a valid form of argument using the conditional. A conditional is an if -then statement; the if-part is the antecedent, and the t hen- part is the consequent. Example: If she were Brazilian, then she would know that Brazil’s official language is Portuguese. She isn’t Brazilian; she’s from London. So, she surely doesn’t know this about Brazil’s language. B. Informal Fallacies Informal fallacies often involve errors in reasoning that arise from the content and context of the argument rather than its form. 1. Ad Hominem: This fallacy occurs when an argument attacks a person rather than addressing the argument itself. Example: You can't trust Hana's opinion on climate change because she's not a scientist. (Instead of addressing Hana's argument, it attacks her credibility.)  Abusive ad hominem is a direct attack on the other person’s character, targeting their age, character, gender identity, appearance, etc. Abusive ad hominem arguments are usually fallacious because the attack is irrelevant to the discussion. For example, “who is going to vote for a person looking like this?” is a fallacy because appearance has nothing to do with one’s leadership abilities.  Circumstantial ad hominem (or appeal to motive) argues that a person’s circumstances, such as their job, political affiliation, or other vested interests, motivate their argument and thus it must be biased and false.  Guilt by association ad hominem is a variant in which someone is attacked because of their alleged connection with a person or group that has an unfavorable reputation. For example, “Stalin was evil and against religion. All people against religion are evil.”  Poisoning the well is a type of ad hominem where (irrelevant) negative information is preemptively presented to an audience to discredit whatever the opponent is about to say. For example, “before you listen to her, I should remind you that she has been charged with embezzlement.” 2. Straw Man: This fallacy occurs when someone misrepresents an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack. Example: Person A: "We should have stricter regulations on pollution." Person B: "Person A wan ts to shut down all factories! (Here, Person B distorts Person A's argument.) 3. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam): This fallacy asserts that a proposition is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa. Example: No one has proven that aliens exist, so they must not exist. (Absence of evidence does not equal evidence of absence.) 4. False Dilemma/Dichotomy (Either/Or Fallacy): This fallacy presents only two options when more exist. Example: You're either with us or against us. (This ignores the possibility of neutrality or alternative positions.) 5. Slippery Slope: This fallacy suggests that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events culminating in a significant (usually negative) effect. Example: If we allow students to redo assignments, soon they'll expect to retake tests and eventually think they can ski p classes without consequences. 6. Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question ): This fallacy occurs when the conclusion of an argument is assumed in the reasoning. Example: Imagine someone telling you that pizza is the best food because it tastes amazing. While that might sound persuasive, what if you asked them why it tastes amazing? If their response is, "Because it's the best food," you're caught in a ring. Example-2"You keep failing your exams because you're not smart." (This assumes that failing exams is solely a result of not being smart, which is the very point in question. This example ignores other factors like lack of preparation or external distractions. ) 1 Getachew Mijana, 2025 HU  7. Hasty Generalization: This fallacy occurs when a conclusion is drawn from an insufficient or biased sample. Example: My two friends from Harari are offensive; therefore, all Hararians must be offensive. 8. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause): This fallacy assumes that if one event follows another, the first event must be the cause of the second. Example: I wore my lucky socks and then we won the game; theref ore, my socks caused us to win. 9. Appeal to Authority: This fallacy occurs when someone cites an authority figure as ev idence in their argument, even if the authority is not a legitimate expert on the issue. Example: Celebrity X says this brand of vitamins is the best, so it must be true. (The celebrity may not be knowledgeable in nutrition.) 10. Bandwagon Fallacy: This fallacy asserts that something must be true or right because many people believe it or do it. Example: Everyone is investing in Bitcoin; it must be a good investment. (Popularity does not equal validity.) Example 2: Most people believe that X is true, so it must be true. (The popularity of a belief does not guarantee its truthfulness. ) 11. Red Herring: This fallacy introduces an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the original issue. Example: Why worry about climate change when there are so ma ny homeless people in our city? (This diverts the discussion from climate change.) 12. Tu Quoque (Appeal to Hypocrisy): This fallacy claims that someone's argument is invalid because they do not act consistently with it. Example: You can't tell me to stop smoking; you're a smoker too! (This focuses on hypocrisy rather than the argument.) Example-2: How can you argue against eating meat when you eat hamburgers? (This dismisses the argument by pointing out hypocrisy instead of addressing the argument.) 13. Appeal to Emotion (Pathos): Manipulating others' emotions to win an argument rather than using valid reasoning. Example: If you don’t donate to this charity, think of all the poor people that will die. (This uses emotion to persuade rather than logical reasoning.) 14. False Analogy: Drawing an illogical comparison between two things that are not sufficiently alike. Example: Employees are like nails. Just as you must hit them to get them to go in, s o must you push your employees. 15. Composition Fallacy: Assuming that what is true for a pa rt is true for the whole. Example: Each player on this basketball team is a star, so th ey must be a championship team. 16. Division Fallacy: Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for its parts. Example: This car is the best on the market, so every pa rt of it must also be the best. 17. Gambler’s Fallacy: Believing that future probabilities are altered by past events in a random process. Example: I’ve flipped heads five times in a row, so the next flip must be tails. 18. False Equivalence: Assuming that two situations are similar in all relevant aspects when they are not. Example: Lying about your age is just as bad as committing fraud. (These are different actions with different moral and legal implications. 19. Ambiguity Fallacy (Equivocation): Using a word with multiple meanings in different ways within the same argument. Example: A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. There fore, a feather cannot be dark. (The term "light" is used in multiple senses without clarification. ) 20. The middle ground fallacy: known as the false compromise fallacy, occurs when it is assumed that the truth must lie somewhere between two opposing positions. Example: P1: Climate change is a serious, man -made issue that needs immediate action. P2: Climate change is a hoax and does not require any measures. Therefore, climate change is somewhat of a problem, and we should take some moderate actions. (The middl e ground ignores the extensive scientific evidence supporting the reality of climate change and the necessity for urgent action.) 21. Fallacy of Amphiboly: Amphiboly occurs when a statement is ambiguous due to its grammatical structure, leading to multiple interpretations. Example: I saw the man with the telescope. ( This could mean either that you used a telescope to see the man or that the man you saw had a telescope. The ambiguity arises from the phrasing, leading to confusion about the intended meaning. ) 22. Appeal to Pity: An appeal to pity tries to persuade someone by eliciting feelings of sympathy or compassion rather than presenting relevant facts or arguments. Example: You should give me a passing grade; I’ve had such a tough semes ter, and I’m really struggling. (This argument relies on emotional appeal rather than providing justifications related to academic performance or criteria for grading. ) 23. Complex Question: A complex question is a fallacy that occurs when a question includes a presumption that may not be accepted by the respondent. Example: When will you stop cheating on your exams? (This question presupposes that the person cheats on exams, which may not be true. It forces an answer that accepts this presumption no matter how the question is phrased. 2 Getachew Mijana, 2025 HU 24. Wishful Thinking: Wishful thinking relies on the belief that something is true simply because one wishes it to be true, without supporting evidence. Example: I believe I will win the lottery because I really need the money. ( This statement expresses a hope rather than a reasoned conclusion supported by realistic probabilities or statistics about winning the lottery. ) 25. Fallacy of Vanity: Vanity refers to an appeal to self -importance, where arguments or positions are favored because they flatter one’s ego or self-image. Example: You should buy this luxury car; it shows that you are suc cessful and important.(This argument encourages purchasing based on the appeal to vanity, suggesting that owning the car enhances one's status rather than ad dressing practical concerns about the car's performance or cost.) 26. Snobbery: Snobbery is an argument that appeals to elitism, asserting that something is better or more desirable simply because it is exclusive or associated with a superior group. Example: This wine is overpriced; it must be good because only the wealt hy can afford it. (This argument suggests that the value of the wine lies in its exclusivity rather than its actual quality or taste, fostering an elitist viewpoint. ) 27. Anecdotal: Anecdotal fallacy relies on personal experiences or isolated examples rather than solid evidence to support a claim. Example: I know someone who smoked their whole life and lived to be 100, so smoking can’t be that harmful.(This uses an anecdote instead of scientific data to argue against established findings on the health risks of smoking, lacking broader statistical support. ) 28. Black or White: The black-or-white fallacy presents only two alternatives when more options are available, often simplifying complex situations. Example: If you don’t support this policy, you must not care about the environment. (This fallacy ignores the possibility that one could care about the environment but disagree with that particular policy, oversimplifying the issue to just two opposing posit ions.) 29. False choice: The presentation of a false choice often reflects a deliberate attempt to eliminate several options that may occupy the middle ground on an issue. Example; A common argument against noise pollution laws involves a false choice. It mig ht be argued that in Addis Ababa City noise should not be regulated, because if it were, a number of businesses would be required to close. (This argument assumes that, for example, a bar must be shut down to prevent disturbing levels of noise emanating fr om it after midnight. This ignores the fact that law could require the bar to lower its noise levels, or install soundproofing structural elements to keep the noise from excessively transmitting onto others' properties.) 30. Appeal to Nature: This fallacy posits that something is good or acceptable simply because it is natural, or bad because it is not natural. Example: Natural foods are always bette r for you than processed foods. (T his argument overlooks the nuance of different foods and their health impacts, suggesting that naturalness alone guarantees superiority without considering context or evidence. ) 31. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum): The appeal to force is a logical fallacy where an argument is made by using threats or intimidation to persuade som eone to accept a conclusion. Rather than providing logical reasoning or evidence, this fallacy relies on fear or coercion. Examples: Example 1: "You should support this polic y or else you’ll lose your job. (In this case, the argument pressures the listener rather than providing logical reasons to support the policy. ) 32. Fallacy of accident: Error in reasoning caused by sweeping generalizations. It occurs when you assume that a rule-of-thumb applies to everyone or every situation, including obvious except ions. Examples: Cutting people with a knife is a crime. Surgeons cut people with knives. Therefore, Surgeons are criminals. Example 2 "All animals have a right to life, so you shouldn't kill mosquitoes," taking the general principle of animal rights to an unreasonable extreme. This is an example of a converse accident fallacy, where a general principle is applied too broadly, ignoring distinctions like the difference between livestock animals and pests. Ex-4"All students must be evaluated the same way to be fair, so no extra time for students with learning di sabilities," ignoring the need for accommodations. 33. Missing the point fallacy: Missing the point is specifically an informal logical fallacy, which means that its fallacy lies not in the structure of the logic (which would be a formal logical fallacy). Rather, the fallacy occurs in something else, such as a lack of a well -grounded premise. A missed point is fallacious because it attempts to refute an argument based on its own logic instead of the opposing argument's logic. Example: Person A: They should keep teaching kids that Pluto is a planet, because that’s what I was taught when I was their age! Person B: They teach kids that Pluto is not a planet because the scientific definition of a planet changed. (It should be obvious that Person B makes a good point.) 34. Avoiding the Question: is a type of Fallacy of Avoiding the Issue that occurs when the issue is how to answer some question. The fallacy occurs when someone’s answer doesn’t really respond to the question asked. The fallacy is also called “Changing the Question.” Example: Question: 3 Getachew Mijana, 2025 HU  Would the Ethiopian Athletics be in first place if they were to win tomorrow’s game? Answer: What makes you think they’ll ever win tomorrow’s game? 35. Double Standard: There are many situations in which you should judge two things or people by the same standard. If in one of those situations you use different standards for the two, your reasoning contains the Fallacy of Using a Double Standard. Example: I know we will hire any man who gets over a 70 percent on the screening test for hiring Post Office employees, but women should have to get an 80 to be hired because they often have to take care of their children. (This example is a fallacy if it can be presumed that men an d women should have to meet the same standard for becoming a Post Office employee ) 36. Smokescreen fallacy/Red Herring: serves to divert attention away from the debate and avoid answering the issue directly. The smokescreen fallacy is a diversion strategy used to divert attention away from the primary topic. Like a battlefield obscured by smoke, a smokescreen fallacy shrouds the truth, introducing irrelevant distractions to divert focus from the real issue. This cunning tactic, whether intentional or not, confuses the audience, often leading to misunderstandings or false conclusions. It can be intentionally or unintentionally.  Intentionally smokescreen fallacy will occur, when a politician is asked about their stance on a controversial issue like climate change, they might divert the conversation to a completely unrelated topic, such as the economy or national security.  Unintentional Smokescreen Fallacy: is blaming of other person for one’s own problem. Examples “My partner does not understand me,” is a prevalent problem in people’s relationships. For example: People blame their circumstances for their inability to achieve what they want. For example, you may say, “I wish I could work with concentration, but people in my house keep distracting me.” Maybe you’re having the same issue. Pointing the finger at your fiend or family for a problem to conceal your failure. 37. Fallacy of Stereotyping: Stereotypes are general beliefs we use to categorize people, objects, and events; but these beliefs are overstatements that shouldn’t be taken lite rally. Using stereotypes as if they are accurate generalizations for the whole group is an error in reasoning. For example, consider the stereotype “She’s Mexican, so she’s going to be late.” This conveys a mistaken impression of all Mexicans. The danger in our using stereotypes is that speakers or listeners will not realize that even the best stereotypes are accurate only when taken probabilistically. As a consequence, the use of stereotypes can breed racism, sexism, and other forms of bigotry. Example-2: German people aren’t good at dancing our sambas. She’s German. So, she’s not going to be any good at dancing our sambas. 38. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to look for evidence in favor of one’s controversial hypothesis and not to look for disconfirming evidence, or to pay insufficient attention to it. Example: She loves me, and there are so many ways that she has shown it. When we signed the divorce papers in her lawyer’s office, she wore my favorite color. When she slapped me at the bar and called me a “handsome pig,” she used the word “handsome” then I know she really loves me. Using the Fallacy of Confirmation Bias is usually a sign that one has adopted some belief dogmatically and isn’t willing to disconfirm the belief. Example 2: “Someone Doesn’t Like Me”. It is common for people who are anxious by nature to fall victim to having confirmation bias. Conclusion Dear student, understanding these fallacies helps you analyze arguments critically and think more logically. Because, they can appear in everyday discussions, advertisements, politics, and more, so being aware of them strengthens our argumentative skills and the ability to engage in meaningful dialogue. 4 Getachew Mijana, 2025 HU